Google This is a digital copy of a book lhal w;ls preserved for general ions on library shelves before il was carefully scanned by Google as pari of a project to make the world's books discoverable online. Il has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one thai was never subject to copy right or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often dillicull lo discover. Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the publisher lo a library and linally lo you. Usage guidelines Google is proud lo partner with libraries lo digili/e public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order lo keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to prevent abuse by commercial panics, including placing Icchnical restrictions on automated querying. We also ask that you: + Make n on -commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request thai you use these files for personal, non -commercial purposes. + Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort lo Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help. + Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each lile is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it. + Keep it legal Whatever your use. remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other countries. Whether a book is slill in copyright varies from country lo country, and we can'l offer guidance on whether any specific use of any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe. About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through I lie lull lexl of 1 1 us book on I lie web al |_-.:. :.-.-:: / / books . qooqle . com/| y h .JL 'Am.-*/. -r/9 ■Siamese '^toj and (jjfeo/i anility /.jri it/n /,'■ x:ih tit.1 iif'tSalufbat ' (tdwardSfenryStrobel vftA'e ClosscfW? grnrral -sfihriter to Hit 'Tuunrsrffourrnmtnl HARVARD CQULEGEUBrI : JOURNAL OF AN EMBASSY TO THE COURTS OF SIAM AND COCHIN CHINA. VOL. II. JUST PUBLISHED, JOURNAL OF AN EMBASSY FROM TUB GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA TO THE COURT OF AVA, IN THE YEAR 1827. BY JOHN CRAWFURD, ESQ. LATE ENVOY. LONDON : PRINTED BY 8. AND R. BRNTLEY, Dortei-Ureet, FleetrUreeu JOURNAL OF AN EMBASSY FROM THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA TO THE COURTS OF SIAM ANQ COCHIN CHINA^ EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE ACTUAL STATE OF THOSE KINGDOMS. BY JOHN CRAWFURd7eSQ., FRS., FLS., FGS., &c. LATE ENVOY. SECOND EDITION. IN TWO VOLUMES. . N ■ VOL.*!!. LONDON: HENRY COLBURN AND RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. ,1830. r t' v »*«l ^34*. -2-1 -S" 'P • /• CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. CHAPTER I. Physical form.— Siamese notions of beauty — Dress.— Various customs and usages. — Funerals. — Progress in the useful Arts. — Architecture. — Progress in higher branches of knowledge. — Kalendar. — Arithmetic, weights, measures, and coins.— Geography and Navigation. — Music. — Alphabet. — Language. — Siamese Literature. — Bali or sacred Literature. — Educa- tion. — General observations on the Nations and Tribes be- tween India and China. — General estimate of the Character of the Siamese . . . . . 1 CHAPTER II. Buddhist Religion ; its doctrines and precepts. — Duties of the Takpoins. — History of the Buddhist Religion ; its effects on the character and manners of the people. — Government.— Attributes of the King. — Siamese Nobility. — Division of the People and Conscription. — Administration.— Revenue.— Arms and Insignia. — Law. — Written Code. — Evidence. — Contracts.— Inheritance. — Marriages. — Military Force 64 CHAPTER III. Siamese History, — Ancient Story. — First intercourse of Euro- peans with Siam. — Conquest by the Burmese. — Story of the IV CONTENTS. Greek adventurer, Constantine Phaulcon, and connection with France. — Invasion and conquest of Siam by the Burmese. — Burmese driven out of the country. — Reign and death of the Usurper, commonly called Pia-Metak. — Present Dynasty. — Trade.— Internal Commerce. — Trade with China. — Trade with Kamboja, Cochin China, and the Malay Countries. — Natural History. — Climate. — Mineral Products — Vegetable Productions. — Quadrupeds. — Birds. — Reptiles . . 139 CHAPTER IV. Geography. — Boundaries and Extent of the present Siamese Empire. — General aspect. — Rivers.— Explanation of Native Names of Places. — Description of the Coasts of Siam, and adjacent Countries and Islands. — Siam Proper. — Lao, Siamese Kamboja, and Malayan Tributaries. — Account of the diffe- rent races inhabiting or sojourning in the Kingdom of Siam. — Population . . . .199 CHAPTER V. Geography of Cochin China. — Limits. — Rivers and Coasts. — Civil divisions. — Kamboja. — Champa, or Loi. — Foreigners resident in Cochin China. — Climate. — Mineral and Vegetable Products. — Animals . . . .231 CHAPTER VI. Personal appearance of the Cochin Chinese. — Progress in useful Arts. — Language. —Dress. — Character. — Government* — Mi- litary Force. — Revenue. — Laws. — Religion . . 271 CONTENTS. V CHAPTER VII. Cochin Chinese History. — Commerce, Weights, and Monies.— Regulations of Trade. — Population. — Marriage and Condition of the Sex. — Wages of Labour. — Checks to Population. — Estimate of its Numerical Amount . . . 302 CHAPTER VIII. Island of Singapore. — Geographical description and physical aspect. — Natural Productions. — Climate. — Agriculture. — Ma- nufactures. — Trade. — Population. — Wages and Profits. — De- scription of the Town. -Markets. — Administration. — Civil and military Establishments. — Revenue. — History of the Settlement ...... 345 APPENDIX. Narrative of an Embassy from the King of Ava to the King of Cochin China .... 409 Envoy's Instructions ..... 442 Letter of the Governor-General to the King of Siam . 453 Letter of the Governor-General to the King of Cochin- China ...... 456 Vocabularies . .at the end of this volume. JOURNAL OF AN EMBASSY TO THE COURTS OF SIAM AND COCHIN CHINA. CHAPTER I. Physical form. — Siamese notions of beauty. — Dress. — Various customs and usages. — Funerals. — Progress in the useful arts. — Architecture. — Progress in higher branches of knowledge. — Kalendar. — Arithmetic, weights, measures, and coins* — Geo- graphy and navigation. — Music. — Alphabet. — Language. — Siamese literature. — Bali or sacred literature. — Education. — General observations on the nations and tribes between India and China. — General estimate of the character of the Siamese. In the remaining chapters of this work, I shall lay before the reader such information respecting the people whom I visited, and their country, as was collected by myself, or others, during our voyage, and which could not be included in the Journal without frequently interrupting the nar- rative, and thus impairing the interest which VOL. II. B 2 EMBASSY TO S1AM might otherwise belong to it. The details of this subject will naturally commence with Siam, the earliest object of inquiry. The Siamese are one of the most considerable and civilized of the group of nations inhabiting the tropical regions, lying between Hindostan and \ China. These nations, while they differ widely from those adjacent to them in physical form, in the structure of their language, in manners, in- stitutions and religion, agree with one another in so remarkable a manner in all these characters, that I am disposed to consider them entitled to be looked upon as a distinct and peculiar family of the human race. The following delineation of the phys ; .■ ' * m of this race is drawn from the Siamese-. • .* probably applies to the whole family. In stature the Siamese are shorter than the j Hindoos, the Chinese, or the Europeans, but tall- er than the Malays. The average height of twenty men, taken indiscriminately, was found by us, on trial, to be five feet three inches, the tallest being five feet eight inches, and the shortest five feet two inches. This would make them about an inch taller than the Malays, and an inch and a ^ half shorter than the Chinese. Their lower limbs are well formed, contrary to what obtains among the natives of Hindostan. Their hands are stout, and destitute of the extreme softness and delicacy which characterize those of the Hindoos. Their AND COCHIN CHINA. 3 persons in general are sufficiently robust and well proportioned, being destitute, however, of the grace and flexibility of the Hindoo form. On the other hand, their make is lighter, less squab, and better proportioned, than that of the Indian islanders. Their complexion is a light brown, perhaps a shade lighter than that of the Malays, but many shades darker than that of the Chinese. It never ap- proaches to the black of the African negro or Hin- doo. Writers on the natural history of man, judg- ing from the remote analogy of plants, have been disposed to undervalue colour as a discriminating character of the different races. But still I am disposed to consider it as intrinsic, obvious, and permanent a character, as the form of the skull, or any other which has been more relied upon. The hair of the head is always black, lank, coarse, and abundant. On every other part of the body it is scanty, as with the Malayan and American races ; and the beard especially is so little suited for ornament, that it is never worn, but on the contrary plucked out and eradicated, according to the practice of the Indian islanders. The head is generally well proportioned, and well set upon the neck and shoulders, but fre- quently of remarkable flatness in the occipital part. The face differs greatly from that of the European or Hindoo, the features never being bold, prominent, or well defined. The nose is small, round at the point, but not flattened, as B 2 4 EMBASSY TO 81AM i in the negro; and the nostrils, instead of being, parallel, diverge greatly. The mouth is wide, but not projecting; the lips are rather thick; the eyes are small, having the iris black, and the white of a yellow tinge, following as usual the complexion of the skin. The outer angles are more turned up than in the Western races; the eyebrows are neither prominent nor well marked. But, perhaps, the most characteristic feature of the whole countenance is the breadth and height of the cheek bones, which gives the face the whole form of a lozenge, instead of the oval figure which constitutes the line of beauty among the nations of Western Asia and Europe. Upon the whole, although we often meet among the Siamese with countenances that are not dis- agreeable, and admit that they are certainly a handsomer people than either the Chinese or Indian islanders, beauty, according to our no- tions of it, is a stranger to them. The phy- siognomy of the Siamese, it may be added, conveys rather a gloomy, cheerless, and sullen air, and their gait is slow, sluggish, and un- graceful. This is the judgment of an European, and probably would be so of a native of Wes- tern Asia ; but it is necessary to add that the Siamese, vain in every thing, have a standard of beauty of their own, and are by no means disposed to bow to our opinions on this subject. I one day pointed out to some Siamese at AND COCHIN CHINA. 5 Calcutta a young and beautiful Englishwoman, and wished to know their opinion of her. They answered, that I should see many handsomer when I visited Siam ! La Loubere, by his own account, exhibited to the Siamese the portraits of some celebrated beauties of the Court of Louis XIV., and was compelled to acknowledge that they excited no admiration whatever. A large doll which he exhibited was more to their taste; and a young nobleman, according to the Siamese method of estimating the fair sex, said -with admiration, that a woman of such an ap- pearance would be worth, at Yuthia, five thou- sand crowns ! If this description of the physical form of the Siamese be applied to all the inhabitants of the wide region to which I have alluded, it must be taken, with some allowances, at the extreme points, where, no doubt, some intermixture has taken place with the neighbouring races. Thus the Cochin Chinese, the neighbours of the Chinese, have a little more beard, and are fairejr v/ than their neighbours immediately to the west and south of them. On the other hand, the Burmans, and still more the people of Aracan, Cassay, and Assam, who, no doubt, have inter- mixed more or less with the Hindoos, have more beard, more prominent features, and a darker complexion than their neighbours to the south, and this in proportion as they are respec- 6 EMBASSY TO SIAM tively nearer to, or more distant from, the coun- try of the Hindoos. The dress of the Siamese is sufficiently sin- gular and extravagant. Both sexes wear fewer clothes than any other tolerably civilized people of the East — the head and feet being always naked, the upper part of the body generally so, and the loins and thighs alone therefore being covered. The garment for the latter consists of a piece of silk, or cotton cloth, of from five to seven cubits long, which is passed round the loins and thighs, and secured in front in its own folds, leaving the knees entirely bare, a practice considered by their Malayan neighbours — such is the force of custom — at once rude and indecent. The better classes permit the ends of the dress to hang loosely in front, but the lower orders tuck them under the body, securing them behind. This is not a matter which is left to the discretion of the parties, but enforced by law, or by a custom equally imperative ; for the plebeian who infringes it is liable to summary punishment from the followers of any person of condition who may casually meet him. The only other material portion of dress is a narrow scarf, about four cubits long, and commonly of silk. This is worn either round the waist, or thrown carelessly over the shoulders. When in this last situation it forms an imperfect covering for the AND COCHIN CHINA. 