ETUEMENT FAf^ ^Asr ''l»H^,_iK.:,5fP'*i«i'^, iiSr- Beta ISorit iDtatt CoIIesc of l^griculture St Cornell HBnthersitp 3tbaca, B. £. Cornell University Library JV 241.S6 European settlements in the Far East; Chi 3 1924 014 072 791 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014072791 EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN THE FAR EAST European Settlements IN THE Far East CHINA, JAPAN, COREA, INDO-CHINA, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, MALAY STATES, SIAM, NETHERLANDS INDIA, BORNEO, THE PHILIPPINES, ETC. WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS LONDON SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & COMPANY LIMITED Sit. SBunfitan'jfi Igoufie Fetter Lane, Fleet Street, E.C. 1900 LONDON: FBIKTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LISOTED, STAUFOKD STREET AND CHABIKG CB068. PREFATORY NOTE The frequent occurrence in the Press, on both sides of the Atlantic, of the phrases " Spheres of Influence " and " The Open Door ; " the great prominence given to the Far East, both politically and commercially, and the important part it seems destined to play in European politics in the near future, lead the com- piler to believe that this brief account of the European Settlements in the Far East will not be without interest to the political student, the merchant, and the public generally. It is also hoped that it will be of value to the ever- increasing army of travellers as a guide-book to many places which, although they lie out of the ordinary route, will well repay a visit. D. W. S. HoNO Kong, April, 1900. CONTENTS PAGE EASTERN SIBERIA 1 Vladivostook 3 NiCOLAJEWSK 5 JAPAN 7 Tokyo 21 Yokohama 25 Hakodate . . 28 Osaka 29 Kobe-Hyogo 30 Nagasaki . . 33 Formosa 35 Tamsui and Kelung 38 Tainan-pu, Takow, and Anpino 39 COREA ^41 Seocl 46 Chemulpo 48 WoNSAN (Gensan ok Yuenban) 49 FOSAN 51 MoKFO 52 Chinnampo 52 PmQYANG 53 EUNSAN . 53 Song Chin 54 CHINA 57 VUl CONTENTS PAGE Pekinq 71 Tientsin • 7* Taku ... 78 Pei-tai-ho 79 Newohwang .... 82 Talienwan 83 Port Arthde 83 Chefoo 84 Wei-hai-wbi 86 KlAOOHAU 87 Shanghai 88 SOOOHOW . 126 Ohinkiang 128 Nanking 129 WuHU 131 Kbwkiang 133 Hankow 134 YooHow .... 136 Shasi 139 Ichang 140 Chdnokins ... HI Hangohow .... 143 NiNGPO 145 WfiNOHOW 147 Bantu (Pdninq-pu) 148 FoooHow 149 Amot 152 SWATOW 154 Canton 15S Whampoa 160 Chinese Kowloon New Customs 161 Lappa 16i CONTENTS IX PAGE Samshdi 162 Wdchow-fc 162 KWANGCHAtrWAN 166 Pakhoi 167 HoiHow (vs Hainan) 168 LUNGCHOW . 170 MfiNGTSZ 171 HoKow 172 SZEMAO . . 173 HONGKONG 175 MACAO 213 INDO-CHINA 219 Tonkin 224 Hanoi 225 Haiphong 226 Annam . . . . 228 Hue 228 Pbovinces de l' Annam: Toitkane 229 Quinhon 231 Cochin-China . 231 Saigon 234 Cholon 235 Cambodia 236 SIAM 239 Bangkok 243 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS .....' 247 Singapore 250 Malacca .... 259 Penanq 261 JOHOBE 265 Fedeeated Malay States 267 X CONTENTS rAGB PAHANa 267 The Negri Seubilan 269 Sblanoob 270 Ferae 273 NETHERLANDS INDIA 277 Batavia . 290 buitbnzoeo 292 soerabaia 293 Semabano 294 Fadang 294 Maoassee 295 The East Coast op Sumatea 295 THE PHILIFPINES 299 Manila 307 Iloilo 311 Cebc 313 BORNEO 315 Sarawak 318 Beitisb Noeth Borneo 319 LAsrAN 322 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO FACE PAGE Shanghai Frontispiece Tokyo 16 Tokyo. Uyeno Park 22 Yokohama 24 Yokohama .... 26 Hakodate 23 Osaka 30 Kobe. The Bund 32 Nagasaki Harbour 34 Peking 72 Tientsin ... . . 74 KlAOCHAU 88 Shanghai. The Bond 104 Hankow ... 134 Hangohow 144 FoocHow ... 150 Amoy. Kulangsu 152 SWATOW 154 Canton. Flower Boats 156 Marble Bock. West Biyeb 156 Hongkong (Central) 178 Hongkong. Kowloon Peninsula 192 Hongkong Harbour 192 Macao 216 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Hanoi Haiphong Singapore. The Esplanade SiNGAPOBB. Johnson's Piee Malacca ,.'... JOHOBE Pbnang Labuan Thaipeno Batatia Chief Street in Sbmabang Manila Iloilo Cbbu ; PAGB 226 226 250 256 260 260 264 276 276 290 294 308 312 312 Map illustkating "European Settlements dj the Far Bast" EASTEKN SIBERIA EASTEEN SIBEEIA VLADIVOSTOCK This port, on some charts still called Port May, lies in latitude 43 deg. 7 min. N., and longitude 131 deg. 54 min. E., at the southern end of a long peninsuLi reaching into Peter the Great Bay. Of the ports in East Siberia it is by far the most important, both as a military and commercial centre. It is a free port except that duties have to be paid on the following articles : — Alcoholic liquors, tobacco, matches, kerosine oil, var- nishes, sugar, leaf tea, and sweetmeats. Vladivostock is one of the most magnificent harbours in the East. From its peculiar long and narrow shape, and the once supposed hidden treasures in the slightly auriferous soil of its surrounding hills, it has not inappropriately been called the Golden Horn. The entrances to the harbour are hidden by Dundas Island, which divides the fairway into two narrow passages. This fine sheet of water first runs for about half a mile in a northern direction, and then suddenly bends to the east for a distance of about one mile. On all sides it is sur- rounded by hills, low on the southern and higher on the northern shore, and which slope sharply down to the water's edge. These hills, once verdant with foliage, have been completely denuded of trees by reckless B 2 4 EASTERN SIBERIA felling. The harbour, capable of accommodating an almost unlimited number of vessels of deep draught and large < capacity, affords a safe anchorage. It is usually icebound in January and February, but steamers can almost always find their way in with the assistance of an ice-breaker. There is a floating dock capable of taking in vessels up to 3000 tons, and a fine graving dock was opened on the 13th October, 1897. The dimensions of this new dock are : — Length over all, 625 feet ; length at bottom, 555 feet ; breadth, 120 feet ; breadth at entrance, 90 feet ; depth, 30 feet. The port, the chief naval station of Kussia on the Pacific, is commanded by an Admiral appointed from home, and there is also a military Governor, residing at Vladivostock, who is in command of the forces spread over the South Ussuri district. The municipal affairs of the town are managed by a Mayor and Town Council elected by and from among the Eussian civil com- munity. The town is built on the southern slope of the hiUs running along the northern shore of the harbour, and handsome brick residences have been erected in recent years, replacing the older wooden structures. The entire area, with the exception of some unoccupied lots intervening here and there, is covered by buildings ; and the town is well laid out with wide but ill-kept roads. The sanitary arrange- ments are bad, though the town is fairly healthy. Most conspicuous among the buildings are the Govern- ment offices, the barracks, the railway station, the museum, the Eussian church, the Governor's residence and that of the Admiral commanding, which is sur- rounded by a Public Garden, while the houses of the more affluent merchants are well and substantially built. In the I'ublic Garden tlie naval band plays twice a week during the summer. There is a Naval Club, to which civilians are admitted as non-voting members, two or three hotels, a gymnasium or school for boys, an institute for girls, and military and naval hospitals. The town has a population of about 30,000, NICOLAJEWSK 5 most of whom are of European extraction. The retail trade is principally in the hands of Germans and Chinese, and the port is one of importance, British, German, and Japanese steamers doing most of the carrying trade, and the port is the terminus of the Eussian Volunteer Fleet. A large garrison is main- tained, and the total number of troops in Vladivostock and the neighbourhood is believed to amount to not much less than 100,000, but exact figures are not obtainable. In June, 1891, the Czarewitch cut the first sod of the Vladivostock section of the Siberian Kailway, which is now approaching completion. The railway extends to a distance of about 250 miles, the accommodation and service are very good, and the fares very reasonable. NICOLAJEWSK The port and settlement of Nicolajewsk, founded in 1851 by Admiral Nevelskoi, is situated on the river Amur, about 29 miles from its mouth. The Amur is here about nine miles in width, with a depth in mid- stream of eight to nine fathoms and a current of three to four knots, thoiigh the river is very shallow in parts, even in mid-stream. It is navigable for vessels of light draught for more than 2000 miles, and vessels of 12 feet draught can get up 600 miles. The town is built on a plateau 50 feet above the sea level, and gradually slopes down to the river to the eastward. The most conspicuous edifice is the Cathedral, round which the town is built. This structure is imposing in appearance, with a large west tower, having belfry and dome, but it is built of wood and is already showing signs of deterioration. At the back of the Cathedral is a large grass-grown square, two sides of which are occupied by Barracks, Governor's House, and Police Station. There are few substantial houses in the town. 6 EASTERN SIBERIA except those used as public buildings or stores, and the buildings are small and wholly built of wood. There is little trade except in fish, quantities of salmon being dried and cured here. Since the naval and military headquarters were transferred to Vladivostock the place has declined in importance. JAPAN JAPAN Constitution and Government. The government of the Japanese Empire was formerly that of an absolute monarchy. In the year 1868 the now ruling sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the power of the Shogun, together with that of the Daimios, or feudal nobles, who, on the 25th June, 1869, resigned their lands, revenues, and retainers to the Mikado, by whom they were permitted to retain one-tenth of their original incomes, but ordered to reside in the capital in future. The sovereign bears the name of Emperor ; but the appellation by which he is generally known in foreign countries is the ancient title of Mikado. Mutsu-hito, the reigning monarch, was born at Kyoto, on November 3rd, 1852 ; succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, 1867 ; married December 28th, 1868, to Princess Haru-ko, born April 17th, 1850, daughter of Prince Itchijo. The reigning Emperor is the 121st of an unbroken dynasty, which was founded 660 B.C. By the ancient and regular law of succession the crown devolves upon the eldest son, and, failing male issue, upon the eldest daughter of the sovereign. This law has often been disregarded in consequence of the partiality of the monarch or the ambition of powerful ministers, which was one of the principal causes that culminated in the dual system of government in Japan. The throne has frequently been occupied by a female. A new law of succession was promulgated in February. 1889, which excludes females from the Imperial throne. lO JAPAN The power of the Mikado was formerly absolute, but its exercise was controlled to some extent by custom and public opinion. His Majesty, in 1875, when the Senate and Supreme Judicial Tribunal were founded, solemnly declared his earnest desire to have a constitu- tional system of government. The Mikado has long been regarded as the spiritual as well as the temporal head of the Empire, but although the Shinto faith is held to be a form of national religion, the Emperor does not interfere in religious matters, and all religions are tolerated in Japan. The Ecclesiastical Department was, in 1877, reduced to a simple bureau under the control of the Minister of the Interior. The Mikado acts through an Executive Ministry divided into nine departments, namely : — Gwaimu Sho (Foreign Affairs), Naimu Sho (Interior), Okura Sho (Finance), Kaigun Sho (Navy), Eikugun Sho (Army), Shiho Sho (Justice), Mombu Sho (Education), Noshomu Sho (Agriculture and Commerce), and Teishin Sho (Communications). In 1888 a Privy Council, modelled on that of Great Britain, was constituted. The new Constitution, promised by the Mikado in 1881, was proclaimed on the 11th February, 1889, and in July, 1890, the first Parliament was elected and met on the 29th November. The Parliamentary system is bicameral, the House of Peers and the House of Representatives constituting the Imperial Diet. The Upper House is partly elective, partly hereditary, and partly nominated. The Lower House consists of 300 members, to be elected by ballot, and its duration is fixed at four years, but in case of necessity the term may be prolonged. The Emperor nominates the Ministers forming the Cabinet, and there is no recognition of the responsibility of the Cabinet to the Diet. The Empire is divided for administrative purposes into three Fu, or cities (Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka), and forty-three Ken, or prefectures, including the Loochoo Islands, which have been converted into a ken and named Okinawa. The island of Yezo is under a JAPAN 1 1 separate administration called Hokkaido-cho, and For- mosa is governed as a colony. These fu and ken are governed by prefects, who are all of equal rank, are under control of the Naimu Sho, and have limited powers, being required to submit every matter, unless there is a precedent for it, to the Minister of the Interior. Nor have they any concern in judicial pro- ceedings, which come under the cognizance of the forty-eight Local Courts and the seven Supreme Courts at Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Miyagi, and Hakodate, over which the Daishin In presides at Tokyo. Previous to the last change of Government, which restored the ancient Imperial regime, the administra- tive authority rested with the Shogun (Military Com- mander), whom foreigners were at first led to recognize as the temporal sovereign, and with whom they negotiated treaties of peace and commerce. The Shogunate was founded in 1184 by Yoritomo, a general of great valour and ability, and was continued through several dynasties until 1869,,when the Tokugawa family were dispossessed of the usurped authority. Under the Shogun three hundred or more Daimios (feudal princes) shared the admioistrative power, being practically supreme in their respective domains, conditionally upon their loyalty to the Shogun ; but their rank und power disappeared with the Shogunate. On the 7th July, 1884, however, His Majesty issued an Imperial Notifi- cation and Eescript rehabilitating the nobility, and admitting to its ranks the most distinguished civil and military officials who took part in the work of the Eestoration. The old titles were abolished, and have been replaced by those of Prince {Ko), Marquis (Ko), Count {Haku), Viscount {Shi), and Baron {Ban). Eevenue and Expenditure. In the Budget for 1899-1900 the estimate of revenue amounts to 188,930,635 yen, while the expenditures aggregate 218,807,147 yen, showing a deficit of 1 2 JAPAN 29,870,512 yen. The deficit is provided for in a special budget. Compared with the previous year the revenue has decreased by 60,904,444 yen and the expenditures by 9,740,788 yen. Of the revenue 143,501,401 yen belong to the ordinary and "45,429,234 yen to the extra- ordinary section. In the extraordinary section a decrease of 83,038,004 yen is noticeable in the amount of public loans, appropriations from the Indemnity, supplements to shipbuilding fund, sums brought forward from the previous year, expenses disbursed in connec- tion with the garrison of Weihaiwei, etc. Of the expenditure 139,718,500 yen belong to the Ordinary and 79,088,646 yen to the extraordinary section. Included in the extraordinary expenditure are votes for military and naval expansion, under the Military and Naval extension schemes. These schemes are divided into two periods, the first period programme and the second period programme, begiiming with 1st April, 1896, and terminating 31st March, 1906, and the in- tended expenditure is as follows : — Army, first period, 43,329,400 yen ; second period, 38,350,000 yen ; total, 81,679,400 yen. Navy, first period, 116,086,400 yen ; second period, 144,618,770 yen ; total, 260,705,170 yen ; making a grand total for Army and Navj' of 342,384,570. The first period army programme is divided into five headings, namely, construction of forts, building and equipment of barracks, manufacture of arms, develop- ment of arsenals, and extraordinary constructions ; in the second period programme only the first three items appear. In the ordinary expenditure there is also a large increase in the Army and Navy votes to provide for the increase in the number of the officers and men. In 1899 a sterling loan of £10,000,000 was issued. The loan is for 55 years, from January 1st, 1899, but is redeemable at £100 per cent, after January 1st, 1909, by drawings from time to time at the option of the Government of Japan, on their giving six months' notice. The rate of interest is 4 per cent., and the loan was issued at £90 per £100. The proceeds of the loan JAPAN 13 are to be applied towards the completion of the various remunerative public works cited in the following Acts of Parliament : — Eailway Construction Loan of 1892, Public Undertakings Loan of 1896, Hokkaido Eailway Construction Loan of 1896, the law relating to the placing of a public loan in a foreign country of 1899. The expenditure under these Acts is estimated to be as follows : — £8,900,000 for railway construction and im- provement ; £900,000 for establishment of steel works ; £1,000,000 for extension of the telephone service. On March 31st, 1899, before the issue of the last loan, the national debt stood as follows : — Funded debt, £39,125,000 ; debt to the Bank of Japan, £2,200,000 ; paper money (for the redemption of which by March 31st, 1900, provision has been made), £511,000 ; total, £41,836,000. On this it was remarked in the prospectus of the 1899 loan that "The amount of debt, therefore, is 18s. per head of the population," but against this the State owns assets (railways, telegraphs, telephones, etc.) valued at £30,000,000 sterling, and lands valued at about £82,000,000 " (exclusive of timber)." The total debt now stands at £51,836,000. Akmy and Navy. Until the war with China, the Army consisted of six divisions and the Imperial Guards, with a peace footing strength of 70,000 in round numbers and a war footing of 268,000, exclusive of the Gendarmerie and the Ezo Militia ; but on the conclusion of the war a large scheme of expansion was adopted, under which the number of divisions is to be raised to twelve, exclusive of the Guards, so that the peace footing will be 145,000, and the war footing 520,000, the expansion to be con- cluded in eight years from 1896. At the conclusion of the war with China, Japan found herself in possession of a lighting fleet of forty-three serviceable vessels — independent of twenty-six torpedo boats— their aggregate displacement being 78,774 tons. 14 JAPAN Of these, ten, with an aggregate displacement of 15,055 tons, had been captured from .China — namely, an armour-clad turret-ship of 7335 tons, two steel cruisers, six steel gunboats, and one wooden gunboat. (Prior to the capture of the Chen-yuen, now called the Chin-yen, Japan did not possess a line-of-battle ship. Her fleet consisted entirely of comparatively small vessels.) There were also on the stocks two steel cruisers and a steel despatch vessel. An expansion scheme, extending from 1st April, 1896, to 31st March, 1906, was then adopted and is now being carried out, vessels being in course of construction in Great Britain, the United States, France, and Germany, as well as in the home yards. The building programme is as follows : — 4 first-class battle-ships of 15,240 tons each, 6 first- class cruisers of 9200 tons each, 3 second-class cruisers of 4850 tons each, 2 third-class cruisers of 3200 tons each, 3 torpedo-gunboats of 1200 tons each, 1 torpedo depot-ship, 11 torpedo-boat destroyers, 89 torpedo-boats. If these ships be added to the strength of the Navy at the date of the commencement of the expansion scheme, it results that the total force in 1906 wOl be 6 first-class battle-ships from 12,510 to 15,240 tons, 1 second-class battle-ship of 7335 tons, 6 first-class armoured cruisers of over 9200 tons each, 7 second-class cruisers of over 4000 tons each, 6 tliird- class cruisers of over" 3000 tons each, 12 fourth-class cruisers of over 1500 tons each, 3 torpedo gunboats of 1200 tons each, 1 torpedo depot-sliip of 6750 tons, 11 torpedo-boat destroyers, 115 torpedo-boats, 2.j gun- boats, sloops, etc. The battle-ships Fuji and Yashima, built in England, arrived in Japan in the latter part of 1897. The Fuji is somewhat after the Boyal Sovereign type ; she has a displacement of 12,450 tons, and engines of 14,000 horse-power, and carries a powerful armament. Acting on the experience gained at the engagement at Yalu, especially of the (fisastrous effects of shell fire from macliine guns, metal has been substituted for wood wherever possible, even in the light cabin and JAPAN 15 seamen's quarters fittings ; and there are armoured screens everywhere. There are two barbettes plated with 14-in. armour, a conning tower forward also 14 in. thick, and the director tower aft 3 in. thick. The deck is armoured all over, terminating in a formidable ram at the bows, the best Harveyed armour being used in construction. The Yashima is a sister ship to the Fuji. The Tahusago, an Elswick-built cruiser of 4300 tons, carrying a powerful armament and having a speed of twenty-four knots, arrived in 1898. The sister ships, Asama and the Tokiwa, first-class cruisers of 9855 tons, built in England, and five torpedo-boat destroyers, arrived in 1899. The Kasagi, 4978 tons, and the Chitose, 4836 tons, second-class cruisers, built in the United States, with English armament, also arrived in 1899. Population, Teade, and Industry. The total area of Japan, exclusive of Formosa, is estimated at 156,604 square miles, and the population, according to census returns taken in December, 1898, was43,228,863, namely, 21,823,651 males and21,405,212 females. The increase during the last ten years has slightly exceeded one per cent, per annum. The empire is geographically divided into the four islands : Honshiu, the central and most important territory ; Kiushiu, "nine provinces," the south-western island ; Shikoku, " the four provinces," the southern island ; and Yezo, the most northerly and least developed. The former three islands are sub-divided into eight large roads, containing sixty-six provinces, and the latter (Yezo or Hokkaido) is divided into eleven provinces. Administratively, as before mentioned, the Empire is divided into fu and ken, each ken containing more than one province. The total value of the foreign trade for the last six years was ; — 1 6 JAPAN Exports Imports 1893. Yen. ... 89,712,864 ... 88,257,172 1894. Yen. 213,146,086 117,481,955 1899. Yen. 136,112,178 129,260,578 Total ... 177,970,036 230,728,041 265,372,756 Exports Imports 1896. Yen. ... 117,842,761 ... 171,674,474 1897. Yen. 163,135,077 219,300,772 1893. Ten. 165,753,753 277,502,156 Total ... 289,517,235 382,435,849 443,255,909 The export of raw silk (not including waste) in- creased from 2,110,315 catties in 1890 to 5,810,046 in 1895, fell to 3,918,994 in 1896, rose again to 6,919,861 in 1897, but fell to 4,837,329 catties in 1898. The export of tea has shown a slow but steady decline during late years ; it amounted to 38,826,661 catties in 1895, 33,241,472 in 1896, 32,632,683 in 1897, and 30,826,632 in 1898. The export of coal and coal dust in 1898 was 1,805,364 tons, and 381,426 tons for ships' use, against 1,530,147 tons and 572,865 tons for ships' use in 1897. The export of matches has steadily increased. It was 22,078,362 gross in 1898, against 19,543,646 in 1897, 17,979,849 in 1896, 16,914,027 in 1895, and 13,843,022 in 1894. Of imports, raw cotton increased from 521,417 piculs in 1890 to 1,551,527 in 1895, 1,765,550 in 1896, 2,298,643 in 1897, and 2,553,586 piculs in 1898; showing the rapid progress the country is making in supplying herself with the manufactured goods she requires. 14,591,083 catties of cotton yarn were im- ported in 1895, 20,014,128 in 1896, 16,090,8oo in 1897, and 15,929,991 in 1898. There was a continuous in- crease in the importation of cotton piece goods, from a value of yen 4,789,240 in 1892 to yen 11,843.001 in 1896, but a fall to yen 9,920,046 in 1897, and although the imports in 1898 increased to yen 11,332,627, the amount is under that of 1896, an inevitable result of the establishment of so many mills in the country and in its near neighbour China. Woollen goods were im- ported to the value of yen 7,982,882 in 1894, yen JAPAN 17 12,780,326 in 1895, and yen 18,268,460 in 1896 ; but 1897 showed a marked reverse, the value in that year being yen 12,009,902, while 1898 showed only a slight improvement, namely, to yen 13,069,780. Metals have shown a steady increase from yen 6,792,024 in 1893 to yen 17,553,543 in 1896, yen 20,306,841 in 1897, and yen 23,646,159 in 1898. The importation of kerosine oil rose from 32,689,275 gallons in 1892 to 54,692,886 in 1896, 61,058,217 in 1897, and to 67,905,455 in 1898. Sugar imported showed a steady increase from 1,675,315 piculs in 1891 to 2,333,528 in 1896, 3,314,512 in 1897, and to 4,473,153 piculs in 1898. The trade of 1898 was divided between the Treaty Ports as under : — Exports Imports Total Yokohama. Kobe. Nagasaki. Osaka. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. ... 80,312,435 60,119,645 6,587,276 3,165,082 .. 111,014,140 138,133,797 19,698,645 3,555,937 Exports Imports Total 191,326,575 108,253,442 26,285,921 6,721,019 Hakodate. Y'en. .. 1,248,719 820,020 .. 2,068,739 Other ports. Totals. Yen. Yen. 14,320,596 165,753,753 4,279,617 277,502,156 18,600,213 443,255,909 The following was the total value of the trade with foreign countries in 1898 : — Exports. Imports. Total. Yen. Yen. Yen. United States of America 47,311,155 40,001,098 87,312,253 Great Britain 7,783,643 62,707,573 70,491,216 C!ontinent of Europe and Russian Asia 29,313,751 43,756,148 73,069,899 China 29,193,175 30,523,861 59,717,036 India, Australia, and Canada 10,495,750 42,324,670 52,820,420 Hongkong 31,473,896 15,904,467 47,378 363 Corea 5,844,332 4,796,032 10,640,364 Philippines and SJam 157,153 7,467,792 7,624,945 Other countries 1,223,797 30,020,515 31,244,312 Coal, etc., for ships' use ... 2,957,101 165,753,753 2,957,101 277,502,156 443,255,909 C i8 JAPAN The following table shows the total values of goods exported in 1898 : — Bamboo and bamboo Yen. Paper ware YeD. 440,686 ware 859,399 Porcelain and earth- Camphor and cam- enware 1,990,781 phor oil 1,257,023 Rice 5,920.185 Oarpets 850,759 Screens 346,085 Coal and coke 12,450,626 Seaweed 711,291 „ for Bhips' use . . . 2,928,177 Shellfish 641,012 Cotton yarn 20,130,485 Silk, floss silk, and Cotton and cotton cocoons 44,801,020 piece goods 3,547,560 Silk manufactures . . . 16,816,136 Cuttlefish 1,268,257 Skins, hair, shells. Drags, medicines, horn, etc. 799,319 dyes, etc 707,402 Straw-plaits 2,404,003 Fans 539,627 Sulphur 477.013 Ginseng 423,837 Tea 8,215,665 Glass ware 320,944 Textile fabrics, cloth- Grain, beverages, and ing, etc 1,180,739 provisions 3,012,638 Timber, wood, and Kanten or ooUe vege- planks 462,507 tale 611,336 Tobacco and manu- Lacquered ware . . . 783,198 factures of 237,057 Matches 6,273,949 Umbrellas 717,375 Mushrooms 631,924 Sundries 3,396,811 Mats for floor 3,938,450 Duty-free goods ... 1,814,064 Metals (mostly cop- Be-exported articles 2,850,540 per) Oil and wax 8,845,087 1,191,926 165,753,753 Paper and books ... 958,860 The Imports in 1898 are classified by the Department of Finance as — Yen. Alcohol 2,699,982 Aniline dye ... 