7 bosoms of the females, which, however, are much more frequently wholly exposed and unprotected. I have sometimes, however, seen the lower orders of women wear a tight vest for comfort or con- venience, when engaged in labour. The colours of which the Siamese are fond are dark and sombre, and light colours or white seldom enter in any considerable quantity into their dress. The last, except as mourning, is worn only by the lay ser- vants of the temples, and by certain mendicant nuns, neither of whom are much respected. The mode of dressing the head is singular and grotesque. A man when he is full dressed ought to have the whole hair of the head closely shaven, with the exception of a circle on the crown, about four inches in diameter, where the hair is allowed to remain of the length of about an inch and a half or two inches. As the process of shaving the head, however, is not very punctually per- formed, it commonly "happens that the common hair of the head is an inch or two long, and the circle on the crown double that length, the whole, from its natural strength, staring and standing up- right, so as to convey not only a whimsical but a very wild look. Women do not shave the hair of their heads, but always crop it short, leaving also a circle on the crown, which is effected by plucking out the hairs in a narrow line from the brows backwards. No turban or other covering to the head is worn by either sex, with the ex- 8 EMBASSY TO SIAM ception of a fantastic conical cap put on by the chiefs at certain formal court ceremonies. In this respect, as well as in the mode of wearing the hair, the Siamese agree entirely with the Kam- bojans, but differ from the people of Fegue and Ava, who wear their hair long, and cover the head with a handkerchief. The Siamese of both sexes in the upper ranks wear a kind of slipper. Jewellery and trinkets are not much used. The men seldom or never wear ear or finger rings* and amongst females of condition the most usual or- naments are gold necklaces, bracelets, and armlets. The greatest care and expense are bestowed on the dress of children up to the age of fourteen. At an entertainment given to us by the Prah- klang, his own children, and those of his brother, were loaded with jewels, among the most remark- able of which was a kind of golden coronet co- vering the circle of longer hair on the crown of the head. 4 The Siamese, like the Chinese and other nations of the farther East, permit the nails of their hands to grow to an unnatural and inconvenient length. All the nails of both hands are treated in this manner, and the practice is general with both sexes, and with persons of all ranks ; the only difference being, that persons of condition carry the practice to the greatest extreme. Some suc- cessful amateurs may be seen with nails two inches long ; and as cleanliness is not a national AND COCHIN CHINA. 9 virtue, this usage has a very offensive appearance to a stranger. The Siamese have the same prejudice against white teeth with many other Eastern people, and at an early age they stain them with an inde- lible black, without, however, filing and destroy- ing the enamel of the front teeth, like the Indian islanders. In other respects, they evince no dis- position to disfigure the natural form of the body, and are especially to be distinguished from the Burmans and Peguans, by the general practice of tattooing the whole body, which prevails among the two last tribes. Among the Siamese the use of tobacco has be- come universal ; they chew it in moderate quan- tities, but smoke it perpetually. A Siamese is seldom to be seen without a cigar in his mouth, or stuck behind his ear ready for use. Of the areca and betel-nut they are perhaps the most constant and persevering consumers of all the people of the East, exceeding in this respect even the Malays themselves. The soil and climate are peculiarly suited to the production of both, and the cheapness which is the consequence, no doubt contributes, along with the indolent character of the people, to render the consumption so great. The preparation, as they use it, is the same as in other countries, with the exception of the catechu, which forms no part of the ingredients. Of the customs observed at marriages, I have 10 EMBASSY TO SIAM little information that is new to communicate. Marriage ceremonies, as in other countries of the East, are accompanied by theatrical representa- tions, gymnastics, music, and distribution of pre- sents. The actual ceremony is performed by the senior male relations; it consists in joining the right hands of the bride and bridegroom with a white cotton thread, and passing a similar one round their heads, brought into juxtaposition. The priests repeat hymns in the Bali language, and an elder of the family pronounces the words " Be man and wife, and live together until death part you/* Funeral rites are matters of great moment, and I have already given some description of them in the body of the narrative. Those to which I have alluded, are not, however, the only ones practised. The bodies of the great are always kept for a long, time embalmed before being con- sumed on the funeral pile. The period is deter- mined by the rank of the deceased, and extends from one to twelve months. The persons to whom these honours are paid in the most distinguished manner, are the high officers of state, the princes and princesses of the blood, but, above all, the high-priest and the king. The costliness and splendour of the rites on these occasions may be judged of, from the following description of those observed at the funeral of the late king. It was furnished to me by Mr. Gillies, a most AND COCHIN CHINA. 11 respectable and intelligent British merchant, who resided for some time in Siam, and was an eye- witness. " Immediately on the death of the King, which happened in July, 1824, the building of a large edifice in the form of a temple, was commenced for a funeral pile for burning the body on, accord- ing to the custom of the country ; not only in re- gard to the kings, but to all classes of the people. This building, which took nine months in finish- ing, was very extensive, and covered at least half an acre of ground. It consisted of a large open dome, about fifty feet high, supported upon im- mense wooden pillars, the finest that could be procured in Siam. The roof, which was of va- rious fantastic forms, the parts rising one above the other until it came to a point, was covered with tiles. From the centre of it rose a spire, composed of five or six flights or stories, decreas- ing in size as they rose, and each flight terminat- ing in a gallery, or circular walk. The edifice was crowned with a tall slender rod. The height of the whole fabric I could not exactly learn, but, from its appearance, I should think it could not be less than three hundred cubits. The whole of the interior as well as exterior of the building, was painted partly green and partly yellow, and in some places covered with gold and silver leaf, which gave it a very rich and splendid appear- ance, especially at a distance. It was also sur- 12 EMBASSY TO SIAM rounded with a variety of images representing their deities. Inside the great dome there was a small temple precisely in the form of the large one ; in the centre of this, and about two-thirds up, was a platform, over which was a small spire supported upon four pillars about thirty feet high. On this platform was to be placed the body. The whole of this interior building, but particularly near the place where the body was to be deposit- ed, was highly gilded, and otherwise richly deco- rated with gold and silver leaf. The great build- ing was surrounded with low sheds or houses, for the accommodation of the priests, who flocked from all parts of the kingdom to assist at the ce- remony. Outside of these sheds there were erect- ed twelve small pagodas, at convenient distances from each other, and these also were decorated in. a manner corresponding with the large temple. The ground within the sheds just mentioned, which was about thirty yards wide, was covered in with basket-work of bamboos, as were also all the passages leading from the palace, for the bet- ter accommodation of the royal pedestrians. This was the state of the preparations a few days pre- vious to the commencement of the ceremony. " The 28d of April, 1825, was the day fixed upon for the removal of the remains of his late Majesty from the palace to the funeral pile.* I * The King died on the 20th of July, 1824, and his body was therefore kept for full nine months* — C. AND COCHIN CHINA. 18 was invited, along with some of my friends, to see the ceremony. We reached the place appoint- ed for us as early as seven o'clock in the morning, to avoid the bustle of the crowd collecting from all parts. The situation appointed for us was not the most convenient, being only an open shed close by the road along which the procession was to pass. Here we were much annoyed with heat and dust, but being as well provided for as the Cochin Chinese Ambassador, who had come to Siam for the express purpose of honouring the ceremony, we had no right to complain : we had, moreover, the honour of being accompanied by the Prah-klang's son, and by the Intendant of the Port. The procession began to move at nine o'clock, or in Siamese time at three o'clock, and in the following order. " Several hundred soldiers, dressed principally in blue and red camlet, with caps of the same material, walking at a slow pace, without order, and bearing in their hands long poles of bamboo in the manner of flagstaff's, on the tops of which were artificial flowers of large size. " A similar number of men, not soldiers, carry- ing banners of silk and cloth, of a triangular shape, upon which were various devices ; consist- ing of dragons, serpents, and other monsters, painted or embroidered. Two carriages, each drawn by a single horse. The figure of a rhinoceros of the size of an u << 14 EMBASSY TO SI AM elephant, upon a sledge or carriage upon low wheels, drawn by men and horses, with a small temple on its back, in which was a quantity of yellow dresses, to be given to the priests as offer- ings. Two figures of elephants (very large), drawn as above. Two figures of horses, similarly drawn. Four figures of large monkeys, two and two. ^ Four figures of eagles, two and two. Four figures of cocks, two and two. Four figures of wild men or giants, two and two. Four figures of lions of immense size, two and two. " These were followed by the figures of a va- riety of other indescribable beasts and birds, two and two, and each figure bore its supply of dresses for the priests. " Eight hundred men dressed in white, with white caps or helmets. These represented celes- tial messengers, and their purpose was, as if to show the soul of the deceased King the way to Heaven. Along with these were many bands of music " The late King's household. Some of these bore over their heads a large umbrella or canopy, composed of three or four tiers, and having long fringes suspending from it. Others had swords of state in their hands, and all walked in the procession in great disorder and confusion. AND COCHIN CHINA. 15 " The late King's brother, in a handsome open carriage, of singular form and workmanship, highly gilded and ornamented, and the roof ter- minating in a small temple containing cloth for the priests. This was drawn by a number of men and horses. Choufa,* the late King's son, in a similar car- riage, but still handsomer. Choufa Noe,f the late King's nephew, a boy, in a very superb carriage, holding in his hand the end of a sash of gold tissue, the other end being attached to the next carriage immediately after him, and which contained the body of the late King. This last was most elegantly gilded and decorated, and supported by the great officers of state, walking in single files at the sides of the carriage, all dressed in white, having helmets on their heads, sandals on their feet, and carry- ing white wands in their hands. " A carriage containing a quantity of sandal- wood, and other perfumes for the pile. " The bier was followed by soldiers, figures of animals, musicians, and messengers, of the same number and kind with those which pre- • This was the eldest legitimate son of the late King, and his intended successor ; but the throne, aa will be seen in ano- ther place, was usurped by his illegitimate brother, the present fkmg»~— v/. t This and the last are titles, and literally mean the Prince, and the Little Prince, of Heaven. 16 EMBASSY TO SIAM ceded it, and in the same order. After these, came the late King's brothers, forty in number, all on horseback, in single file, and according to seniority. Each was followed by a train of servants on foot, dressed in white. The pro- cession terminated at twelve o'clock, with little confusion, and no outrage whatever, notwith- standing the immense crowd which was col- lected, and which consisted of nearly the whole population of Bang-kok, and a vast number of strangers from the most distant provinces of the kingdom. " On the following day, we were invited to see the body lie in state on the funeral pile, in the small temple, within the great dome, pre- vious to its being burnt. On our arrival within the palace enclosure, we were conducted in by old Phya Chula and his son,* who of course did not forget to exact from us all the necessary marks of respect to the body of their late mas- ter. The large dome had four entrances, each of which was guarded night and day by a prince of the blood, from the time the body was placed within it. On our arrival at one of these entrances, we were obliged to take off our shoes. Having then paid our compliments to the Prince, we proceeded to the place where the body lay. On approaching it, we made our obeisance, and * Mahomedans of the sect of Ali, employed in the depart- ment of the customs. AND COCHIN CHINA. 17 sat down, of course, on the floor, which was, however, well covered with mats. The scene presented here was the most magnificent I ever saw. From the roof of the large dome were suspended the most beautiful ornaments of Siamese manufacture in gold and silver, made for the occasion, as well as an infinite variety of European chandeliers, lamps, &c. But the small temple was still more sumptuously orna- mented, being literally covered with gold and silver leaf. Over the body were suspended a variety of gold and silver branches, or small trees; and the floor round it was covered with a variety of musical instruments, clocks, looking- glasses, and other furniture, all that could be begged or borrowed throughout the country. The whole had a surprising effect. Having taken our leave of this place, with the same reverence as we entered it, we proceeded to view the amusements provided for the even- ing; consisting of fire-works, tumbling, rope- dancing, wrestling, &c. The most amusing part of the exhibition, was the scrambling of the mob for the pieces of money, scattered among them from four small tablets erected for the purpose. These were placed at short distances from each other, immediately before the place where the King and his suite sat. From each of these were thrown occasional handsful of coin, consisting of half and quarter ticals. In this vol. ji. c 18 EMBASSY TO 8IAM manner, a few hundred ticals were expended nightly, during the continuance of the festival, which lasted ten days. In addition to this, there were given away in alrps daily at the palace, during the same period, five hundred ticals. The amusements generally, were very poor. What appeared to me deserving of more admiration than aiiy thing else, was the very orderly manner in which the people conducted themselves, notwithstanding the vast concourse collected from all parts of the country. The preparations and conduct of the whole affair did the Siamese much credit, and would not dis- grace any country in Europe. They certainly thought not a little of it. themselves, and fre- quently asked me if I ever saw the like before. I was obliged to confess I had not. The fire from which the pile is lighted they pretend is celestial, having, as they allege, been taken from a ball of fire which fell at the door of the palace several centuries ago, and which has never since been suffered to extinguish." Charity to the lower animals is considered by the Siamese as a religious Virtue of great merit, and this frequently gives rise at funerals to a disgusting and abominable rite, never performed, however, except in compliance with the dying request of the deceased. It consists in cutting slices of flesh from the corpse, and with these AND COCHIN CHINA. 19 feeding the birds of prey and dogs, which are seen in numbers about the temples, waiting for this horrid feast. After this ugly rite, the r6- mains of the body are buried in the usual man- ner.' The only honourable funeral amongst the Siamese, consists in burning the body, and the practice is very general. It seems to be viewed as a religious rite, and as a ceremony necessary to assist the passage of the soul to a higher grade in the scale of transmigration, and finally to its extinction or rest. The persons not deemed worthy of this rite, are women dying pregnant, or in child-birth ; persons who come to a sudden death ; persons who die of the small- pox, and malefactors. The death of all such is considered as the punishment of some offence in the present or a former state of existence. They are consequently deemed unworthy of regular fu- nereal rites, and buried. Under ordinary circum- stances, so much importance is attached to the rite of burning the dead, that if the ceremony cannot be performed soon after death either from poverty, or from the party dying at a distance, the body is first buried, and afterwards, as soon as convenient or practicable, disinhumed, and con- signed to the funeral pile. Of persons of dis* tinction, a few of the bones are kept, and either preserved in urns in the houses of their rela- tives, or buried, with little pyramidal monuments c 2 20 EMBASSY TO SIAM over them, in the ground adjacent to the temples. Of these monuments, we saw a good number; they are small and paltry, without any inscription. The practice of immolating living victims with the dead, as practised in Hindostan, and some other countries of the East, is unknown to the Siamese in any form — one advantage, at least, if there be no other, which humanity gains from the avowed principle of the doc- trines of Buddha, which denounces the shedding of blood. , There is one species of suicide, however, which is reckoned meritorious. This is consider- ed as a solemn religious sacrifice of the highest order. The victim who devotes himself to self- destruction, sits down on the ground, covered all over with quantities of cloth dipped in oil and smeared with other combustibles. He sets fire to the materials himself, and patiently suf- fers death, with his hands raised before his face, in an attitude of devotion. The relations of one who performs such a sacrifice are for ever after taken under the special protection of the so- vereign. Such sacrifices as these are extremely rare, as may be inferred from the nature of the reward. The progress which the Siamese have made in the useful arts is extremely slender, nor would it indeed be very reasonable to expect either ex- AND COCHIN CHINA. 21 pertness or industry from a people who are com- pelled to devote one-third of the labour of their manhood to the service of a highly oppressive government. Every mechanic of any skill is immediately seized upon, and becomes the re- tainer of the King, or of some courtier, or other man in authority, who employs him for life on some useless service of vanity or ostentation. It is accordingly a matter of difficulty for a pri- vate individual, or a stranger, to obtain the ser- vices even of the most homely mechanic, and the few that can be procured are usually natives of J China, or Cochin China, and not Siamese. There is no one useful art in which the Siamese have attained any distinction, and their industry ap- pears never to have produced any ingenious fa- bric that can bear a moment's comparison with the cotton manufacture of Hindostan, or the wrought silks and porcelain of China. It is l even remarkable, that in the fabrication of jew- ellery, a proficiency in which has often been re- marked among ruder people, they have attained little skill; and, in fact, their gold and silver trinkets, and their vessels of gold and silver, are commonly imported from China. The only ex- - ception to this consists in certain gold and silver vases, fabricated in the palace, and presented to the chiefs, as orders or insignia of title and of- fice. These are of handsome form and neat workmanship ; a circumstance which may be at- 22 EMBASSY TO SIAM tributed to their being of one invariable form, and the consequent dexterity which the arti- ficers acquire by frequent practice. This form has not varied for at least one hundred and thirty years, for the figure of one given by La Loubere is an exact representation of those in use at the present day. The Siamese also receive their utensils of zinc j and brass from .China, and the resident Chinese are the only manufacturers of articles of tin, al- though a product of the country. It is through the ingenuity of the same people, that the stores of iron-ore, in which the country abounds, have been of late years rendered available. At pre- sent, a considerable quantity of malleable iron is produced, and at Bang-kok there are several ex- tensive manufactories of cast-iron vessels, wholly ^ conducted by the Chinese, and from which the „ Malay tribes are now very generally supplied with culinary utensils. The cutlery and tools in use amongst the Siamese are of the rudest and simplest description, and they have not even ac- quired any skill in the fabrication of implements of destruction, a circumstance to be expected among an unarmed and unwarlike people. The fabrication of fire-arms has scarcely, I believe, been attempted ; and for these the Siamese ap- pear always to have trusted to the casual supply derived directly or indirectly from Europeans. The manufacture of silk and cotton fabrics AND COCHIN CHINA. 23 is in Siam abandoned wholly to the women, and very little skill is displayed in either; both being of a very coarse and homely texture, and greatly inferior even to the corresponding ma- nufactures of the island of Java and Celebes, pre- pared under similar circumstances. The art of dyeing is on the same low scale, and this is the more remarkable, since the country abounds in the materials necessary to it. The art of print- ing silks or cottons is not practised by the Siamese in any shape or form. The most common description of coarse pottery suited for ordinary domestic purposes, is manu- factured by the Siamese, but all the ordinary and better descriptions of porcelain are imported from China, and in large quantities. The useful architecture of the Siamese is in a very humble state of advancement. The ha- bitations of the lower orders consist always of simple and perishable materials, suitable enough, perhaps, to their climate, and certainly so to their poverty and incapacity of extending the sphere of their enjoyments. In the low alluvial lands, where we had an opportunity of observing their dwellings, they were all raised upon piles, like the habitations of the Malays, the principal ma- terial employed in them being the bamboo, and the leaf of the Nipa palm (Nipa Jruticans). In the higher lands, the houses, I am told, cease to be built on piles, and the bamboo and nipa 24 EMBASSY TO SI AM give way to ordinary woods and grasses. I could not learn that solid materials, either of stone, or brick and mortar, were employed anywhere in the construction of the habitations of the peasantry. The houses of the chiefs are most commonly of the same frail materials and inar- tificial structure as those of the peasantry, but we found a few at the capital constructed of brick and mortar, and roofed with tile. That of the Prah-klang, especially, was even a com- fortable and commodious habitation, but being so had a foreign air, and harmonized so little with the meaner structures around it, as to appear al- together out of place. Edifices and structures for public convenience and utility have not, as far as we could hear or see, any existence in Siam, and neither piety, superstition, charity, nor interest, seem to have led the rulers of this country to construct bridges, wells, tanks, or caravanseras, such as are to be found more or less among all the other consi- derable nations of Asia. The bridges which we observed at the capital, and in the immediate vicinity of the palace, consisted generally of no more than a single plank ; and even within the walls, they amounted to no more than laying over abutments of coarse brick and mortar, a few rough and naked beams. We nowhere observed any attempt to construct an arch. The absence of public roads is not less remark- AND COCHIN CHINA. 25 able. We were informed that there were but two considerable roads in the kingdom — that * from the new to the old capital, and that from Chantabon to Tungyai. In the vicinity of Bang- kok there are none at all, and here travelling is almost entirely aquatic. In extenuation, how- ever, it ought to be remarked, that both here and in other parts of the low country, the in- ternal navigation is so extensive, cheap, and commodious, as to account, in some measure, for the absence of public roads, and even to com- pensate for that absence. At Bang-kok, wheel carriages are altogether unknown; and even ele- phants are prohibited, except to a few of the principal lords. In the upper parts of Lao again, as well as in the mountains to the south-west much of the commerce and intercourse of the country is conducted by means of these animals, which are the beasts of burden best suited to the narrow and steep pathways, which in these parts supply the place of roads. It happens with the Siamese, as has been ob- served with all other rude nations, that the chief efforts of their architectural skill are bestowed upon their religious edifices. What Knox ob- serves of the Kings of Ceylon, is not less ap- plicable to the monarchs of Siam. " It appear- ed," says he, "they spared not for pains and labour to build temples and high monuments to the honour of this god, as if tbey had been 26 EMBASSY TO SI All born only to hew rocks and great stones, and lay them up in heaps."