1,218,842 Arms and munitions of war 1,936,686 Beans, peas, and pulse 7,101,103 Beverages and pro- visions 2,824,798 Books and stationery 488,745 Clothing and apparel 1,061,444 Cotton, raw 45,744,371 Cotton yarn 8,547,588 Cotton piece goods ... 9,884,340 Drugs, medioinea, and ohemicBls 5,219,391 Yen. Dyes and paints ... 1,670,938 Dynamite 507,591 Flax, hemp,and manu- factui-esof ... 1,086,914 Flour 2,031.82.-) Gloss and gltvas ware 917,237 Grain and seeds ... 884,579 Hair, horns, ivory, skins, etc 3,077,509 Indigo 2,270,814 Kerosineoil 7,552,879 Locomotive engines 4,265,854 Machinery, instm- ments, etc, ... 7,224,888 JAPAN 19 Yen. Yen. Machinery (spinning) 3,088,762 Sugar 28,619,563 Metals and manufac- Textile fabrics (mis- tures of 23,676,063 cellaneous) 3,252,062 Oil and wax (ex. kero- Tobacco, cigars, and sine) 1,000,691 cigarettes 6,639,436 Oil-cakes 4,614,967 Vessels, steam and Paper 3,520,731 sailing 7,508,394 Portland cement 827,209 Watches and clocks 3,313,610 Railway carriages . . . 497,179 Wines and liquors ... 1,398,338 Rice 48,219,810 Wool and manufac- Silk and silk manu- tures of 13,069,870 factures 1,920,492 Sundries 7,419,488 Steam boilers and pn- gines 697,173 277,502,156 The total Shipping, including junks, from and to foreign countries, for the year 1898 was — Entered. Tonnage. Cleared. Tonnage. Total. Tonnage. Steamers ... 2035 3,174,516 2152 3,322,434 4187 6,496,950 Sailing vessels 1339 207,047 1383 211,026 2722 418,073 3374 3,381,563 3535 3,533,460 6909 6,915,023 2400 steamers of 4,621,052 tons and 25 sailing vessels of 30,629 tons entered, and 2308 steamers of 4,489,646 tons and 21 sailing vessels of 27,179 tons cleared in the coast trade between the open ports. Of this tonnage employed coastwise 54 per cent, was under the British flag and 27 per cent. Japanese vessels employed in foreign trade. The merchant vessels entered from foreign countries in 1898 were divided among the different nationalities as under : — steamers. Tonnage. Sailing. Tonnage. Total. Tonnage. British 712 1,408,160 59 92,577 771 1,500,737 Japanese (excluding junks) 701 845,458 149 16,073 850 861,531 German 240 329,447 17 31,700 257 361,147 Norwegian ... 148 152,904 2 2,100 150 155,004 Russian 93 175,192 17 1,438 110 176,630 United States of America ... 43 101,047 20 39,203 69 140,250 French 31 64,860 1 1,229 32 66,089 Austrian 16 41,940 — — 16 41,940 Other countries ... 51 55,508 4 2,421 55 57,929 2035 3,174,.'il6 275 186,741 2310 3,361,257 20 JAPAN The total Customs Eevenue for the same year con- sisted of — Export Duties, yen 2,080,072; Import Duties, yen 6,280,620 ; Miscellaneous, yen 314,207 ; Total, yen 8,674,899. The revenue has doubled since 1887. By treaties made with a number of foreign govern- ments the Japanese ports of Kanagawa (Yokohama), Nagasaki, Kobe, Hakodate, Niigata, and the cities of Tokyo (formerly called Yedo) and Osaka were thrown open to foreign commerce. In 1894 a new treaty was signed with Great Britain by which extraterritoriality was abolished and the whole country opened to foreign trade and residence, the treaty to come into force in July, 1899, provided similar treaties were effected with the other Powers. This was done, and extraterritoriality ceased to exist on August 4th, 1899. Eailways are being rapidly pushed forward, the mileage having risen from 2136 miles in March, 1894, to 4200 miles in March, 1899. The State owns 1000 miles of the above 4200 miles of railway. Currency. From October, 1897, Japan placed her currency on a gold basis. The unit of value is a gold dollar weighing ■8333 grammes and containing "75 grammes of fine gold. The conversion from silver to gold was effected at the ratio of 1 to 32-348. Education. Education is very general in Japan, and is making great progress. There are numerous Middle Schools, Normal Schools, and Colleges for special studies, such as Law, Science, Medicine, Mining, Agriculture, and Foreign Langunges, and several Female High Schools have been established, and are carefully fostered by the Government. In order to facilitate the prosecution of foreign studies the Government of the Mikado has TOKYO 2 1 engaged many European professors, and also sent, at the public expense, a large number of students to America and Europe. TOKYO The capital of Japan [until the Eestoration called Yedo] is situated at the north of the Bay of Yedo, has a circumference of 27 miles, and covers a surface of nearly 36 square miles. The Sumida, or Okawa (Great Eiver), runs through the city, dividing Tokyo proper from the districts on the east side called Honjo and Fukagawa. Tokyo as viewed from the bay is a pleasant-looking city, being well situated on undulating ground, and possessing abundant foliage. The city is divided into fifteen grand divisions, and its suburbs into six divisions. It is, in fact, more like an aggregation of towns than one great city. The Castle of Tokyo occupies a com- manding position on a hill a little to the westward of the centre of the city. It is enclosed in double walls, and surrounded by a fine broad moat. Within the Castle formerly stood the Imperial Palace and several public offices, but the destructive fire of the 3rd April, 1872, levelled these ancient and massive buildings, leaving only the surrounding lofty turrets and walls. A new Palace on the old site has been constructed, and the Mikado took up his residence there in January, 1889. The Imperial Garden called Pukiage is situated within the enclosure of the Castle. It is tastefully laid out in the pure native style, and contains fine forest trees, rare and beautiful plants of all kinds, a large pond, cascades, etc., and is most carefully kept. This fine garden well repays inspec- tion, and admission can be obtained by visitors with orders granted by the Department of tlie Imperial Household. Between the Castle and the outer walls, a large area 2 2 JAPAN was formerly occupied by the numerous palaces of the Daimios, but nearly all these feudal erections have now given place to smart brick or stone buildings, used as Public Offices, Barracks, Government Schools, etc., so that at the present time very few of the Daimios' palaces remain to illustrate what old Yedo was like in the time of the Shogunate. Some of those that remain, near the Castle, have been converted into Government Offices. They are large, long buildings of a single high story, plain, but substantial, with no pretensions to architecture, but interesting as reminis- cences of feudal Japan. The remaining portion of the city outside the walls is very densely inhabited, and may be called the com- mercial district of Tokyo. It has a circumference of 24 miles, and covers an area of about 29 square nules. The most important part of the business quarter is on the east of the Castle, and is traversed by a main street running from the north to the south-west under different names. A considerable length of this thoroughfare, which is called Ginza, is lined with newly built brick buildings in the European style ; the road is wide and well kept, the pavement broad and planted with trees on either side. As it is in close contiguity to the principal railway station, it is always very animated and thronged with vehicles and foot passengers. The north end of the main street leads to the new public park or garden named Uyeno, which was formerly occupied by the magnificent Temple founded and main- tained by the Shoguns, and which was destroyed by fire during the war of Restoration in July, 1868. In these grounds the Industrial Exhibition of 1877 was erected, when the gardens were converted into a public pleasure resort by the Government. Several exhibitions have since been held here and have proved very successful. In Uyeno is also situated the fine Imperial Museum (Haku-butsu-kwan). Among the places much resorted to by visitors is the ancient temple of Kwannon, at Asakusa, not far from TOKYO 23 Uyeno, one of the most popular and most frequented temples in Japan. The temple is elevated about 20 feet from the ground. A flight of steps gives access to the interior. There is a chief altar at the extreme end of the temple, with side chapels at its right and left, containing a great number of wooden images and ex votos. The interior is not very large, and is not so conspicuous for cleanliness as most of the public buildings in Japan. At the right of the temple there is a fine old Pagoda, and near it two colossal stone statues. A new park was also opened close to the temple about the same time as that of Uyeno. Thus, with Shiba, in the south-west, where are to be seen some of the splendid shrines of the Shoguns, among the chief glories of Tokyo, there are three large public gardens within the city. The build- ings which are called the Temple of Confucius were formerly the University of Tokyo, but this has been superseded since the Eestoration by the Teikoku Dai- gaku and other schools in which foreign instructors are employed. There are altogether 1275 temples in Tokyo, some of which are fine edifices. The building in which the Imperial Diet meets is a plain edifice, and is only intended for temporary use. The districts of Honjo and Fukagawa form the quiet portion of the capital. This quarter is connected with Tokyo proper by five great bridges, some of which are constructed of iron and some of wood. They are called, commencing on the north, Adsuma-Bashi, Umaya- Bashi, Eyogoku-Bashi, 0-Hashi, and Eitai-Bashi re- spectively. The quay on the banks of the Sumida forms a spacious and handsome street, and may be especially recommended to a traveller who has only a few days to spend in Tokyo. In passing along the quay he will see across the stream several fine temples and great buildings which stand on the western banks of the Great Eiver, and he may get at the same time a very good idea of the animated river-life of the Sumida, whose waters are always covered with junks and boats of all descriptions. 24 JAPAN A great part of the remaining area forming the district north of the Castle is covered by paddy-fields, in the midst of which rise picturesquely situated houses. There are also extensive pleasure-gardens, such as Asuka-yama, and neat little villages. The part west of the Castle contains fifty temples, and a number of nobles' palaces. The district on the south of the Castle, with an area of about VJ\ square miles, contains about sixty temples. The most remarkable among them is Yutenji in Meguro. Several great fires have during the last two decades or so swept Tokyo, and these have led to great improve- ments and widening of the streets. Rows of good houses in brick and stone, and new bridges, in many cases of iron or stone, have been built, and the city has in many portions been thoroughly modernised. Tramways have been laid and the cars are usually crowded with passengers. The main streets and those adjacent to them are lighted by electricity, and the remaiuder by gas and oil-lamps. A race-course has been formed close to Uyeno. Lines of telegraph, amounting in all to 200 miles, connect the various parts of the city with one another, and with the country lines. The main streets are broad and well kept, and improvements attend the work of reconstruction after each conflagration. But as the city is in a transition state, it necessarily presents many strange anomalies. Side by side with lofty stone buildings stand rows of rude wooden houses. As with the buildings so with the people; while the mass still wear the native dress, numbers appear in European costume. The soldiers and police are dressed in uniform on the Western model. The environs of Tokyo are very picturesque, and offer a great variety of pleasant walks or rides. Foreigners will find much to interest them in the country round. The finest scenery is at the northern and western sides of the city, where the country is surrounded by beautiful hills, from which there is a distant view of the noble mountains of Hakone, while YOKOHAMA 25 beyond rises in solitary grandeur the towering peak of Fuji-san, covered with snow the greater part of the year. The population of Tokyo, according to the official census of 1895, was 1,342,153. The native Press is represented by more than a hundred newspapers, several of which are dailies. There are 1225 schools of different classes, including one university. A large and handsome hotel, designed for foreigners and called the Imperial Hotel, was opened in 1890. There is also a first-class hotel, called the Metropole, under foreign management. YOKOHAMA Yokohama is the principal Treaty port of Japan, and was opened to foreign trade in July, 1859. It is situated on the Bay of Yokohama, a small bay on the western side of the Gulf of Yedo, in lat. 35 deg. 26 min. 11 sec. K, and long. 139 deg. 39 min. 20 sec, in the island of Honshiu, and is distant about eighteen miles from the capital, with which it is connected by a line of railway. The town, having sprung up from a poor fishing- village only since the site was selected for a treaty port instead of the little town of Kanagawa, possesses few attractions for the visitor. The scenery around, however, is hilly and pleasing, and on clear days the snow-crowned summit and graceful outlines of Fuji-san, a volcanic mountain 12,370 feet high — celebrated in Japanese literature and depicted on in- numerable native works of art — is most distinctly visible, though some 75 miles distant. Yokohama is compactly built of low houses with tiled roofs. The town is divided into two nearly equal parts, the western half being occupied by what was known, before the abolition of extraterritoriality, as the foreign settle- ment. Beyond the plain on which the town is built rises a sort of semicircle of low hUls called "The Bluff," which is thickly dotted with handsome foreign villas and dwelling-houses in various styles of architecture. 