* If nothing existed of the Siamese but their temples, we should be apt, upon a superficial consideration, to pronounce them a people considerably civilized, tolerably well governed, and enjoying no small share of happiness and comfort. Extensive monuments of this nature, indeed, could not exist among a race of mere savages; and their presence ar- gues a certain advance of civilization, some pro- gress in the art of securing a permanent supply of food, and the existence of a population more numerous than the precarious habits of mere savage life could afford ; but beyond this, they can be adduced in proof of nothing but des- potism on the part of the government, and su- perstition on the part of the people. These temples have already been fully described. The enclosures and lower walls are constructed of brick and mortar, and destitute of ornament. The roof, gable-ends, doors, and windows, are of solid timber, the first being protected by a covering of tiles. It is upon this portion of the temples that ornament and decoration are most profusely lavished. The wood-work is very generally laboriously and curiously carved, and gilding on wood, in which the Siamese have acquired considerable skill, is not only bestowed * An Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in the East Indies, p. 81. AND COCHIN CHINA. 27 upon the inside of the buildings, but upon the outside also, even in situations the most expos- ed to the weather. Tfce portions of a temple which are . best executed, and most in accord- ance with European taste, are the detached tall pyramids and spires by which they are surround- ed. These are constructed of solid masonry, and produce a very good effect. Keinfer states that the Siamese temples " do not equal our churches in bigness, but far exceed them in out- ward beauty, by reason of the many -bended roofs, gilded frontispieces, advanced steps, co- lumns, pillars, and other ornaments." I am not, however, of this opinion, and consider that the effect produced by these edifices, is wholly ina- dequate to the labour and expense bestowed upon them. Their want of height, their inele- gant form, the absence of domes, arches, and columns, divest them of all pretension to grace or sublimity, while it is impossible in viewing them to get rid of the association attached to the temporary and perishable nature of the ma- terials. The bare antiquity of a Hindoo or an Egyptian temple, is calculated to give rise to sentiments of veneration, but we can entertain no such feeling in regard to edifices, however costly, raised for temporary purposes, incapable of durability, and unassociated with historical re- collections. Statuary is practised by the Siamese for reli- 38 EMBASSY TO SIAM gious purposes only. Indeed its limits are still more restricted; it is generally confined to t" e fabrication of one form* the image of Buddha, and this commonly in a sitting attitude. I saw but two or three statues of this God hewn from stone, and they were brought from China* The greater part of the numerous images of Siam are formed of a composition of plaster, rosin, and oil, mixed up with hair. When the figure is formed, it is covered over with varnish, upon which is laid a thick coat of gilding, so as to conceal all the baser materials. The best images are made of bronze, or brass, and the fabrica- tion of these may be considered as the acme of Siamese skill in the arts. The parts are cast separately, and after being put together, are richly gilded, so as not to be distinguished from those of plaster, without particular exam- ination. The surprizing magnitude of some of these images has been already described. Even these, however, are not calculated for the same lasting durability, as images, or other monu- ments of stone, being subject to spoliation or destruction during the frequent revolutions and convulsions to which these countries are liable. I was assured that some of the best images were either melted down or carried off entire during the last Burman invasion. It ought here to be remarked, that while the useful arts practised in Siam are commonly AND COCHIN CHINA. 39 in the hands of Chinese and other strangers, J every thing connected with their religious mo- numents is entirely executed by native Siamese. The large produce of grain/ oil, salt, sugar, and pepper, which Siam affords, might at first view be considered as some proof of skilful in- dustry on the part of the people; but the two last owe their existence entirely to the Chinese • settlers, and the rest depend so much upon peculiar advantages in soil, climate, and com- munication, that they could scarcely fail to have existed in any state of society or govern- ment; and the Government of Siam, with all its faults, has at least this advantage, that it is capable of maintaining a moderate share of in- ternal tranquillity, and of securing the people against the violence of one another, to an ex- tent unknown to many less despotic, but feebler Asiatic states. In other rude states of society, the priesthood is commonly the depositary of whatever learning and science may exist; but of this advantage the Siamese, and the followers of Buddha, are deprived by a precept of religion, which pro- scribes to the priesthood all temporal learning, and makes every acquirement unconnected with this subject profane and sinful. The consequence of this is, that medicine, astrology, and astro- nomy, the favourite sciences of semi-barbarians, 30 EMBASSY TO SIAM are abandoned to the casual culture of a few strangers. At Bang-kok, we found that all the j medical practitioners were Chinese, or Cochin Chinese, — that these were in much repute; and that they imported all their medicines or nos- trums from China. Divination and astronomy are now, as at all former periods of our acquain- tance with Siam, in the hands of the Brahmins settled in the country. It was from these that we obtained the first Indian astronomical tables brought to Europe ; but the present race, from all I could learn, are very ignorant, and even incapable of making the necessary calculations for regulating the kalendar, which is at present effected with the assistance of the Pekin alma- nack, the arrival of which is anxiously looked \ for ]by the first Chinese junk of the season, which is commonly one of those from the Island of Hai-nan. The following is a sketch of the mode of reck- oning and dividing time amongst the Siamese. The day commences at sun-rise. The forenoon is divided into six watches, and the afternoon to sun-set into the same number. From sun-set to midnight makes only two watches, and from midnight to morning again makes the same num- ber. The day watches are called in Siamese Mong, and those of the night Thum. I did not hear that any smaller sub-divisions of time obtained. The time-keeper made use of is simi- lar to ^ ' c trivance used by the Hindoos, viz. AND COCHIN CHINA. 31 a cup with an aperture at the bottom, placed in a bowl of water, and which sinks at the termina- tion of each watch. The Siamese week is of seven days, and these correspond generally with those of the other na- tions of the old world. They are as follow, viz.-— Sunday, Athit; Monday, Chan; Tuesday, Angkhan; Wednesday, Phut; Thursday, Prahat; Friday, Suk; and Saturday, San. The months are alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days, and twelve months or thyee hundred and fifty- four days make a year. The months, with the exception of the two first, of the derivation of which I could get no explanation, take their names from the Siamese numerals, the word Duan, or moon, being prefixed to each. They are repeated as follow : — Days. 1. Duan-ai . 29 2. Duan Ji . 30 3. Duan Sam . 29 4. Duan Si . 30 5. Duan Ha . 29 6. Duan Hoe . 30 7. Duan Chet . . 29 8. Duan Pet . 30 9. Duan Kau . 29 10. Duan Sip . 30 11. Duan Sibet . . 29 12. Duan S.ip Song . 30 354 32 EMBASSY TO SI AM The Siamese year is solar, and to preserve it as such an intercalary month of thirty days is added to every third year, after the eighth month. The months, it is also to be remarked, are divided into a dark and a bright half, or an increasing and waning moon, as among the Hindoos ; and it is the days of these divisions, and not of the month itself as among us, which are reckoned. The Siamese year does not. com- mence with the first month, but corresponds with that of the Chinese. In the year 1822, the new year fell on the 11th of April, being the 5th day of the dark half of the moon. The great divisions of time are into two cycles, the larger of which is of sixty years, and the lesser of twelve, each year of this last taking the name of some animal in the following or- der, thus : Chuat, the rat ; Chain, the ox ; Khan, the tiger ; Tho, the hare ; Marong, the greater snake ; Maseng, the lesser snake ; Ma-mia, the horse ; Ma-mee, the goat ; Wok, the ape ; Rata, the cock ; Cho-cho 9 the dog ; and Kun, the hog. The Siamese have two epochs, or, as they de- nominate them, Sa-ka-rat, a sacred and a popu- lar one. The sacred era dates from the death of Gautama, and the year which commenced on the 11th of April, 1822, was the year 2865, ac- cording to this reckoning. This year is used by the Talapoins, and in all matters connected with religion. The vulgar era is said to have AND COCHIN CHINA. 33 been instituted in commemoration of the intro- duction of the worship of Gautama into Siam, and to date from that event, which took place in the 1181 year of the sacred epoch, corre- sponding with the year of Christ 638.* The year commencing with the 11th of April, 1822, was accordingly the 1184 of Siamese time. This epoch is said to have been instituted by a king whose name was Krek. It is used in matters of business ; but on ordinary and popular occa- sions, such as in epistolary writing, it is not un- frequently omitted, — the year of the lesser cycle oply being written, together with the day of the week, and of the moon's increase or decrease, in the following manner. " Written on Tuesday, in the 7th month, on the 8th day of the bright half of the Moon of the year of the Horse," which corresponded with the 26th of May, 1822. The knowledge which the Siamese possess of arithmetic is, from all I could learn, imperfect and superficial. As accomptants, they are slow and inexpert, even with the assistance of the Chinese sanpan, upon which they principally rely. They are acquainted with the decimal system of notation, which they mark by charac- ters peculiar to themselves, and which vary much, if they do not altogether differ, from • By some authorities, the vulgar era is said not to have been instituted until three years after the introduction of the worship of Buddha. VOL. II. D / 34 EMBASSY TO SIAM those employed by the people of Lao, Pcgue and Ava, while they agree with those employed by the Kambojans. In the regulation of their measures, weights, and coins, the Siamese have some advantage over their neighbours. Gold and copper are not used as money in Siam, and the currency con- sists only of cowry shells and silver. The lie* nominations are as follow : two hundred bia, or cowries, make one p'hai-nung ; two p'hai-nungs, one song-p'hai; two song-p'hais, one fuang; two fuangs, one sailing ; four salungs, one bat, or tical ; eighty ticals, one cattie ; one hundred cut- ties, one picul. The standard coin is the bat, which Euro- peans, on what ground I do not know, have called a tical; but there are also coins, though less frequently, of the lower denominations. — These are of a rude and peculiar form. They are, in fact, nothing more than small bits of a silver bar bent, and the ends beaten together. They are impressed with two or three small stamps, not covering the whole surface of the coin. The cattie and picul are, of course, only used in speaking of large sums of money. Gold and silver are weighed by small weights, which have the same denominations as the coins. The p'hai-nung, the lowest of these, is in this case subdivided into thirty-two sagas, or red beans, the abrus precatorius of botanists. AND COC&IN CHINA. 35 The bat, or tical, was assayed at the mint of Calcutta; it was found to weigh two hundred and thirty-six grains ; its standard, however, was uncertain, and the value of different specimens varied from one rupee, three anas, and three pies, to one rupee, three anas, and seven pies. The value therefore in sterling money is about 3*. 