26 JAPAN all standing in pretty gardens. From these dwellings charming prospects are obtainahle. Along the water- front runs a good road called the Bund, on which, facing the water, stand many of the principal houses and hotels and the United Club, The streets are fairly paved, kerbed, and drained. There are Anglican, French Catholic, Union Protestant, and several native Mission Churches in the settlement. A fine Cricket and Eecreation Ground exists in the settlement, and there are well-laid-out Public Gardens on the Bluff. There is a fairly good Eace-course situated about two miles from the settlement. A good Boating Club also exists, which has provided facilities for deep-sea bathing. The Public Hall, containing a theatre and assembly rooms, neatly built of brick, is situated at the top of Camp Hill, and was opened in 1885. The chief public buildings in the native town are the Kencho, opposite the British Consulate, the Town Hall, which has a clock tower, and the Custom House. The Eailway Station is also a creditable structure, being a well-designed and commodious terminus. On the 12th August, 1899, a disastrous fire occurred in the Iseza Kicho district, in which some seventeen streets were swept by the flames, the number of houses destroyed being 3237. The town is now in the enjoyment of an excellent water-supply, large Waterworks having been completed in 1887. The harbour is much exposed, but two breakwaters, of an aggregate length of 12,000 feet, have been built and are so projected as to practically enclose the whole of the anchorage, leaving an entrance 650 feet wide between their extremities. There is a pier 2000 feet long at which vessels may load or dis- charge. A graving dock was opened on the 26th April, 1897. It is built of large blocks of granite and is 351 feet on the blocks, its lengtli from the outside of the entrance to the head is 419 feet 10 inches and from the outside caisson to the head 400 feet 3 inches. The width of the entrance is 00 feet 8 inches at the top and 45 feet 11 inches at tlie bottom. The depth is 35 feet Ch YOKOHAMA 2 J 1 inch on the inside, and 31 feet 2 inches on the sill. The depth of water on the blocks is 27 feet 2 inches at spring tides, 26 feet 2 inches at ordinary springs, and 19 feet 8 inches at low water of spring tides. This is the smaller or No. 2 Dock of the Company. The No. 1 Dock, completed at the end of 1898, is 478 feet 10 inches on the blocks and has a depth inside of 36 feet 3 inches and on the sill of 34 feet 1 inch, the depth of water on the blocks being 28 feet 10 inches at springs, 27 feet 11 inches at ordinary springs, and 21 feet 4 inches at low water of springs. Yokohama is well supplied with hotels. There are four English daily papers published in the port, namely, the Japan Gazette, Japan Herald, Japan Daily Mail, and Japan Daily Advertiser, and several weeklies. The Japanese population of Yokohama numbered, on the 31st December, 1897, 188,455. The number of foreign residents exclusive of Chinese was 2,096, of whom 869 were British. The Chinese popidation was returned at 2015. In 1898 the values of the different classes of Imports were : — Yen. Beverages and provi- sions 2,818,705 Cotton, raw 5,322,372 Cotton yarn 5,679,092 Cotton piece goods. . . 6,341,161 Drugs, medicines, and chemicals . . . 4,492,650 Dyes and paints ... 3,223,701 Kerosineoil ... 3,016,063 Machinery, arms, etc 8,179,458 Metals and manufac- tures of Eice Steam vessels Sugar Wool and woollen manufactures Sundries Total imports foreign goods Yen. 10,683,235 14,748,780 5,023,194 14,449,715 7,890,372 19,020,966 110,889,404 The values of the principal articles of Export in the same year were as follows : — Grain, beverages, and provisions ... 1,894,376 Metals (mostly cop- per) 3,543,541 Silk and cocoons ... 44,174,537 Silk piece goods ... 16,191,450 Tea Sundries Total exports native Yen. 5,389,381 8,581,698 79,774,983 28 JAPAN The value of the Imports in 1897 was yen 86,790,195, and of the Exports in same year yen 90,368,531. The total export of raw silk during the season from 1st July, 1898, to same date 1899 was 50,661 bales. The total export for the previous year was 56,783 bales. The export of tea during the season 1st May, 1898, to same date 1899 was 26,545,888 lbs., nearly all for America. The export during the previous season was 27,206,290 lbs. HAKODATE This, the most northerly of the treaty ports of Japan, is situated in the south of Yezo in the Straits of Tsugaru, which divide that island from Honshiu. The port lies in latitude 41 deg. 47 min. 8 sec. N., and longitude 140 deg. 45 min. 34 sec. E., and the harbour is nearly land-locked. The town clusters at the foot and on the slope of a bold rock known to foreigners as Hakodate Head, 1106 feet in height. The surrounding country is hilly, volcanic, and striking, but the town itself possesses few attractions. A row of fine temples, with lofty picturesque roofs, occupying higher ground than the rest of the town, are the most conspicuous buildings. There are some Public Gardens at the eastern end of the town, which contain a small but interesting Museum. Waterworks for suppljring the town with pure water were completed in 1889. The climate of Hakodate is healthy and bracing. The hottest month is August, but the thermometer then rarely rises above 90 degrees Fahr. ; in the winter it sometimes sinks to 18 degrees. The mean temperature through- out the year is about 48 degrees. The population of Hakodate at the close of 1897 was 74,000. The number of foreign residents was 118, of whom 43 were British. Tlie foreign trndd of the port is small. The value of the imports dcM.lined from $076,534 in 1890 to $12,101 OSAKA 29 in 1892, but increased by an average of slightly over a hundred per cent, each year to Yen 820,820 in 1898. The exports in 1898 amounted to Yen 1,248,719, against Yen 1,264,267 in 1897. The agricultural resources of Yezo have been to some extent developed under the auspices of the Kaitakushi or Colonization Department. The rich pasture lands are well adapted for breeding cattle. In the valuable and extensive fisheries on the coast, however, the chief exports of the future from Hakodate are to be looked for. Increasing quantities of dried fish and seaweed are exported annually, mostly to China. The mineral resources of Yezo are large, and may also some day yield a valuable addition to the exports of this port. There are now three large coal-mines in operation, one in Poronai, one at Ikushunbetsu, and a third at Sorachi. Hakodate is connected with the capital by telegraph. A railway from Otaru to Sapporo, 22 miles long, was opened to public traffic on the 28th November, 1880, and has since been carried on to Poronai, where are some large coal-mines, the total length of the line being 56 miles. A branch to Ikushunbetsu, seven miles, has since been made, and another line from the coal mines to Mororan, a port on the south-east of the island, a distance of 143 miles, has been completed and was opened to traffic in July, 1892. OSAKA Osaka is the second city in Japan in point of size and commercial importance, and has not inaptly been termed the Venice of the Far East, owing to the manner in which it is intersected by canals. The city is compact and well laid out, the streets being regular, clean, and animated. Osaka is essentially Japanese, though a go-ahead and progressive city, and possesses much of interest to the foreign visitor. It is situated in the province of Settsu, and is built on the banks of 30 JAPAN the liver Ajikawa, about five miles from the sea. The river is only navigable for small vessels, and on the opening of the railway to Kobe, the foreign trade of Osaka commenced to decline. Almost all the foreign firms in the latter city have removed to Kobe. The most imposing, and at the same time the most interest- ing object to be seen in Osaka is the Castle, erected in 1583 by one of the Shoguns, the famous Toyotomi Hideyoshi Though less extensive than that of Tokyo, it is a much grander and more striking edifice, and is, indeed, next to that of Nagoya, the finest example of the ancient feudal castles of Japan. It is nov? occupied by the Osaka garrison, and forms the headquarters of one of the six great military districts, and it has also within its inclosure an extensive military arsenaL The city is the seat of the provincial government, which is called Fucho, in contradistinction to the other pro- vincial governments, which are termed Kencho. Osaka is the seat of numerous industries, including cotton- spinning mills, shipbuilding yards, and ironworks, and the Imperial Mint is located there. This establishment is in active operation, and turns out a coinage not surpassed by any in the world. The imports in 1898 amounted to yen 3,555,937, and the exports to yen 3,165,082 against yen 4,424,742 imports and yen 2,342,437 exports in the previous year. The popula- tion of Osaka was 490,009 in December, 1895. The number of foreign residents on 31st December, 1897, was 121, not including Chinese. The British and American residents, numbering 104 are, with few exceptions, missionaries. KOBE-HYOGO Kobe was until 1892 the foreign port of the adjoining town of Hyogo, and was opened to foreign trade in 1868 ; in October, 1892, Hyogo was also declared by the Japanese Government to form part of the open KOBE-HYOGO 3 1 port. The port is finely situated on the Idzumi-nada, at the gate of the far-famed Inland Sea. The harbour is good, and affords safe anchorage for vessels of almost any size. The two towns face the land-locked water covered with white sails, while behind, at a distance of about a mile, rises a range of picturesque and lofty hills, some of which attain an altitude of about 2500 feet, and the steep sides of which are partly covered with pines. Kobe and Hyogo stretch for some three miles along this strip of land between the hills and the water. The Foreign quarter at Kobe is well laid out ; the streets are broad and clean, and lighted with gas. The Bund has a fine stone embankment, and extends the whole length of Kobe. The foreign houses are neatly built, and the Sannomiya railway station, within three minutes' walk of the Concession, has a very English look. The railway terminus is at the other end of Kobe, where it meets Hyogo, and there are extensive carriage works adjoining the station. There is a good Club and a spacious Eecreation Ground. The Union Protestant Church and a French Eoman Catholic Church are in what was formerly termed the Con- cession. A new English Episcopal Church, All Saints, was opened in 1898 on the hill behind, and there is also a native Protestant Church in Kobe town. The two principal hotels are the Oriental and the Occi- dental. Two foreign daily papers, the Kohe Chronicle and the Kobe Herald, are published in Kobe. There are one or two native papers. The population of Kobe-Hyogo in December, 1895, was 161,406. There were over 2,000 foreign residents in Kobe in 1899, of whom more than half were Chinese. The British numbered 534, the Germans 136, and the Americans 155. The old town of Hyogo is only divided from Kobe by the river Minato, which is spanned by a substantial stone bridge. Hyogo contains few features of interest, and the streets and shops are inferior to those of Kobe, its population being much smaller and nearly stationary. 32 JAPAN The Temple of Shinkoji, which possesses a large bronze Buddha, is worth a visit ; and there is a monument to the Japanese hero, Kiyomori, erected in 1286, in a grove of trees in the vicinity of the temple, which claims some attention from its historic associations. On the Kobe side of the Minato-gawa also stands a temple dedicated to Kusunski, so famous in Japanese history for loyalty and valour, who died on the spot in 1336 during the unsuccessful wars for the restoration of the Mikado's power. In connection with the Imperial Shipbuilding Yard at Hyogo is a Patent Slip, which will accommodate vessels up to 2000 tons. Its total length is 900 feet ; length above water, 300 feet ; breadth, 38 feet ; declivity, 1 in 20. The slip is worked by hydraulic power. Kobe's excellent railway communications both north and south have naturally tended to centralise trade at this fast-rising port. In 1898 the values of the different classes of imports were : — Yen. Yen. Cotton, raw 37,979,497 Rice 28,814,804 Cotton yarn 2,868,496 Sugar 8,739,320 Cotton piece goods. . . 4,922,114 ■Wool and wooUeu Drugs, chemicals, etc. 3,195,833 manufactures ... 5,147,458 Grains and Heeds ... 5,128,495 8undrie8 18,324,109 Kerosine oil 3,537,934 Machinery, watches, Total imports foreign arms, etc. 8,639,274 goods 138,072,813 Metals and manufac- tures of 10,775,479 The values of the principal articles of export in the same year were as follows : — Ciamphor Yon. l,163,s,-)l Cotton yar 17,625,130 Matches 6,089,882 Mats for floor 3,887,991 Metals (chiefly cop- per) 4,745,698 Eioe 4,601,773 Straw-plaits 1,849,625 „ Yen. Tea 2,789,331 Textile fabrict> nud clothing 4,.V23,769 Sundries 11,764,605 Total exports native goods $59,041,655 NAGASAKI 33 The quantity of tea shipped from Kobe-Hyogo during the season 1898-1899 was 13,948,634 lbs. Practically the whole of this went to the United States of America and Canada. The following table of values in yen shows the rapid increase of the foreign trade of the port : — Imports. Exports. Total. 1891. 25,700,501 21,733,718 47,434,219 1892. 30,698,176 21,295,740 51,99.3,916 1893. ■11,294,276 24,968,974 66,263,250 1894. 56,910,503 29,438,113 86,348,616 1895. 63,098,427 38,307,9.i5 101,406,382 1896. 82,546,593 40,317,817 122,864,413 1897. 110,741,830 51,408,080 162,149,910 1898. 