6d., and it is so considered in the course of this work. In respect to ordinary measures, the Siamese cattie is double the weight of the Chinese cattie, which, as is well known, is equal to one and one third lb. avoirdupois. The picul, however, is of the same weight, consisting, in the one case, of fifty catties only, and in the other of one hundred. In weighing rice and salt, a large measure is used, consisting, in respect to the first, of twenty-two piculs, and of the last of twenty-five : rice is also measured by the basket of which one hundred go to the large measure above mentioned. The long measures are as follow: — twelve finger breadths make one span ; two • spans, one cubit; four cubits, one fathom ; twenty fathoms, one sen; and one hundred sen, one yuta ; or, as it is more commonly pronounced by the Siamese, yut. The fathom is the measure of most fre- quent use, and the Siamese have a pole of this length divided into its fractional parts. This, as new as I could ascertain, is equal to about d 2 36 . EMBASSY TO SIAM six feet six inches. The sen appears to be also used in the admeasurement of land, and to be the name of a square measure of twenty fathoms to the side. On the subject of geography, the knowledge of the Siamese is extremely limited indeed, and of distant nations they scarcely know any thing but the name. The Chinese are the only con- siderable foreign people with whom they hold much intercourse, and whose superiority to them- selves they are at all disposed to admit. I was informed that some attempt had been made by the Court to compile a rude map of the kingdom from native surveys. The follow- ing meagre list comprehends the names of all the foreign nations or countries with which the Siamese are acquainted, according to their own pronunciation, viz. Mon, Pegue ; Pama, Burma ; Lao, Laos ; Khomen, Kamboja ; Cham, Cham- pa; Yuan, Anam, that is, Cochin China and Tonquin ; Tang-kia, Tonquin ; Chek or Chin> China ; Ya-pun, Japan ; Khek, Malay ; Chowa, Java; Mung-nge, Celebes; Hua-prek, African, that is to say, " pepper heads," Piam, Hindos- tan ; Thet, Telingana, or the Coast of Coroman- del ; Langka, Ceylon ; Farang, Europe ; Frarig- sit, French ; Wilande, Dutch ; Angkrit, Eng* lish; Markan, Anglo-American. The modern Siamese have nearly as great, an aversion to the sea as the ancient Persians. AND COCHIN CHINA. 37 The institutions of the country, as will be seen hereafter, are completely destructive of the spirit of foreign enterprise. Avarice, indeed, seems often to have seduced the Siamese to attempt foreign commerce, and never to so great an ex- tent as at a the present moment. In such enter- prises, however, the native Siamese seldom en- gage personally, for both the pilots and crews of their ships consist of Christians or Chinese. / In music the Siamese are entitled to some distinction among Oriental nations — their airs being more agreeable at least to an European ear than those of any Eastern people, with the exception probably of the Turks and Persians. The melodies of the Siamese are sometimes in a wild and plaintive strain ; but more commonly they are in a brisk and lively style, resembling Scotch and Irish music— thus forming, to all appearance, a violent contrast with the sluggish and frigid temper of the people themselves. A full Siamese band ought to consist of not less than* ten instruments. The first of these in rank is a kind of staccato, in the form of a semicircle, within which the player sits striking with two small hammers, the notes, or keys, which consist of inverted vessels of brass. The second is ano- ther staccato of the same materials, but less com- pass, in form of a boat ; the third, a violin with three strings ; the fourth, a guitar of four strings, played with a bit of wood, fastened to the finger ; 38 EMBASSY TO SIAM the fifth, a flute ; and the sixth, a flageolet. To these are occasionally added an instrument with four strings, in form of a boat, which is said to be borrowed from the Peguans; and the band is completed by the addition of a drum, cymbals, and castanets. The interesting question of language requires more attention and learning than I can bestow upon it. My information is derived from others, for I had neither leisure nor opportunity to ac- quire any thing beyond a very superficial ac- quaintance with its elements. The alphabet of the Siamese consists, as they write it, of thirty-nine, but in reality of thirty- eight consonant characters. The vowels and dip- thongs are very numerous, and some of them such as neither Europeans nor the natives of Western Asia can pronounce. Notwithstanding the number and variety of the consonants, the language does not embrace several sounds of this class,* which are familiar to the nations of the West. The alphabet, for its own purpose how- ever, is perfect. It is formed on the system and classification of the alphabets of the continent of * The sound expressed in English by sh, the Persian and Arabic gutturals expressed in Roman letters by kh with s, v ; and several others have no existence. G and d have been bor- rowed from Western India, but are pronounced respectively as k and t ; so that Ganga (the Ganges) becomes Kanka ; and Dewata, a god, Tewata* AND COCHIN CHINA. 39 India, but with considerable modifications, which lead me to believe that the Siamese possessed an original written character at a very early period, and that the present arrangement, in all likeli- hood, followed the introduction of the worship of Buddha and of the Bali language in times comparatively recent. The character is written from the left hand to the right, like all the ori- ginal alphabets of the countries lying between 4 Arabia and China. The consonants consist of five classes,— namely, gutturals, palatals, dentals, labials, sibilants and liquids, each class having its own peculiar nasal. In each consonant the short vocalic breathing, " a or o," for sometimes it is pronounced as the one, and sometimes as the other, is always understood, unless the con* trary be expressed by an orthographic mark. The character for this is included with the con- sonants, and is the last letter of the alphabet. The other vowels are but orthographic marks, which, in some cases, are written over or below the consonants, and in others precede or follow 'them. If a word or Syllable begin with a vowel, the character is expressed by affixing the peculiar mark of such vowel to that of the short " a." Such a variety of intonations as is implied by this account of the Siamese alphabet, seems to be necessary to a language, the great majority of the words of which consists of monosylla- bles. In this language, and indeed in all that 40 EMBASSY TO SIAM are kindred to it, the same distinctions of mean- ing are produced by the alteration or modifica- tion of a single letter which are brought about by us through whole syllables, of which a few examples may be given. The monosyllable klai, with a short a, means jar, but with the same vowel long, it means near. If in the last form of this monosyllable, as it would be written in the Roman character, the fourth letter of the series k be substituted for the first, which it is that exists % in the words meaning " far " and " near" — then we have an entire new meaning, viz. the adverb almost. The following is an ex- ample, perhaps, still more striking. A syllable which in Roman etters would admit only of being written se, becomes, according as the intonations are varied, the verb to buy — the adjective fit or proper, and " a tiger," " a vest," " a mat." The language, I am told, abounds in examples of this nature* The Siamese language is characterised by great simplicity of grammatical structure. It is des- titute of inflexions, and hence its construction depends wholly upon the principle of juxtapo- sition. The nominative precedes the verb, and the verb the noun, which it governs. The * The remarkable accuracy of pronunciation attained by the Eastern nations, end the copiousness and perfection of their al- phabetic systems, afford a striking contrast with the paucity and vagueness of their ideas. It would seem as if they systemati- cally set more value on sound than on sense. AVD COCHIN CHINA. 41 adjective follows the noun which it qualifies. There is no relative pronoun, and no distinction between the pronouns of the second and third persons. The political slavery of the people is deeply impressed upon their dialect ; and hence the ex-* istence of a phraseology, and of distinct terms to indicate the relative ranks of the speakers — the one party using a language of flattery and adulation, and the other of command and au- thority. In our intercourse with the Siamese chiefs, we soon discovered their extraordinary fastidiousness on this subject. They displayed an uncommon repugnance towards making use of the interpreters of the Mission; and, accus- tomed to the incense of flattery, seemed to be in constant dread, not only of hearing un- pleasant truths, but even of the risk of having their ears and dignity offended by the acciden- tal errors in phraseology, of rustic and un- courtly interpretations. The language, I am told, is copious, or rather possesses that species of redundancy which belongs to the dialects of many semi-barbarous nations, and, which shows a long but not an useful cultivation. The literature of the Siamese is from all ac- counts meagre and uninteresting ; and, in point of imagination, invention, force, or correctness, is much below that of the Arabs, the Per- sians, or even of the Hindoos. Their efforts 42 EMBASSY TO SIAM seem scarcely indeed to rise beyond the rank of those of the tribes of the Indian islands; and judging from a few translations of what were said to be their best works, I have no hesitation in pronouncing them singularly pue- rile and jejune. Siamese literature is naturally divided into two classes — a profane and a sacred; the one written in the vernacular language, and the other in the Bali. All composition in* the ver- nacular language is metrical, with the excep- tion of ordinary epistolary writing — a fact from which it may be seen, that it is not utility or instruction that is aimed at, but mere amuse- ment; and this, indeed, is a matter openly avowed by the Siamese. A great variety of different measures are said to be in use, and even to be used in the same composition, — the metre being varied so as to adapt itself to the subject which is from time to time introduced. The style of Siamese composition is simple, and destitute of those strong metaphors and hy- perbolical forms of expression which are com- monly ascribed to Eastern languages. Brevity is affected oy the Siamese in their compositions, but by no means precision or perspicuity ; on the contrary, they hint obscurely at, rather than ex- press their full meaning, and to a stranger, at least, superficially examining their language, there appears a studied ambiguity in all their AND COCHIN CHINA. 48 forms of expression. Their ambition, in fact, is to mystify their ideas. I was told that our downright, plain, and unmasked style, either in speaking or writing, was viewed by them as harsh, rustic, and undignified. This style is of course derived from the manners and habits of the people. Siamese compositions consist of songs, ro- mances, and a few histories, or chronicles. The first are usually in the form of a dialogue be- tween persons of opposite sexes, in which quaint allusions are made, amusing to those who are intimately acquainted with the idiom of the lan- guage. The usual subject of them is love, or, more correctly, intrigue. Some of them that are sung in public, are said to be highly licentious ; while their recitation is accompanied by gestures which set moctesty at defiance. Many of these were sung in our hearing, during the festivities which accompanied the tonsure of the Phra- klang's son; and, as already mentioned, were followed by or alternated with the incantations of the Brahmins, the hymns of the Talapoins, the feats of tumblers and dancers, profane music, and dramatic exhibitions. The romances are stated to be upon an equa- lity with the other efforts of the Siamese intel- lect, destitute of ingenuity, and crowded with extravagant, supernatural, and incredible fictions. The subject is usually the adventures in love 44 EMBASSY TO SIAM and war of some chief or prince, borrowed from the remote and fabulous history of the coun- try, — the wide-spread legends of the Hindoos* and now and then from Javanese and Malayan story. The history of the Hindu god and hero Rama, is of all others the most favourite topic ; and there exists in the Siamese language an extensive composition, comprising all the adven- tures of this worthy, which they call Ram-kian, — a word which I take to be a corruption of Ramayana, the name of the well-known Sanscrit poem. The Siamese story is so voluminous, that it is said to be comprised in four hundred can- tos, or parts, and when dramatized, to take up six weeks in acting. Of this I was informed personally by the Phraklang. The Siamese have no dramatic compositions, — that is to say, no performances containing a regular written dialogue. Their plays are found- ed on the romances already mentioned, the ac- tors being left to their own wits for converting the subject into a suitable dialogue. A prompted stands by, and refreshes their memories, from time to time, from the written volume which he holds in his hand. The Siamese are said to have some histori- cal compositions; and it is probable that the dry chronology of their kings, and the leading events of their history for a few centuries, may be told by them with sufficient fidelity; but AND COCHIN CHINA. 