138,183,798 60,119,645 198,253,440 NAGASAKI Nagasaki is a city of great antiquity, and in the early days of European intercourse with the Far East was the most important seat of the foreign trade with Japan. It is admirably situated on the south-western coast of the Island of Kiushiu. A melancholy interest attaches to the neighbourhood as the scene of the extinction of Christianity in the empire and the extermination of the professors of that religion in 1637. At the entrance to the harbour lies the celebrated island of Pappenberg, where thousands of Christian martyrs were thrown over the high cliff rather than go through the form of trampling on the cross. Not far from Nagasaki is also the village of Mogi, where 37,000 Christians suffered death in defending themselves against the forces sent to subdue them. When the Christian religion was crushed and the foreigners expelled, to the Dutch alone was extended the privilege of trading with Japan, and they were confined to a small plot of ground at Nagasaki called Deshima. By the treaty of 1858, Nagasaki was one of the ports opened to British trade on the 1st July in the following year. On entering the harbour of Nagasaki no stranger can H yAPAN fail to be struck with the admirable situation of the town and the beautiful panorama of hilly scenery opened to his view. The harbour is a landlocked inlet deeply indented with small bays, about three miles long, with a width varying from half-a-mile to a mile. A reclamation scheme is now in progress ; the portion of the sea in front of what were formerly the foreign concessions at Deshima and Megasaki is to be reclaimed and the harbour deepened. It is estimated that the cost of the work will be four million yen, and that it will take five years to finish. The town is on the eastern side of the harbour, and is about two miles long by about three-quarters of a mile in extreme width. The foreign quarter adjoins the town on the south side. The chief mercantile houses are situated on the bund facing the harbour, behind which are a few streets running parallel with it, and there are a number of private residences on the hillside. There are English Protestant and Eoman Catholic churches, two clubs, and a Masonic Lodge. The principal hotel is the Nagasaki Hotel, opened in 1898, a three-storeyed brick building situated on the Bund. There are several smaller hotels, of which the two largest are the BeUe Vue Hotel and Cliff House. The Nagasaki dock was lengthened during 1894 to admit vessels of 500 feet in length on a draught of 26 feet. Attached to the dock are extensive Engine Works, most completely equipped and fitted. These works were originally built by the Japanese Government, but they now belong, as does the dock, to the Mitsu Bishi Company. Waterworks have recently been completed. The reservoir holds 90,000,000 gallons, and there are three filter-beds and a service reservoir. The Kiushiu Eail- way is now completed between Moji and Kumamoto, with a branch line to Nagasaki The climate of Nagasaki is mild and salubrious, and there are several very popular health resorts in the neighbourhood, tlie most famous being Mount Unzen. After the opening of the port the trade for .several FORMOSA 35 years steadily developed, but it subsequently declined, owyxg to various causes, but chiefly perhaps on account of its gradual attraction to Yokohama. During the last ten years, however, there has been a steady improvement in the foreign trade, which has more than doubled itself in that period. The imports, indeed, have increased tenfold in as many years ; and with the opening up of railway communication with the interior of Kiushiu, completed in 1898, a large increase in the prosperity of the port is anticipated. The chief articles of import are cotton and woollen manufactures. The principal exports are coal, tea, camphor, rice, vegetable wax, tobacco, and dried fish. There are several very productive coal mines near Nagasaki, of which the Takashima mine is the most important. The value of the import trade of Nagasaki during the year 1898 was yen 19,698,646, against yen 13,601,234 in 1897, and that of the export trade yen 6,587,276, against yen 5,542,013 in 1897. Coal is the staple article of export. The population of Nagasaki in 1898 was 808,439. The number of foreign residents, as given in the Consular Keport for 1898, was 606, exclusive of Chinese, of whom 40 were British, and 466 other Europeans and Americans. A small foreign daily paper is published, entitled the Nagasaki Press. FORMOSA This island, one of the largest in Asia, is situated between latitude 22 and 26 deg. N., and longitude 120 and 122 deg. E., and is separated from the coast of Fukien, China, by a channel about one hundred miles in width. It is a prolongation of the Japanese and Loochoo Archipelagoes, and in 1895 was incorporated in the Japanese empire. Its name Formosa, signifying "beautiful island," was conferred by the Portuguese, 36 JAPAN the first Europeans to visit it, but it was called Taiwan (Great Bay) by the Chinese, to whom it belonged from 1661 to 1894. It is said that the Japanese endeavoured to form a colony in the island in 1620, but large numbers of Chinese were settled there prior to that date. The Dutch arrived in 1034, and founded several settlements, and traces of their occupation are still to be found in the island, but they were compelled in 1661 to retire by the Chinese pirate chief Koxinga, who then assumed the sovereignty of western Formosa. His grandson and successor, however, was induced, twenty-two years later, to resign the crown to the Emperor of China. By the treaty of Shimonoseki the island was ceded to Japan as one of the terms of peace, and on the 1st June, 1895, the formal surrender was made, the ceremony taking place on board ship out- side Kelung. The resident Chinese officials, however, declared a republic, and offered resistance, and it was not until the end of October that the opposing forces were completely overcome, the last stand being made in the south by Liu Yung-fu, the Black Flag General, of Tonkin notoriety. Takow was bombarded and captured on 15th October, and Anping was peacefully occupied on the 21st of the same month, Liu Yung-fu having taken refuge in flight. Formosa is about 260 miles in length, and from 60 to 70 miles broad in the widest part. It is intersected from north to south by a range of mountains, which forms a kind of backbone to tlie island, the loftiest peak of which, Mount Sylvia, is 11,300 feet liigL On the western side of this range the slope is more gradual than on the eastern side, and broken by fertile viUleys which lose themselves in the large undulating plain on which the Chinese arc settled. The \\hole of the territory east of the dividing chain is peopled by an aboriginal race who acknowledged no allegiance to the Chinese Government and made frequent raids on the outlying Chinese settlements, but they have proved themselves friendly to the Japanese. They are a FORMOSA 37 savage and warlike people, allied to the Malays and Polynesians, and live principally by the chase. The Chinese population of Formosa is estimated at about 2,500,000; the number of the aborigines it is, of course, quite impossible to estimate. The productions of Formosa are numerous, vegetation being everywhere most luxuriant, testifying to the richness of the soil. Sugar, tea, and camphor are largely cultivated and exported. The fauna includes bears, monkeys, deei', wild boar, badgers, martens, the scaly anteater, and other smaller animals. Birds are not very numerous, and snakes are not so common as might be expected where vegetation is so abundant. It is believed that the mineral wealth of the island is very considerable. Gold has been found and is now worked in the beds of the streams ; there are coal mines near Kelung and sulphur springs also exist in the north of the island. The interior of the island is, however, still practically unexplored. One great drawback to the island is its want of good harbours, which is more especially felt on account of the strength of the monsoons in the Formosa Channel. Those on the eastern side are few and neither commodious nor accessible, while on the west coast most of the harbours are little better than open roadsteads. Taipeh is the capital of Formosa, but Tainan-fu is the chief city in point of population. The open ports are four in number — Takow and Tainan-fu in the south, and Tamsui and Kelung in the north. The latter was held for some months in 1884-5 by the French, under Admiral Courbet, but was evacuated on the 21st June, 1885. The rivers of Formosa are few, shallow, and winding, only navigable to small flat-bottomed boats. The scenery is delightful, and the climate is very pleasant in the winter, but hot and malarious in the wet season. There is a railway from Kelung to Tekcham, and an extension southwards is projected. 38 JAPAN TAMSUI AND KELUNG The port of Tamsui lies in lat. 25 deg. 10 min. N. and long. 101 deg. 26 min. E. on the north-western side of the fertile island of Formosa. It is an un- interesting place. The harbour, like all others in Formosa, has a troublesome bar, which greatly retards the growth of the port. Dredging would do much to render it more accessible. The town, called HAbei, is situated on the north side of the river, about two miles from the bar. In October, 1884, the French ships under Admiral Courbet bombarded Tamsui, but were unable to take the place. The Japanese took possession on the 7th June, 1895. Tea grows on the hills in the locality, the export in 1898 amounting to 20,126,816 lbs. and in 1897 to 20,302,590 lbs. The total value of the foreign trade of Tamsui and Kelung and the attached special ports in 1898 was £2,181,589, in 1897 £1,972,380 and in 1896 £1,592,413. The port of Kelung lies to the north-east of Tamsui, in latitude 25 deg. 6 min, N. and longitude 121 deg. 47 min. E. It is situated on the shores of a bay between the capes of Foki and Peton, some twenty miles apart, amidst bold and striking scenery, backed by a range of mountains. It was once a Spanish settlement, but was subsequently captured and held by the Dutch until they in turn gave place to the Chinese under Koxinga, a pirate chief who caused himself to be proclaimed King of Formosa. Though a mere village, it has long carried on a considerable native trade with Amoy, Chin-chew, and Foochow. Its staple product used to be coal, but the quantity at present produced is all absorbed by local require- ments. Sulphur also abounds in a valley in the neighbourhood. Kelung was opened to foreign trade at the same time as the other Formosan ports. The limits of the port are defined to be within a straight line drawn from Image Point to Bush Island. On TAINAN-FU, TAKOW, AND ANPING 39 the 5th August, 1884, the port was bombarded by the French under Admiral L^spes, when the forts above the town were reduced to ruins and the place captured. It was then garrisoned by the French, who held it until after the treaty of peace had been signed at Tientsin in June, 1885. The place was occupied by the Japanese on the 3rd June, 1895. Harbour improve- ments on a large scale are now in progress. A railway connects Kelung with Taipeh, the capital, and will be extended thence to Tainan-fu. Late in 1895 Luikong (or Rokko), 117 miles south of Tamsui on the west coast, was opened as a special port of import and ex- port; and in March, 1896, Kiukong (or Kinko), 36 miles south of Tamsui, was opened in a similar manner to trade for Japanese-owned vessels. TAINAN-FU, TAKOW, AND ANPING The city of Tainan-fu [until 1889 known as Taiwan], situated in lat. 23 deg. 6 min. N. and long. 129 deg. 5 min. E., is the commercial capital of Formosa. It is for an Eastern city moderately clean and well paved. The walls are some five miles in circumference. The shipping port of Tainan-fu is Anping, situated on the coast about three miles to the eastward of the city and connected with the suburbs by a creek. The port is an open roadstead, vessels having to anchor a mile or so from the beach. From the 1st November to the end of May the anchorage is a perfectly safe one, but during the S.W. monsoon a heavy swell sets in, rendering it difficult, and at times impossible, for vessels to load or discharge. Anping has of late risen greatly in importance, the foreign firms making it their headquarters instead of Takow, which port in former years was considered of more significance. Tempered by sea breezes, Anping during the summer months can boast of a cool climate. From 1st October to the end of April there is little or no rain, and, the l^emperaturQ 40 JAPAN leaves nothing to be desired. Sugar is the principal export of South Formosa ; the export in 1898 amounted to 792,983 cwt., as against 770,510 cwt. in 1897. The value of the total foreign trade of the port in 1898 was £784,627 as compared with £612,284 in 1897. Takow is a port twenty-four miles to the southward of Anping. It takes little or no share in the import trade, but is a principal centre for the sugar export trade. The last stand against the Japanese was made at Tainan-fu, Takow, and Anping, by Liu Yung-fu, the Black Flag General. Takow was bombarded on the 15th October and the resistance collapsed without any serious fighting, and Tainan-fu and Anping were occupied on the 21st October. COREA COEEA CoEEA, or Chosen (the native name), is a peninsula situated to the north of China, which hangs down between that empire and Japan, separating the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea, between the 34th and 43rd parallels north. It is bounded on the north by Man- churia, on the north-east by Siberia, on the east by the Sea of Japan, on the west by the Yellow Sea, and on the south by the Channel of Corea. It has a coast line measuring 1740 miles, and with its outlying islands is nearly as large as Great Britain. The name Corea is derived from the Japanese Korai (Chinese Kaoli) ; and the Portuguese, who were the first navigators in the Yellow Sea, called it Koria. Chosen is translated into "Morning Calm." The eastern half of the peninsula is a sinuous range of mountains, of which Western Corea is the slope. The chief rivers of importance are naturally to be found on the western side, and most of the harbours are situate on that coast. Corea is divided into eight do or provinces, named Ping-an, Whang-hai, Kiung-kei (which contains the capital), Chung-chong, Chulla, Kiung-sang, Kang-wen, and Ham-kiung. The climate is healthy and temperate, bracing in the north and milder in the south, where it is more exposed to summer breezes. The Han river at Seoul is often frozen for two months in the year. The fauna includes tigers, leopards, wild deer, wild hogs, and in the south monkeys are to be found. A stunted breed of horses exists, and immense numbers of oxen 44 COREA are raised as food ; goats are rare, and sheep are only imported from China for sacrificial purposes. The pheasant, eagle, falcon, crane, and stork are common. A great portion of the soil is fertile, and the mineral wealth of the kingdom is believed to be considerable. The history of Corea, like that of its neighbours, is lost in the mists of obscurity, but according to native and Chinese tradition a Chinese noble named Kishi, or Ki-tsze, who migrated with his followers to Corea in 1122 B.C., was the founder of the Corean social order and the first monarch. His descendants are said to have ruled until the fourth century before the Christian era. The present dynasty is descended from Ni Taijo, a young soldier who was the architect of his own fortunes, and who succeeded in deposing the Wang dynasty. It was at this time, in the fourteenth century, that Han-yang, known as Seoul, was selected as the national capital. His Majesty King Li Fin is the twenty-eighth sovereign of the present line. The king- dom is governed, under the King and three Prime Ministers, by six boards or departments — namely. Office and Public Employ, Finance, Ceremonies, War, Justice, and Public Works. The general method of procedure is modelled on that of Peking. The State revenue is derived from the land tax, and it is estimated to amount to about £200,000. For many centuries the Coreans successfully resisted all efforts to induce them to hold intercourse with foreigners. The King was formerly a vassal of the Emperor of China, and the Emperor of Jap;in also claimed his allegiance, but by the Treaty of Kokwa, concluded with Japan in 1876, the independence of the country was aclcnowledged, though China, which assented to Corea's conclusion of this and other treaties with foreign Powers as an independent kingdom, in- consistently continued to claim suzerainty. Upon the establishment of Japanese in the ports of Fusan and Yuensan, the prejudice against foreign intercourse gradually abated, and on the 22ud Mu}', 1882, a treaty CORE A 45 of friendship and commerce was signed by the Corean Government at Jenchuan with Commodore Shufeldt on behalf of the United States. A Treaty with England was signed by Sir Harry Parkes on the 26th November, 1883 ; in 1884 Treaties were also concluded with Germany and Eussia, and later with France, Italy, and Austria. The population of Corea, according to the last Government census, was 10,518,937. The foreign trade of Corea shows a steady growth, and in 1898 that portion of it coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs reached a value of $24,702,237 in 1898, as against $23,511,350 in 1897, $12,842,509 in 1896, and $7,986,840 six years ago, i.e. in 1893. The principal articles of import are cotton manufactures, and of export, rice, hides and bones, beans, and gold. The export of gold is yearly increasing, in 1897 amounting to £240,047, and no less a sum than £100,000 is said to have been invested in one gold-mining undertaking alone. In 1894, owing to a rebellion in the Southern pro- vinces, application was made to China for assistance, and Chinese troops were sent to restore order. Japan also sent troops and invited China to co-operate in reforming the government of the country, but China declined, and war resulted, Japan driving the Chinese out of Corea and carrying the war into China itself. Eegarding the financial position of Corea the British Consul in his report for 1896 said: — "With careful management and retrenchment of expenditure a financial equilibrium has been established and maintained during the past year, and there is a surplus in the Treasury sufficient to cover the greater portion of the national indebtedness. The principal items of revenue are the land tax, the house tax, ginseng tax, and gold dues, which altogether make up a budget of about $4,000,000. The provincial income and expenditure is, however, left to a certain extent to local management, and there can be little doubt that with stricter supervision, and the establishment of a regular system of accounts, the 46 COREA revenue of the Central Government is capable of con- siderable expansion." In his report for 1897 the Consul said : " The financial position of the country continues to be satisfactory, 2,000,000 yen of the 3,000,000 yen borrowed from Japan have been repaid, and the year closed with a sufficient balance in the Treasury to cover the remainder of the national indebtedness." The report for 1898 was, however, not so satisfactory, the Consul remarking : " The finances of Corea are no longer in the satisfactory condition they were a year or two ago. The treasury is virtually empty, and the end of each month brings with it the recurring difficulty about the payment of the troops and the discharge of other obligations. So far the Government have not actually fallen into arrears, but they have been living not on their income but on the surplus of past years, and there is an unmistakable downward tendency in their financial arrangements which augurs badly for the future." In 1896 work was commenced on a railway to con- nect Chemulpo with Seoul, but financial difficulties have been experienced by the Japanese syndicate who agreed to take over the line from the original American concessionnaire, and the work has made slow progress. A contract has been let for another line, from Seoul to Fusan, a distance of about 300 miles, but work has not yet proceeded beyond the preliminary surveys. SEOUL The capital city of Han-yang, better known to foreigners as Seoul (which is merely the native term for capital), is situated almost in the centre of the province of Kiung-kei, on the north side of and about three miles from the river Han, about thirty-five miles from its mouth. It lies in 37 (Jeg. 30 min. N. lat. and 127 deg. 4 min. E. long. Han-yang means " the fortress on the Han." The city is enclosed by crenellated walls SEOUL 47 of varying height, averaging about twenty feet, with arched stone bridges, spanning the watercourses. It is in the form of an irregular oblong, and stretches length- wise in a valley that runs from north-east to south-west. The houses are about eight or nine feet high, built of stone or mud, and mostly roofed with tiles. Internally they are clean, for the Coreans, like the Japanese, take off their shoes before entering their houses. A long main street, about 100 feet wide, running east and west, divides the city into two nearly equal portions. In the northern half are the walled inclosures containing the King's Palace and the more important public buildings. A street about 50 feet wide intersects the main street at right angles, dividing the northern half of the city into eastern and western quarters. At the point of inter- section stands a pavilion called Chong-kak (the " Bell Kiosk "), from a large bell about seven feet high which is placed there. This spot is regarded as the centre of the city ; and from it another street, as wide as the main street, branches off to the south-west. The four wide streets which thus radiate from the " Bell Kiosk " are known as the four Chong-ro or " Bell roads." Another conspicuous feature of this central part of the city is the row of large warehouses two storeys high, the lower portions of which are divided off into little shops, opening into a small courtyard instead of facing the street. The width of the main streets was formerly much reduced by the construction in front of nearly every house of a rude wooden shanty used for a work- shop or for business purposes, which gave the streets a poor and squalid appearance, but some of the principal streets have now been cleared of these unsightly obstruc- tions, and the British Consul in his report for 1896 says the people are gradually being taught the benefits of good roads and clean surroundings. A spacious market- place has been erected in one of the busiest parts of the city, and arrangements are being made for establishing two or three others at suitable centres. An annual appropriation of $50,000 has been made by the Finance 48 COREA J")upartment for the maintenance and improvemeut of the roads, and a similar sum was appropriated for ex- penditure on drainage in 1897. The shops are small and unattractive, and contain no articles de luxe or curios. The population of the city is variously esti- mated at from 150,000 to 240,000 persons; of&cial returns give the number of houses as 30,000. An electric railway running for three mUes along the main streets of Seoul and thence three or four miles into the country was opened in 1899. A railway to connect Chemulpo with Seoul is in course of construction. CHEMULPO, POKT OF JENCHUAN, CALLED ALSO JIXSEX AND INCHIUN This port, known to the Japanese as Jinsen, is situated in lat. 37 deg. 28 min. 30 sec. N. and long. 126 deg. 37 min. E., at the entrance to the Salee Eiver, an embouchure of the Han-kang close to and immedi- ately east of Eose Island, on the west coast of Corea, in the metropolitan province of Eaung-kei. The British Consul in his report for 1896 says : " Chemulpo, which thirteen years ago was a collection of fifteen miserable huts, is now a large and flourishing centre of trade, with broad metalled roads, good substantial buildings, and a foreign population of some 6000 or 7000, mostly Japanese and Chinese. The Chinese and Japanese settlements are fully occupied, and the price of land in the general foreign settlement has risen to almost fabulous rates." There is a Municipal Council, com- posed of the Foreign Consuls, one Coroan official, and three representatives of the landholders. The outer anchorage is accessible to ships of all sizes, and the inner one to coasting wssels and steamers ordinarily employed in the local trade. The river is navigable for vessels not drawing over ten feet up to Mapu ; but WONSAN {GENS AN OR YUENSAN) 49 seeing that at certain seasons there are a few places where the fall in the river is very considerable, owing to the existence of sand-banks, it is desirable that river steamers, intended to run regularly, should not draw over six feet. An overland telegraph line from China to this port and the city of Seoul was opened to traffic in November, 1885. A railway to connect Chemulpo with Seoul is in course of construction. The climate is healthy and may be compared to that of Chefoo. The foreign population was 5718 (including 4301 Japanese and 1344 Chinese) in 1898 ; the natives were estimated at 7669. The port was opened to Japanese trade on the 1st January, 1883, and to foreign trade on the 16th June of the same year. The value of the imports from foreign countries in 1898 was $7,785,651, and that of the exports to foreign countries $2,319,478, as com- pared with $5,868,605 imports and $3,643,066 exports in 1897. The total value of the trade of the port in 1898 was $10,853,851, as compared with $9,710,870 in 1897. The sub-prefectural town of Jenchuan is situated ten li distant from the port. WONSAN (GENSAN OR YUENSAN) This port, situated in Broughton Bay, on the north- eastern coast of Corea, is in the southern corner of the province of South Ham-kiung, about halfway between Fusan and Vladivostock. It was opened to Japanese trade on the 1st May, 1880, and to other nations in November, 1883. It is called Gensan by the Japanese and Yuensan by the Chinese. The native town has grown considerably since the port was opened to trade and contains now a population of fully 20,000 in- habitants. The town is built along the southern shore of the bay, and through it runs the main road which leads from Seoul to the Tumen river. Markets are held 50 CO RE A five times a month for the sale of agricultural produce and foreign imports. The Custom House is situated in the heart of the foreign settlements about a mile distant from the native town. The Japanese have a well-kept settlement containing about 200 houses, with nearly 1500 inhabitants. The Chinese number 100, and the European and American residents about 20. The harbour is a good one, being spacious, easy of access, well sheltered, with excellent holding ground, and convenient depth of water. January is the coldest month, and one corner of the harbour — that before the native town — is sometimes frozen over, but the part used by shipping is never covered with ice of such a thickness as to interfere with navigation. The country around Wonsan is under cultivation, and the soil is very rich. Within a short distance of the port are mines producing copper and other minerals, and gold is found amongst the neighbouring mountains. The cattle at the port, as nearly all over the country, are very fine and plentiful, and can be bought at very low rates ; they are used as beasts of burden and for agri- cultural purposes. A telegraph line from hence to Seoul was opened in July, 1891. Trade is carried on by regular lines of steamers running to Japan, Shanghai, and Vladivostock. The imports from foreign countries in 1898 amounted to $1,512,963 and the exports to $245,138. The value of imports from native ports in same year was $450,093 and the exports to native ports $763,106. The net total value of the trade in 1898 was $2,971,297, as compared