45 it cannot for a moment be imagined that they are capable, any more than other rude people, of writing a rational and connected narrative of their national story. The chiefs with whom I conversed on this subject, appeared either to be very ill-informed, or very little disposed to communicate information. I was told that the only documents of any value existed in the pa- lace, being records of passing events composed by a state chronologist. To these, which are deposited in the public archives, the officers of Government have recourse whenever occasion requires. If I am to judge by the minute care with which the particulars of the conversations held with ourselves on public occasions were taken down by the Government scribes, the re- cords in question ought at least to be very volu- minous. It is to sacred literature only that the Sia- mese attach any importance. It is this alone which they consider a pursuit meriting any se- rious attention. The language dedicated to re- ligion in Siam, is the same as in all other Baudd- hist countries, the Bali, or Pali, commonly pro- nounced in Siam Ba-li, as if it were written in two syllables, agreeably to the monosyllabic idiom of Siamese pronunciation. The Siamese priests also occasionally denominate it Pasa Ma- kata f which is only a corruption of Bahasa Ma- gadha,— meaning the language of Magadha, or 46 EMBASSY TO SIAM Bahar, the birth-place of Buddha. The term Bali is applied in Siam either to the written character or to the language itself, but most fre- quently to the latter. It is a little remarkable that the character or alphabet of the Bali is very generally denominated by the Siamese Kam- iom, or the writing of Kamboja. Some allege that it is so called because the Siamese are said to have acquired their first knowledge of it, and of the Buddhist religion through Kamboja; but others, with more probability, affirm that it has this name because it is the only character known to the Kambojans, both their religious and po- pular writings being composed in it Accord- ing to the information furnished to me, the Bali language, as it obtains in Ceylon, in Ava, Pegue, Lao, Siam, and Kamboja, is exactly the same ; while time and distance have occasioned a considerable diversity in the mode of writing the character. The Bali writings of Siam and Kamboja are identically the same. Those of Pegue, Ava, and Lao, differ a little from each other, and a good deal from the two former. The writing of Ceylon differs very considerably from all the rest. The result of this is, that the writings of the priests of Siam and Kam- boja are at once mutually intelligible to each other; that the writings of these, and of the priests of Ava, Pegue, and Lao, may be red-* procally read without any extraordinary diffi- AND COCHIN CHINA. 47 cult y ; but that the priests of all these coun- tries encounter considerable difficulty in deci- phering a Bali manuscript of Ceylon. The com- positions in the Bali language appear to be con- fined to religious subjects, and the works which exist in Siam do not, from all accounts, differ from such as are current in Ceylon and other Bauddhist countries. Almost all Bali books, and such works in the popular language as the Siamese put any value on, ^e written on slips of palm leaf with an iron style, a black powder being thrown over the im- pression, which is thus rendered sufficiently dis- tinct and legible. These slips are from a foot to a foot and a half long. They are tied up in small bundles, and very generally richly gilt, and painted on the edges, forming thus a volume which is carefully placed in an envelope of silk or cotton cloth. For more ordinary works, as well as for keeping accounts, and taking minutes of public transactions, the Siamese use a thick stiff paper, prepared with a black paste, so as to receive an impression with the stone pencil used in writing upon it, which is a bit of soap or pot-stone. The paper in these cases consists of a strip, ten or twelve cubits long, and about a foot broad, which is folded zig-zag, so as to form pages of about three inches deep. After one side of the whole is filled, the sheet is turned up, and the subject continued upon the reverse. si 48 EMBASSY TO 6IAM The writing upon such paper can be expunged, so that the same material may be repeatedly used, in the same way as writing upon a slate with us. The paper on which epistolary correspondence is carried on is a miserable fabric, soft, spongy, and uneven. This also is written upon with a pen- cil, for ink is a material almost unknown to the Siamese. As among other Asiatic nations, a smattering of education is very generally diffused among the Siamese, — that is to say, they can read and write awkwardly and imperfectly ; but one does not meet amongst them, as in Hindostan, with either dexterous scribes or clever accountants, — almost all their arithmetical calculations especially being made with the assistance of the Chinese Sanpan. Their education in the vernacular language, such as it is, appears to be casually acquired, for I could not learn that they had any schools for this special purpose. Some knowledge of the Bali tongue is also very generally disseminated, owing to the singular custom or institution which calls upon every individual of the male sex to de- vote some portion of his life to the priesthood. Every temple has a considerable library of Bali books, and the chiefs also have their private col- lection, which they are proud of exhibiting. That of the Pkraklafig, for example, was dis- played during the festivity of his son's inaugu- ration into the priesthood, upon an elevated AND COCHIN CHINA. 49 bench, along with English fowling-pieces, speci- mens of cut-glass, Chinese porcelain, and simi- lar objects. Of the degree of learning which the Siamese Talapoins possess in comparison with other priests of Buddha, I had no means of form- ing any judgment. Symes and Buchanan seem, to consider it as an acknowledged point, that the Siamese are more learned than the Burmans and Peguans, and the Siamese themselves are by no means backward in making such a claim. Whe- ther however from real inferiority, or from re-> spect to the classic land of Ceylon, they are ready tQ acknowledge their inferiority to the Cingalese. Of the Sanscrit language the priests of Siam know nothing* but by reputation, and no one could even be found at Bangkok who could read or write the Dewanagree character. The Tala- poins informed me that they had neither a gram* mar nor dictionary of the Bali, and that their acquisition of the language was consequently at. tended with much labour and difficulty. After these observations on the language and literature of the Siamese, I shall take the present opportunity of offering a few remarks on the affinity subsisting between the races of men which inhabit the wide regions betweea Bengal and ^ China; — rejecting, however, the Anam nation* which, owing to vicinity and frequent subjuga- tion to. China, has -stamped upon it to so great VOL. II. e 50 EMBASSY TO 8IAM a degree the type of the Chinese character, as necessarily to be separated from the rest of the group, although in all probability originally be* longing to it. The most civilized and leading nations within this wide range are the Burmans, the Siamese, and the Peguans. Next to them come the people of Kambqja, Lao, and Araean. those of Cassay, Champa, Cachar, and Assam, con- stitute a third order ; and then we . have a num- ber of petty races, in a savage or half savage state,— suclj as the Kyen, Karian, Law'a, K'ha, Chong, Moi, &c. &c The dialects of these nations bedr each mother a common resemblance in structure and in idiom. They have borrowed much from each other, yet appear radically distinct. The foreign tongues of which words are found most extensively in- termixed with them, are the Sanscrit, or rather Bali, and the dialect of the Chinese province of ' Canton, but the influence even of these appears to be merely extrinsic. In treating of the principal nations now re- ferred to, an important and interesting fact will soon present itself, viz. the striking accordance which they offer in all essential points amongst themselves, and their no less obvious dissimiti* tude to all other Asiatic races. They possess the same physical configuration; their languages ra- dically agree in structure and idiom; and their manners, habits, and usages, are alike. This pa- AXD COCHIN CHINA. 51 ralld may, without any violence, be extended to such matters as are little better than arbitrary or accidental. Thus, one form of religion, with scarcely a shade of difference, pervades all those that are civilized ; they have the same literature, the same laws, and the same civil and political institutions. It may farther be observed, that die history and revolutions of this group of nations have been confined to themselves ;— that their so- cial state has been very little influenced by stran- gers; and that judging from the evidence of Ian* guage, and the absence of historical monuments to prove otherwise, they appear never to have been subjected to foreign conquest, — an immu- nity, if it be one, which they owe to the strong natural barriers which have arrested the tide of conquest as well, as civilization to the east, the west, and the north. The great geographical dis- tance, and the trackless and impracticable wilder- nesses, which divide them from Tartary, have secured them from being overrun and subjugated by the invasions of the nomadic tribes of the north/ It is to similar causes they owe their in- dependence of the Chinese. The only external agencies which seem to have made a lasting im- pression upon them, are religion and commerce^ but Especially, the former. While secured, how- ever, from foreign aggression, their own history, from all that is known of it to Europeans, has presented a constant scene of internal warfare, £ 2 52 EMBASSY TO SI AM and of alternations of conquest and subjection ; in the course of which, the three most numerous and civilized tribes have taken the lead, viz. the Burmans, Peguans, and Siamese; while the se- condary nations, such as those of Aracan, Lao, and Kamboja, with the less civilized tribes, have stood neuter when permitted, or followed the fortunes of the temporary victor. In drawing the character of the Siamese, it cannot be denied but that the dark greatly over* balances the bright side. Judging from those with whom we held intercourse, I make no hesi- tation in confirming what has been often asserted of the Siamese by European writers, that they are servile, rapacious, slothful, disingenuous, pu- sillanimous, and extravagantly vain. Servility is of course to be expected as a neces- sary consequence of the rigid despotism by which the Siamese are weighed down. Subordination of rank is so rigorously marked in Siam, as to destroy all appearance of equality, and therefore all true politeness. Tow;ards their superiors, the conduct of the Siamese is abject in the extreme, and towards inferiors it is insolent or disdainful. This character seems indeed impressed even upon their external deportment. Their gait is not only never graceful, erect, or manly, like that of the military tribes of Western Asia, but on the contrary, always sluggish, ignoble, and crouch- ing. Perhaps the very attitudes in which sub- AND COCHIN CHINA. 53 mission to superiors is expressed, contributes to banish even the graces of external deportment; and it seems indeed impossible to associate any elegance of external manners, however superfi- cial, with the habitual practice of crawling upon knees and elbows, knocking the forehead against the earth, and similar observances.* The uni- versal disuse of wearing arms in Siam by the authority of the Government, and the substitu- tion, if not of law, at least of arbitrary autho- rity, for the private right of avenging wrongs, has in all probability a considerable effect upon the manners of the Siamese, rendering their demeanour less guarded and delicate than in conditions of society even less civilized, but where the habitual use of arms and the con- sequent fear of assassination beget a constrained politeness, and a fastidious impatience of affront and insult. . All the persons with whom the Mission had any intercourse displayed a singular share of ra- pacity, scarcely attempted to be disguised by * We had occasion to observe on the knees and elbows of some of our acquaintances the effects of this practice, in the black indelible scars with which they were marked. The effects of these repeated prostrations were particularly obvi- ous on the limbs of the Phraklang, whope duty led him, at least twice a day, to perform, them at the palace. The Chi- nese, I believe, are allowed on such occasions the use of pads for the protection of their limbs and garments; but such precaution on the part of the Siamese would be looked upon as intolerably disrespectful, and deserving of the bamboo. 54 EMBASSY TO MAM the thinnest veil of decorum. They asked with- out scruple for whatever there was the least chance of their obtaining, and were neither of- fended nor repelled by a refusal. The lower orders in this respect imitated their superiors, and never scrupled to beg for whatever struck their fancy. In our walks through the villages in the vicinity of Bangkok, we were frequently importuned for our pencil-cases, seals, watches, pocket handkerchiefs and neckcloths. Ofte mo- dest matron asked one of our gentlemen for his coat. He pointed out, as well as he could, that it would be inconvenient to return home with- out it. Not repelled by this objection, she point- ed to his shirt and waistcoat, informing him that these would be sufficient for so short a journey as he had to perform ! We found the chiefs, at least, as slow to give as they were ready to ask ; and the Court espe- cially, both in its intercourse with foreign na- tions and with strangers, exhibits the utmost paltryness in this respect. Any presents are re- ceived, however trifling, and a show is made of conferring a favour by making a return, — care being always taken, however, that a gain of thirty or forty per cent, shall be made by the transaction. Certainly not a vestige is to be found among the Siamese of the munificent liberality or prodigality which is so frequently AND COCHIN CHINA. 