with $3,071,72(i in 1897, $1,411,898 in 1896, and $2,816,306 in 1895. The exports consist chiefly of hides, beans, gold-dust, dried fish, and skins. The value of native gold exported to foreign countries in 1898 was $972,702, not included in the exports of merchandise. The imports consist chiefly of cotton and silk manufactured goods, metals, and dyes. FUSAN 51 FUSAN Fusan, or Pusan, as it is also called by the Coreans, is the chief port of Kiung-sang-do, the south-eastern, province of Corea, and lies in lat. 35 deg. 6 min. 6 sec. N. and long. 129 deg. 3 min. 2 sec. E. It was opened to Japanese trade in 1876 and to Western nations in 1883, The native town consists of some 550 houses, with a population of about 5000 inhabitants. The Japanese settlement is situated a little distance from the native town, opposite the island of Cholyongdo (Deer Island). It is under the control of the Consul, who is, however, assisted by an elective Municipal Council. Order is maintained by a police force in a uniform of European pattern. Water, conducted from the neighbouring hills, is distributed through the settlement by pipes and hydrants. The foreign resi- dents numbered 6356 in 1898, of whom 6249 were Japanese, 85 Chinese, and 22 Europeans. The Corean town of Fusan is a walled city, situated at the head of the harbour ; it contains the Eoyal granaries for storing rice, a few wretched houses, and the residence of the small military official in charge. The harbour is good and capacious, with a sufficient depth of water to accommodate the largest vessels. The climate is very salubrious and the place is considered extremely healthy. Sea bathing may be had in perfection, and there is a nice hot spring near Tongnai. The district city, Tong-nai Fu, which is distant about eight miles, is the local centre of trade. It contains a population of 33,160. A branch of the Foreign Customs Service was established in July, 1883. Eegular lines of steamers connect the port with Japan, Shanghai, northern ports of China, and Vladivostock. Fusan was connected with Japan by a submarine telegraph cable in November, 1883. The imports from foreign countries in 1898 amounted to $2,447,000 against $2,706,000 in 1897 52 CORE A and $1,937,040 in 1896, and the exports to foreign countries to $2,812,000 against $4,700,000 in 1897 and $2,604,000 in 1896. MOKPO Mokpo, which, like Chennampo, was opened to foreign trade on the 1st October, 1897, in pursuance of a resolution of the Council of State, is a seaport in the province of ChuUa, and has an excellent harbour capable of providing anchorage accommodation for thirty or forty vessels of large tonnage. Chulla is a great rice-growing district, and has the reputation of being the wealthiest province in the country, and Mokpo lies at the mouth of a river which drains nearly the whole province. The Consular report for 1898 says : " Mokpo has undergone a great transformation since it was opened, eighteen months ago. It then consisted of a few Corean huts, surrounded by paddy fields and mud flats. The foreign settlement, which comprises about 225 areas of ground, has now nearly all been bought up, and the mud flats are rapidly being converted into a town, with well-laid-out streets, occupied by about 1200 Japanese and a number of substantial Chinese residents." CHINNAMPO This port was opened to foreign trade on the 1st October, 1897, in pursuance of a resolution passed by the Council of State. The port is situated on the north bank of the Tatung inlet, about twenty mUes from its mouth, in the extreme south-west of the proN-ince of Ping-yang. It is some forty miles distant by water from Ping-yang, the third city in the kingdom, with a population of 40,000, and it is expected that it will PINGYANG — KUNSAN S3 become a place of considerable commercial activity. The province is rich in agricultural and mineral wealth, the latter of which is now being developed by foreign enterprise. PINGYANG Pingyang, the capital city of the province of the same name, ranks in importance as the third city of the empire. It has been opened as a trading mart, where foreigners may reside, trade, and rent land and houses, according to native rules, anywhere within the limit to be marked off for that purpose. This limit has not yet (1899) been decided upon. No custom- house will be opened there, all goods to and from Ping- yang paying duty for and from abroad at Chinnampo. The foreigners residing at Pingyang comprise 17 American missionaries, one French missionary, about 150 Japanese, and 60 Chinese. KUNSAN Kunsan, one of the new ports opened to foreign trade on the 1st May, 1899, is situated at the mouth of the Yong Dang Eiver, which runs for many miles, forming the boundary line between the two provinces of Chulla-do and Chung-Chong-do, on the west coast of Korea, and lies about halfway between Jenchuan and Mokpo. The two provinces referred to are so noted for their abundant supply of agricultural produce that they are called the magazines of the kingdom. The principal articles of export are : rice, wheat, beans, different kinds of medicines, ox-hides, grasscloth, paper, bamboo articles, fans both open and folding, screens and mats, bicho de mar, dried awabi, with various kinds of fish and seaweed. 54 CorSA The port itself was well known as the export station for the revenue rice, when the Government revenue was paid in rice, and collected in this port for trans- mission to the capital. Among import goods, shirtings, lawns, cotton yam, matches, kerosene oil, etc., had already found their way to the port prior to its opening, for distribution to different markets, and the importation of these goods has since steadily increased in such a way as to guarantee the future of Kunsan as a port of trade. Population: 1200 Coreans, 150 Japanese, and a few Chinese. SONG CHIN This port is situated on the north-eastern coast of Corea, in the province of North Ham-kiung, about 120 miles from Wonsan. It was opened to foreign trade on the 1st May, 1899. The native town is built close to the beach, and to judge by the ruins of walls and watch-towers was once a fortified place. The settle- ment will occupy the native town and extend beyond to the north. The native inhabitants number about 500. The next market-place is about 40 li distant and up country, whilst the main road leading from Seoul to the Tumen Eiver is at a distance of about 10 li. The Custom House is situated near the settlement, on the neck of the small peninsula forming one side of the Song Chin bay. Of foreigners there are some 40 Japanese living as yet in Corean houses; they are mostly small shopkeepers and coolies. The harbour is a bad one, indeed it is little more than an open road- stead anchorage ; from N.E. to S.E. it is quite exposed, and even with a moderate breeze from tliose quarters communication between ship and shore may have to be suspended. The anchorage is not spacious though very easy of access, and vessels drawing 10 feet or so can lie within a quarter of a mile from the shore. Fogs SONG CHIN 55 prevail for the greater part of the year, and the tem- perature is moderate at all seasons. The country around Song Chin is well under cultivation, principally for beans. Within reasonable distances, it is said, gold, copper, and coal may be found, also a very fine white granite. Hot springs, said to be very efficacious for a number of ailments, are at a distance of some 30 li from the settlement. Cattle are very fine and plentiful, and can be bought at low rates. A number of Japanese fishing boats are employed along the coast reaping a seemingly good harvest in bicho de mar. Trade is carried on by small coasting steamers, principally with the port of Wonsan, The exports chiefly consist of beans, cowhides, and bicho de mar, whilst cotton goods, kerosene oil, and matches form the principal items of imports. CHINA CHINA Eeigning Sovereign and Family. KuANG Sij, Emperor of China, is the son of Prince Ch'un, the seventh son of the Emperor Tao Kuang. He succeeded his cousin, the late Emperor Tung Chi, who died without issue on the 12th January, 1875, from small-pox. The proclamation announcing the accession of the present sovereign was as follows : — " Whereas His Majesty the Emperor has ascended upon the Dragon to be a guest on high, without offspring born to his inheritance, no course has been open but that of causing Tsai Tien, son of the Prince of Ch'un, to become adopted as the son of the Emperor Weng Tsung Hien (Hien Fung), and to enter upon the inheritance of the great dynastic line as Emperor by succession. Therefore, let Tsai Tien, son of Yih Huan, the Prince of Ch'un, become adopted as the son of the Emperor Wen Tsung Hien, and enter upon the inheri- tance of the great dynastic line as Emperor by succes- sion." The present sovereign is the ninth Emperor of China of the Manchu dynasty of Ta-tsing (Sublime Purity), which succeeded the native dynasty of Ming in the year 1644. There exists no law of hereditary succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign to appoint his successor from among the members of his family. The late Emperor, dying suddenly, in the eighteenth year of his age, did not designate a successor, and it was in consequence of palace intrigue, directed 60 CHINA by the Empress Dowager, in concert with Prince Ch'un, that the infant son of the latter was declared Emperor. The Emperor Kuang Sii was born in 1871, assumed the reins of government in February, 1887, was married on the 26th February, 1889, to Yeh-ho-na-la, niece of the Empress Dowager, and his enthronement took place on the 4th March following. On the 2l8t September, 1898, a Palace revolution took place, and the Empress Dowager again assumed the regency, nominally on the ground of the Emperor's ill-health, and she has since ruled in the Emperor's name. Government and Kevenue. The fundamental laws of the empire are laid down in the Ta-tsing Huei-tien, or Collected Eegulations of the Great Pure Dynasty, which prescribe the govern- ment of the State as based upon the government of the family. The Emperor is spiritual as well as temporal sovereign, and, as high priest of the Empire, can alone, with his immediate representatives and ministers, perform the great religious ceremonies. No ecclesias- tical hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian or State religion. The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction of the Interior Council Chamber, comprising four members, two of Manchu and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants from the Han-lin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing is done contrary to the civil and religious laws of the empire, contained in the Ta-tsing Huei-tien and in the sacred books of Confucius. These members are denominated Ta Hsio-sz, or Ministers of State. Under their orders are the Li Pu or seven boards of government, each of wliich is presided over by a Miinchu and Chinese. They are:— (1) The Li Pu ;^ ^ Board of Civil Ajipointnu'iit, which takes cognizance of tlie conduct aiid administration of all civil officers; (2) The Hu Pu CHINA 6 1 ^ % Board of Eevenue, regulating all financial affairs ; (3) The Li Pu li $U Board of Eites and Ceremonies, which enforces the laws and customs to be observed by the people ; (4) The Ping Pu ^S ^ or Military Board, superintending the administration of the army ; (5) The Kung Pu X pi5 or Board of Public Works ; (6) The Board of Punishments ffj % and (7) The Board of Admiralty. To these must be added the Tsung-li Yamen, iH ^ ® f^ or Board of Foreign Affairs. Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the central administration, is the Tu-cha Yuan, or Board of Public Censors. It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents, the one of Manchu and the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient custom of the empire, all the members of this board are privileged to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One censor must be present at the meeting of each of the six Government boards. The amount of the public revenue of China is not known, and estimates concerning it vary greatly. The Imperial Maritime Customs receipts form the only item upon which exact figures are obtainable, and these for the year 1898 amounted to Tls. 22,503,397. Mr. E. H. Parker, formerly of the British Consular Service, in 1896 published the following estimate of the receipts from the other principal sources: — Land tax Tls. 20,000,000, Salt Tls. 10,000,000, Lekin Tls. 15,000,000, Native Customs Tls. 3,000,000, Miscellaneous Tls. 3,000,000. In addition the grain tribute may also be estimated at Tls. 3,000,000, making a total estimated revenue of Tls. 77,000,000. The amounts given above are those supposed to be accounted for to the Govern- ment, but very much larger amounts are raised from the people and absorbed by the officials in the way of peculation. With the significant exception of the Maritime Customs, which is under foreign control, no item of revenue shows any elasticity. The land tax, salt revenue, Lekin Native Customs, are all about the same figures as they were ten years ago, although it is 62 CHINA a matter of common notoriety that these sources of revenue have increased indefinitely. China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874, when a loan of £627,675, bearing 8 per cent, interest, was contracted through the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank, under Imperial authority, and secured by the Customs' revenue. Afterwards a number of other loans, of com- paratively moderate amount, were contracted, mostly through the agency of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank, and several of them have been paid off. Up to 1894 the total foreign debt of China was inconsiderable, but since then extensive borrowings have had to be made to meet the expenses of the war with Japan and the indemnity, which was Tls. 200,000,000 (at exchange of 3s. Z\d), with a further Tls. 20,000,000 for the retro- cession of the Liaotung Peninsula. The last instalment was paid in 1898, and the total indebtedness of the country is now £55,755,000, the principal loans being the Eussian of 1895, the Anglo-German of 1896, and the Anglo-German of 1898, each of £16,000,000. Eecently several minor loans, amounting in all to less than £4,000,000, have been contracted through the agency of the foreign banks for the purposes of rail- way construction. It is but fair to say that these loans have been devoted to their purpose, and will automatically redeem themselves if efficient manage- ment of the lines be assured. In some cases the lines have been hypothecated to the banks as security, and these institutions have nominated a foreign accountant. Area and Population. China proper, extending over 1,336,841 English square miles, is divided into eighteen provinces, the area and population of which are given below, the figures with an * being from Chinese official data for 1882, those with a \ from the data of 1879, and Fohkien being estimated on the basis of the census of 1844 : — CHINA 63 Province. Provincial capital, .t"'^"??"'' ^'"?'