55 met with among the chiefs and princes of Wes- tern Asia. All their bounty appears to be be- stowed upon the Talapoins, and it seems as if they had no room for the exercise of liberality or charity in any other form. The Siamese appeared to us to exhibit in great perfection the indolence, disinclination to labour, contempt for the value of time, and dis- regard of punctuality . which are always so cha- racteristic of the subjects of a bad and barbarous government. In point of candour and sincerity, their character is eminently defective; and the impression left on our minds, from our inter- course with persons about the Court, was, that they had no conception of the advantages of a manly, direct, and upright conduct, and that they practised dissimulation and artifice to as great an extent as the natives of Hindostan, although not with one-half their dexterity. We found, indeed, no reason to dissent in this re- spect from the opinion which the Abb£ Gervaise expressed of them near a century and a half ago, — that they were universally given to dis- simulation, and that although " as enemies they were not dangerous, as friends they could never be relied upon." I make no question, from the little we saw of the Siamese, that they are generally destitute of personal courage. Cowed by the worst poli- tical institutions, and deprived of the liberty of 56 -EMBASSY TO SI AM wearing arms, the use of which, even" under arbi- trary governments, preserves to the individual some share of self-respect, and habitually accus- tomed to the infliction of the lash, it wOuld be strange, indeed, if it were otherwise. La Lou- bere insists that " the determined air of a single European, with a cane in his hand, is enough to make a score of them forget the most posi- tive orders of their superiors ;" and this is say- ing every thing of a people accustomed, under ordinary circumstances, to yield their leaders the most implicit obedience. The most distinctive features of the character of the Siamese, as well as the most unreasonable and unaccountable, is their national vanity. It is no exaggerated description of the excess of this folly, which is given by the Abb£ Gervaise, when he says, that " they commonly despise other nations, and are persuaded that the greatest in- justice in the world is done to them when their •pre-eminence is disputed." During our residence in Siam, we could obtain, neither by intreaty nor promise of reward, the services of the lowest of the people for menial purposes. On the day on which we were presented at court, it was made a matter of special favour to grant us a few bearers to carry our palanquins or litters, and it was with great difficulty that we afterwards obtained, and at exorbitant prices, a few rowers for our boats. The lowest peasant considers him- AND COCHIN CHINA. 57 self superior to the proudest and most elevated subject of any other country. They speak open- ly of themselves and their country as models of perfection ; and the dress, manners, customs, fe*. tures, and gait of strangers, are to them objects of ridicule. It is difficult to account for so great an excess of weakness and delusion, but no doubt the general causes are their ignorance of the world beyond themselves, their seeing no stran- gers but such as come to supplicate their govern- ment for favours, and the dominion and supe- riority which they have immemorially exercised over the barbarous and. inferior tribes which im- mediately surround them. From whatever cause it arises, there can be no question but that the Siamese, ignorant as they are in arts and arms; — without individual or national superiority,— half naked and enslaved, are yet the vainest peo- ple in the East. The virtues of a Siamese are all of a negative complexion, and the catalogue of them is brief. They are generally temperate and abstemious; placable, peaceable, and obedient. The temper- ance of such a people is in all probability thfe joint result of climate, constitution, and necessity* Religion prescribes a vegetable diet, and as the slaughter of animals is forbidden, one might ex- pect to find that animal food would be scrupu- lously rejected, as with the most rigid of the Hindoo castes. But this is far from being the 58 EMBASSY TO SIAM case ; for they use indiscriminately every sort of flesh, not rejecting from their diet such loath- some objects as dogs, cats, rats, lizards, &c pro- vided always that they have had no hand in the death, and that there be a plea for placing the sin at the door of another. The same is .the case in respect to wine and intoxicating drugs, which are strictly prohibited by their religion, and the inhibition enforced by the civil power. A strong passion for the use of ardent spirits ap- peared to us notwithstanding to be nowhere more general, and no present which we could make to the lower classes, was more acceptable than a supply of ardent spirits, for which we were secretly importuned whenever an occasion offer- ed. We saw, however, no excesses, and heard of none, and I am convinced that the Siamese are, upon the whole, a moderate and temperate people, although, at the same time, impure and indiscriminate in their diet, and uncleanly in their persons. The Siamese are favourably distinguished from their neighbours, the Malays, and other inferior tribes of the Eastern Islands, by the absence of that implacable spirit of revenge which forms so prominent a feature in the character of the latter. A Siamese, when wronged, seeks redress through his chief, and never attempts to retaliate with his own hand. Acts of desperation similar to the mucks committed by the Malays, are AND COCHIN CHINA. 59 never heard of amongst them, nor is the tran. quillity of the country disturbed by private feuds and animosities, as among more warlike and tur- bulent barbarians. The same spirit of forbear- ance, however, is by no means observed towards the public enemy, and their wars are conduct- ed with odious ferocity. Prisoners of rank are commonly decapitated, and those of the lower orders condemned to perpetual slavery, and la- bour in chains. . The peasantry of an invaded country armed or unarmed, men, women, and children, are indiscriminately carried off into ca- captivity, and the seizure of these unfortunate persons appears to be the principal object of the periodical incursions which are made into an enemy's territory. The peaceable and obedient habits of the peo- ple are sufficiently indicated by the security of life and property which exists in Siam, and are, at least, some compensation for the despotism to which they certainly owe their origin. A traveller accustomed to the insecurity and law- lessness which prevail to so great an extent in many other countries of Asia, reposes with some confidence and satisfaction in the security which he finds, at least at the capital of Siam and its neighbourhood. We walked for miles unarmed and unattended in the vicinity of Bangkok with* out receiving insult or offence from any one, and never for a moment suspected danger to 60 EMBASSY TO SIAl* our persons or property. I feel convinced that the property of a merchant or other stranger visiting Siam, is as secure from treachery or violence at Bangkok, either through the act of the government or of private individuals, as it would be in the best regulated city in Europe. In domestic life the character exhibited by the Siamese is, under all circumstances, com- mendable. Parental affection is strong, and per- haps too indulgent, and filial duty is prescribed even by the sanctions of religion, nor did we hear of any barbarous or revolting usages tend- ing to impair the force of these ties,. The Sia*. mese women are not immured as in many other Asiatic countries, nor rigorously excluded from the society of strangers of the other sex. The numerous wives of the Phraklang were in .the habit of passing and repassing our dwelling unveiled, and without any attempt at conceal- ment. On the river we often met large par- ties of females belonging to the families of the King and princes, sitting under canopies in their barges. On such occasions they drew aside the curtains to satisfy their curiosity, and af- forded us an ample opportunity of gratifying ours in return, for concealment was by no means , their object. Notwithstanding these outward ap- pearances, women are far from being treated with respect, but on the contrary are viewed, as in other barbarous countries, as beings of a lower AND COCHIN CHtNA. 61 order. It is but justice, however, to state, that we never saw them subjected to any species of brutality or ill treatment. The severe toil which they are compelled to undergo, for they per* form every description of outdoor and field la- bour, such as carrying burdens, rowing, plough- ing, sowing and harrowing, cannot fairly be quoted as examples of ill treatment towards them, for these labours fall naturally to their share, and are the necessary consequences of the conscrip- tion, which calls the men from their natural em- ployments to the worthless and unprofitable drud- gery of the State. As far as we could judge, the Siamese set no very high value on female virtue. The women, however, are not profligate, and at Bangkok they value themselves upon their chastity when compared with the Burman, Peguan, and Cochin Chinese women, who fur- nish the greater number of public prostitutes, a class sufficiently numerous. Divorces are fre- quent, being granted without difficulty, and on slight occasions. The punishment of adultery is hot heavy, being a pecuniary fine, varying ac- cording to the rank and wealth of the offender from two catties of silver (twenty pounds) to six catties (sixty pounds), or the substitution of imprisonment and the bamboo when the mulct is not forthcoming. Polygamy is allowed by the law atad religion of the country, and the rich indulge in it to the extent of their ability* 62 EMBASSY TO 81AM When we were in Siam, his -Majesty the King had three hundred wives, of one description or another ; and the Phraklang * forty. The in- dulgence, however, is far from; common, being of necessity limited by the small number of in- dividuals, in any state of society* capable of main- taining more than one family < M When I was in the country," says the Abb6 Gervaise, with much good sense, " they would have me to believe that the lower orders were chaste through virtue, be* cause polygamy was not common amongst them ; but, for my own part, I have always believed that it was not so, because the object was to save the expense of supporting many wives." The Siamese are a ceremonious people, at- taching, like most other Oriental nations, an undue and ridiculous importance to mere form and ceremonial, breaches of which are rather con- sidered in the light of political crimes than of- fences against mere etiquette. A Siamese seldom stands or walks erect ; and an inferior never does so in the presence of a superior. In the latter re- lation, the crouching attitude, as I have already described it, is the most frequent of all. The tenderest embrace between equals consists, as the language expresses it, in " smelling" the object of affection. This practice is common to them and many of the Indian islanders. Hugging is another practice frequent among friends, or where a profession of friendship is made. There was AND COCHIN CHINA. 68 not one of our own party, during our stay in Siam, who, at one time or another, was not sub- jected to this inconvenient ceremony. Our new acquaintances, who happened to take a fancy for us, generally conferred this mark of their regard in a very sudden and unexpected manner, and often in the public streets. They were com- monly persons from the country, and, as well as I can recollect, frequently natives of Lao. In drawing this unfavourable picture of the Siamese character, it should be recollected that our experience was very limited, being confined to the inhabitants of the capital, with a few oc- casional strangers. I was assured, on what I con- sidered good authority, that the character of the provincial inhabitants is much more favourable. EMBASSY TO SIAM . CHAPTER H. Buddhist religion. — Its doctrines and precepts.- Duties of the Talapoins. — History of the Buddhist religion.— Its effects on the character and manners of the people. — Government. — Attributes of the King. — Siamese nobility. — Division of the people and conscription. — Administration. — Revenue. — Arms and Insignia. — Law. — Written Code. — Evidence. —Contracts. — Inheritance. — M arri ages. — Mil itary force. The worship of Buddha is nearly universal in the countries lying between Bengal and Co- chin China. In its doctrine, practice, and mo- rality, it is the same religion that prevails in the island of Ceylon, but appears materially to differ from the Buddhism of Tartary, Hindo- \ start, China, Japan, and Anam, as will appear AND COCHIN CHINA. 65 « by the following short sketch of it. The lead- ing doctrine of the religion of Buddha is that of the transmigration of souls. Its followers believe in a kind of immortality of the soul, and in the doctrine of rewards and punishments after death : they are of opinion, that after a suitable number of transmigrations, and the practice of the requi- site virtues in each state, the souls of good men, after being received into a succession of heavens, will be at length admitted into a state of perfect felicity. This state, in which men are no longer born and no longer die, and are eman- cipated from the cares and passions of all other conditions of existence, is called in the popular language Ni-ri-pan, which is, I understand, a cor- ruption of the Pali word Pari-ni-pan, meaning " all extinguished." This is the abode of many worthies, whose histories are commemorated in Siamese legend, and Gautama himself occupies the highest place in it. The heavens and hells of the Siamese creed are numerous, but the exact number is not agreed upon. A well-informed Siamese assured me, that the number of hea- vens was twenty-two, of which six were supe- rior and sixteen inferior ; but he stated that the places of punishment amounted only to eight. The Siamese do not believe in one Supreme God, the Creator and Director of the Universe. It is not even easy to make them comprehend the abstract and refined notions of a Supreme Di- VOL. II. F 66 EMBASSY TO SI AM vinity. Prah-PakJcrom, the superior of the Phraklang's temple, conversing with me on this subject, said, there was no one greater than Gau- tama, and that even his power would expire in about five thousand years. They say, that the world was created by chance — that it will be de- stroyed — reproduced, and destroyed again, with* out end. They admit the existence of tutelary gods, and every spot has its own guardian di- vinity ; but these personages are of very infe- rior rank or power. They neither worship nor believe in the gods of the Hindoo Pantheon. They consider these as heroes, kings, and con- querors, and make them the subjects of their romances, their dramas, and their legends. They even exhibit them as paintings and sculptures upon the walls of their temples, but this affords no proof of their worshipping them ; for they exhibit, in the same situations, representations. of Europeans, of Persians, of Chinese, and other strangers, without intending them as any thing else than mere decorations of the buildings. . A person of good sense told me distinctly, that the Hindoo deities had been mere men like our* selves, and translated to heaven for great and good deeds. The Minister Suri-wung-Koaa. said, without scruple, in conversation upoh the subject, that the story of Rama was " full of falsehoods." The King of Siam, to whom Louis XIV. sent two missions, • and to AND COCHIN CHINA. ' 67 whom he made the indiscreet proposal of chang- ing his religion, had no scruple, while he firmly rejected that proposal, to hang up in a distin- guished part of his palace a portrait of Christ and the Virgin, which he had received as a pre- sent from his Holiness the Pope. It is obviously their indifference and want* of zeal which leads the Siamese into this course. The moral precepts of the Siamese are * con- tained in the following ten Commandments :— - 1. Do not slay animals. 2. Do not steal. 3. Do not commit adultery. 4. Do not tell lies, or back- bite. 5. Do r\6t drink wine. 6. Do not eat after twelve o'clock. 7. Do not frequent plays or pub- lic spectacles, or listen to music. 8. Do not use perfumes, or wear flowers or other personal orna- ments. 9. Do not sleep or recline upon a couch that is above one cubit high. 10. Do not borrow or be in debt. — The first five of these precepts are applicable to all mankind, but the rest im- perative only on the Talapoins. With the ex- ception of one or two of these axioms, founded on the inevitable and universal principles of na- tural ethics, they are either frivolous or ridicu- lous ; and the very first on the list, when con- trasted with their practice, goes far to justify the censure passed upon the Siamese by La Lou- bere, that they have " a greater horror of shed- dirtg blood than of committing murder." A strict observance of religious duties is ex- f 2 68 EMBASSY TO 81AM pected only from the priests. The laity, if they pay the customary honours to the Talapoins, be- stow daily alms upon them, make them gifts, observe the usual holidays, visit the temples, and if rich, endow temples and monasteries, imagine they perform every necessary duty of their situa- tion, and delegate all spiritual concerns to the priesthood, who, on their part, are commanded to abstain from all temporal occupations whatso- ever. Religion is a great business of life in Siam, and even the principal source of recreation and amusement. Every male in the kingdom must, at one period or another of his life, enter the priesthood, for however short a time. Even the King will be a priest for two or three days, going about for alms, like the rest, and the highest officers of the Government will continue in the priesthood for some months. This step, in short, seems to be looked upon as a sort of necessary spiritual confirmation. A man Inay enter the priesthood at whatever age he pleases, and also quit it whenever he is disposed. If a married man, however, he must previously obtain a di- vorce, and make an arrangement for the main- tenance of his family. If after entering the priesthood he quit it, and enter a second time, then he must continue in the order for life. The usual age of entering the priesthood, is that of puberty; but it is common to enter at all AND COCHIN CHINA. 69 ages, from this to twenty-one. I have described the ceremonies of ordination in another place, which consist of the tonsure of the party — ablu- tions—long prayers from the Talapoins — proces- sions — feasting, and the distribution of largesses to the priests and the poor, but chiefly to the former. The season for entering the priesthood, is the sixth, seventh, and eighth months of the year; and that for quitting it, the eleventh month. It happens, therefore, that from the eighth to the eleventh month the number of priests • is very great ; but from the eleventh to the sixth and seventh, it is much smaller ; for many, after making a short experiment of the monastic life, are, notwithstanding its immunities and distinc- tions, glad to return to the world, with all its ordinary cares and troubles, and the thousands superadded to it in Siam by a bad and tyrannical Government. The priests live together in monasteries, con- taining from ten to several hundred Talapoins. The monasteries are always attached to a temple, and consist of a regular series of cells on its out- skirts, generally encompassing one or more angles of the building. The Talapoins in Siam are di- vided into six grades. When they first enter the order, they are denominated Nen, that is, noviciates or scholars, and are promoted to higher ranks, according to their learning and standing. 70 EMBASSY TO. 6IAM Every monastery is under the direction of a superior or abbot, and the larger ones have also a prior. Under the direction of these dignita- ries, a regular system of subordination and dis- cipline is maintained. The superiors, however, can exercise no magisterial or judicial functions, and inflict no corporal punishment ; their autho- rity being confined to exhortation, reproof, or finally to expulsion. Each superior priest within the monastery has his own particular disciples, who pay him the same honours that a Hindoo scholar does to his Guru, or spiritual guide. Whenever they come into his* presence, for ex- ample, they prostrate themselves before him, touching the earth with their foreheads, as we had frequent opportunities of witnessing. Al- most all the education received by the male Siamese children is in this manner bestowed on them in the monasteries. In return, they per- form menial services to the priests; but I be- lieve that no very rigid discipline is insisted upon, for I have commonly seen the young idlers loitering about, doing nothing. They are fed in the monastery, as far as voluntary charity and its endowments • will afford, and the defi- ciency is made up by the parents. The greater number of the temples, with the monasteries attached to them, are endowed -by the Government, or by wealthy individuals, under whose immediate protection they are. The.. pa- AND COCHIN CHINA. 71 trons, or founders, give from time to time as- sistance, according to the measure of their piety and liberality, but casual alms and casual gifts form the principal support of the priests. As an example of the assistance given by the Go- vernment, it may be mentioned, that the Bang, besides keeping in repair the temple called that "of the people," makes an annual allowance of two thousand four hundred ticals to the priests and lay attendants. The Talapoins are enjoined to observe a strict celibacy, to refrain from all temporal occupation, to abstain from the use of wine and intoxicating drugs, and from destroying animal life ; while they are required to pass their time in seeking alms, in religious study, meditation, and prayer. Celibacy is one of the injunctions of their order, the most rigidly insisted upon, and by law the punishment of incontinence is death; although I believe, in Siam, it is usually commuted for de- gradation and expulsion from the order. No young female is to be seen near the temples. A Talapoin ought never to be seen in conversation with a woman, nor, if possible, looking at one. The exclusion from temporal employment is also very strict. A Talapoin can exercise no political or judicial functions. He is also precluded from -engaging in trade, or from performing any spe- cies of manual labour for hire or reward. Some of the more rigid will not even touch gold or 72 EMBASSY TO SIAM silver, and none of them can, or at least ought to have money in their possession. The only species of manual labour which I ever saw them perform, was rowing a boat when going in quest of alms, or performing the same office, or carry- ing a litter for an individual of very high rank of their own order. Even the study of the sci- ences and liberal arts is forbidden, as partaking too much of the profane business of the world. To betray any curiosity, indeed, respecting most of these things, would be a matter of scandal. The prohibition against the use of vinous and spirituous liquors, and intoxicating drugs, is ge- neral among all the followers of Buddha; and at Siam the Government feigns to take consider- able pains to enforce it. How the injunction is obeyed by the Talapoins in particular, I could not learn ; but to judge from our limited expe- rience, the passion for wine and spirits appeared to be nowhere stronger than amongst the lay Siamese. It is certain that the Government winks at the infringement of the law, and this too in a manner the most discreditable ; for a duty oil the manufacture and sale of ardent spi- rits constitutes one of the largest branches of the public revenue. The Talapoins, while they are enjoined to abstain from the use of ardent spirits, wine, and opium, partake freely of tobacco, and the preparation of betel and areca. The preservation of animal life is a necessary AND COCHIN CHINA. 73 and essential maxim arising out of the doctrines of the metempsychosis ; but in their observance of it, the Talapoins of Siam are inconsistent, if not hypocritical. They care not to what extent they are accessary to the death of any animal, provided they have no immediate hand in it; and will eat of almost any species of animal food whatever, whether the animal have died a na- tural or a violent death, and this too without asking any questions respecting it. At Bang- kok, pork is publicly hawked and cried every morning about the streets and on the river. Knox says, that the most reproachful epithet which the Cingalese applied to the Christians, was "beef-eating slaves." We found the Siam- ese more liberal. Some little difficulty was made about slaughtering the larger animals ; but when once killed, no troublesome questions were put. At the table of the Phraklang, we had abundance of poultry, pork, and beef, of which the Siamese chiefs, admitted to sit down with us, partook heartily. Some one indiscreetly asked how the beef was obtained. The Phraklang evaded the question, and requested the person who put it not to be so curious on such subjects. To this it may be added, that there is probably no coun- try in Asia of the same extent, in which so many wild animals are killed for profit Fish also forms a considerable article of the food of the people. These, they say, they do not kill, 74 EMBASSY TO SI AM but only draw out of the water. In war, the excuse is, that they do not aim directly at the enemy, but only fire at them. Any subterfuge, in short, appears to satisfy their easy consciences, and they seem determined to suffer no serious inconvenience from an over rigid adherence to this dogma. A Talapoin ought to be exempt from all worldly cares, and to busy himself respecting domestic concerns is entirely beneath his dig- nity. He ought neither to lay in a store of food, nor make any arrangement for preparing - it for use. It is this principle which makes beg- ging in a Talapoin honourable. They must not, however, ask for charity, but present themselves at the doors of the laity and expect it in silence as a matter of right, never condescending to thank the