?f''^ ^p?r"q^°e ' .square miles. population, mile Chihlif ... Peking ... 58,949 17,937,000 304 Shantung*... Tainan ... 53,762 36,247,835 557 Shansl* ... Taiyuen ... 56,268 12,211,453 221 Honan* ... Kaifung ... 66,913 22,115,827 340 KiangBU* ... Nanking ...\ „„ „ /20,905,171 470 Anhwei* ... Ngankin .../ ''^'"^^ \20,596,288 425 Kiangsit ... Nanchang ... 72,176 24,534,118 340 Chekiang*... Hangohow ... 39,150 11,588,692 296 Fohkien ... Foochow ... 38,500 22,190,556 574 Hupeh* ... Wuchang ...\ !..„„ f22,190,556 473 Hunan' ... Changchau.../ ^■**'"" \21,002,604 282 Shensit ... Sigan ••■iiqoo'in / 8,432,193 1'26 Kansuh ... Lanchow .../ ^^'■■'^'^^ \ 9,285,377 74 Szechuen*... Chingtu ... 166,800 67,712,897 400 Kwangtung* Canton ... 79,456 29,706,249 377 Kwangait ... Kwelin ... 78,250 5,151,327 65 Kweichaut Kweiyang ... 64,554 7,669,181 118 Yunnan t ... Yunnan ... 107,969 11,721,576 108 1,312,328 383,253,029 292 It is to be noted that the Chinese census, following all Oriental methods of calculation, is not to be trusted. There is no subject on which foreign and native statis- ticians are more contentious than that of the Chinese population. Experts vary in their estimates between 250,000,000 and 440,000,000. The total number of foreigners in China in 1898 was 13,421, of whom 5148 were subjects of Great Britain, 2056 of the United States, 920 of France, 1043 of Germany, 200 of Sweden and Norway, 141 of Italy, 395 of Spain, 162 of Denmark, 1694 of Japan, and 1082 Portuguese, almost entirely natives of Macao, all other nationalities being represented by very few members. Of 773 mercantile firms doing business at the treaty ports, 398 were British, 107 German, 43 American, and 37 French. The principal dependencies of China are Mongolia, with an area of 1,288,035 square miles, and some 2,000,000 people ; and Manchuria, with an area of 362,313 square miles, and an estimated population of 15,000,000. The latter is being steadily and rapidly colonised by Chinese, who greatly outnumber the 64 CHINA Manchiis in their own land, Thibet, which is also practically a dependency of China, has an area of 643,734 square miles and a population of 6,000,000 souls. It is ruled by the Dalai Lama, but subject to the Government of Peking, who maintain a Resident at Lhassa. Army and Navy. The standing military forc& of China consists of two great divisions, the first formed by the more immediate subjects of the ruling dynasty, the Manchus, and the second by the Chinese and other subject races. The first, the main force upon which the Imperial Govern- ment can rely, form the so-called troops of the Eight Banners, and garrison all the great cities, but so as to be separated by walls and forts from the population. According to the latest reports, the Imperial army comprises a total of 850,000 men, including 678 companies of Tartar troops, 211 companies of Mongols, and native Chinese infantry, a kind of militia, number- ing 120,000 men; but these figures, derived from Native sources, are altogether untrustworthy. In organisation, equipment, personnel, and commissariat the Army is utterly inefilcient, and with the exception of a few brigades of foreign-drilled troops, is little better than rabble, as far as concerns opposition to European, Indian, or Japanese troops. The native soldiers do not as a rule live in barracks, but in their own houses, mostly pursuing some civil occupation. The Chinese navy consisted, prior to the Franco- Chinese war of 1884, mainly of small gunboats buUt at the Mamoi Arsenal, Foochow, and at Shanghai, on the foreign model, but was afterwards greatly strengthened. Five ships were lost, however, in the battle of the Yalu, when the Japanese inflicted a severe defeat upon the Chinese, and the remainder of the fleet was captured or destroyed at the taking of Weiiaiwei in February, 1895. Three cruisers of 2950 tons displacement were secured in 1895 from the Vulcan Works at Stetten, CHINA 65 and two very fine Elswick sloops of the same size were added in 1899. These, with two corvettes and two training vessels, supplemented by four Elbau "destroyers," comprise the Pei Yang Squadron or Northern Fleet. These vessels might be of real value for conveying troopships, shelling rebellious towns, etc., but as the Chinese have no naval base and no docking facilities in Northern waters, and as the ships are ill- found and with indifferent personnel, they would be of little use against a resolute foreign enemy. Teade and Industry. The ports open to trade are : — Newchwang, Tientsin, Chefoo, Shanghai, Soochow, Chinkiang, Nanking, Wuhu, Kewkiang, Hankow, Yochow, Shasi, Ichang, Chungking, Hangchow, Ningpo, Wenchow, Santu, Foochow, Amoy, Swatow, Canton, Samshui, Wuchow, Nanning, Kiungchow, and Pakhoi. Lungchow, Ment- szu, Szemao, and Hokeow, on the frontiers of Tonkin and Burmah, are stations under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs. The import trade, exclusive of the Colony of Hongkong, centres chiefly at Shanghai, Canton, and Tientsin, while the bulk of the exports pass through the ports of Shanghai, Hankow, Foochow, and Canton. The annual value of the trade of China coming under the supervision of the Imperial Maritime Customs was as follows : — Net imports Net exports to Total of ^^' imports from foreign foreign foreign trade. of native countrjes. countries. *" a " ■ goods. Hk. Tls. Hit. Tls. Hk. Tie. Hk. Tls. 1885 ... 88,200,018 65,005,711 153,205,729 57,117,407 1890 ... 127,093,481 87,144,480 214,237,961 74,017,519 1891 ... 134,003,863 100,947,849 234,951,712 80,085,179 1892 ... 135,101,198 102,583,525 237,684,723 76,717,666 1893 ... 151,362,819 116,632,311 267,995,130 80,079,118 1894 ... 162,102,911 128,104,522 290,207,433 80,377,259 1895 ... 171,696,715 143,293,211 314,989,926 83,405,382 1896 ... 202,589,994 131,081,421 333,671,415 86,488,288 1897 ... 202,828,625 163,501,358 366,329,983 91,443,935 1898 ... 209,579,334 159,037,149 368,616,483 101,680,963 1898 @ Ex.l-51,Mex.$316,464,794 $240,146,095 $.556,610,889 $153,538,254 Ex. 2s. lO^d. £30,236,185 £22,944,422 £53,180,607 £14,669,597 F 66 CHINA The following was the net value of commodities imported direct from and exported direct to foreign countries in 1898. These figures do not include the trade carried on with neighbouring countries in Chinese junks, which does not come within the control of the Foreign Customs : — Imports. Exports. ToUl. Hk. Tls. Hk. Tl>. Hk. Tls. Hongkong 97,214,017 62,083,512 159,297,529 Great Britain 34,962,474 10,715,952 45,678,426 Japan (including Formosa) 27,376,063 16,092,778 43,468,841 Continent of Europe, except BuBsia 9,397,792 25,929,114 35,326,906 India 19,135,546 1,324,125 20,459,671 United States of America... 17,163,312 11,986,771 29,150,083 Russia (sea and overland) 1,754,088 17,798,207 19,552,295 Straits and other British Colonies 4,805,634 3,719,470 8,525,104 Macao 3,347,717 5,381,959 8,729,676 Other foreign countries ... 3,588,704 4,005,261 7,593,965 218,745,347 159,037,149 377,782,496 Imports to the amount of Hk. Tls. 9,166,013 were re-exported to foreign countries ; namely, to America Tls. 3,015,388, to Corea Tls. 1,605,458, to Eussian Manchuria Tls. 1,382,506, to Japan (including For- mosa), Tls. 1,213,359, to Hongkong Tls. 1,287,298, to other countries Tls. 662,004. The following were the values of imports from foreign countries in 1898, exclusive of re-exports to foreign countries : — Hk. Tls. Hk. TU. Cotton goods 77,618,824 Cotton, raw... ... 2,839,730 Opium 29,255,903 Matches ... 2,597,072 Kerosene oil 11,914,699 Ginseng ... 2,545,210 Rice 10,448,838 B6che de mer and Metals 9,787,077 seaweed ... ... 2,071,609 Sugar 9,018,967 Flour ... 1,774,712 Coal 5,280,620 Machinery ... ... 1,758,615 Woollen goods 8,190,169 Sundries ... ... 8,631,538 Fish and fishery pro- ducts 3,161,900 Total ... ... 209,579,834 The foreign goods re-exported to foreign countries, exclusive of those to Corea, consisted of Formosan Tea Tls. 3,757,362, Cotton Goods Tls. 2,762,525, Coal CHINA 67 Tls. 406,430, Metals Tls. 259,938, Sugar Tls. 360,118, Sundries Tls. 1,619,640. The exports to foreign countries, exclusive of re- export of foreign goods, were : — Hk. Tls. Ilk. Tls. Silk 45,412,818 Clothing, boots, and Tea 28,879,482 shoes 1,982,672 Silk piece goods .. 10,691,101 Paper 1,741,707 Beans and beancake 7,828,885 Provisions and vege- Tobacco 3,839,240 tables 1,590,204 Hides and horns .. 3.836,413 China and earthen- Mats and mattings 3,683,094 ware 1,504,307 Cotton, raw 3,151,161 Cattle 1,432,382 Strawbraid 3,131,791 Sundries 32,350,870 Fur skins and rugs 3,073,332 Vegetable oil . 2,461,799 Total 159,037,149 Sugar 2,445,891 Goods to the value of Tls. 36,404,858 were conveyed to, and to the value of Tls. 5,751,434 were brought from, the interior under transit passes. The total carrying trade foreign and coastwise was divided amongst the different flags as under (the Eussian including tea carried overland via Kiakhta) : — ■ Entries and Tonnage. Values. Percentaees. clearances. Tls. Tonnage. Duties. British 22,609 21,265,966 508,241,936 6212 56-54 German 1,831 1,685,098 52,185,211 4-92 915 Japanese 2,262 1,569,134 30,073,053 4-58 3-35 Swedish and Norwegian 498 440,554 11,619,821 1'29 116 French 577 420,078 19,307,270 1-23 2-49 American 743 239,152 4,327,530 0-70 0-87 Bussian 118 178,768 6,142,666 0-52 1-63 Danish 268 144,481 2,735,275 0-42 0-50 Austrian 16 44,936 1,070,232 0-13 0-22 Dutch 18 16,492 635,212 0-05 008 Other countries 174 41,349 1,138,631 012 0-38 Chinese 23,547 8,187,572 334,422,970 23-92 23-63 52,661 34,233,580 971,899,807 100-00 100-00 The vessels entered and cleared in 1898 were made up of 43,164 Steamers of 32,896,014 tons, and 9497 Sailing Vessels of 1,337,566 tons. The gross coast trade in vessels of foreign build amounted to the sum of Tls. 273,192,029 outward, and 68 CHINA Tls. 311,759,269 inward, the net native imports (that is, goods not re-exported) at the Treaty Ports being Tls. 101,680,963, and the exports to Treaty Ports Tls. 71,296,364. The Imperial Maritime Customs revenue for the same year amounted to Haikwan Taels 22,503,396, and was derived from — Imports Exports Coast Trade Opinm Oplam Tonnage Transit duty. duty. duty, duty. lekln. dues. dues. Foreign 4,943,268 6,054,002 6)7,369 1,226,859 3,266,990 651,398 Native f86,640 2,249,809 507,432 744,236 716,192 61,463 Total 6,729,908 8,303,811 1,184,801 1,971,095 3,983,182 612,861 117,733 Although China is traversed in aU directions by roads, they are usually mere tracks, or at best foot- paths, along which the transport of goods is a tedious and diflicult undertaking. It was owing to the im- perfect means of communication that such a fearful mortality attended the last famines in Shansi, Honan, and Shantung. The enormous mineral wealth of Shan- si is practically non-existent for the same reason, and there is every reason to fear that the present year (1900) will see in this province a repetition of the famine horrors of the Eighties. A vast internal trade is, however, carried on over the roads, and by means of numerous canals and navigable rivers. The most populous part of China is singularly well adapted for the construction of a network of railways, and a first attempt to introduce them into the country was made in 1876, when a line from Shanghai to Woosung, ten miles in length, was constructed by an English company. The little railway was subsequently purchased by the Chinese Government and closed by them on the 21st October, 1877. Since that time the principle of rail- ways has been fully accepted, and several important lines are projected while some arc already in operation. A tramway a few miles in length, begun in 1881 to carry coal from the Kaiping coal mines, near Tongshan, to the canal bank, has been extended to Tientsin and Taku on the one hand, and to Kinchow, in the N,W. CHINA 69 comer of the Gulf of Liao-tung, on the other. This road is now being rapidly continued from Kinchow to Newchwang ; the year 1900 will probably see the two Northern Treaty Ports connected by rail. A line from Peking to Tientsin was opened in 1897, the Peking terminus being at Machiapu, a point two miles from the Tartar city, whence a short electric line connects it with one of the principal gates ; the traffic developed so rapidly that in 1898-9 the line had to be doubled. From Lukouchiao (or Marco Polo's Bridge) a line of about eighty miles in length has been constructed southward to Paotingfu, the capital of the province of Chihli; this line is now in running order, and in October, 1899, was handed over by the British con- structors to the Belgian Syndicate as an integral factor in the great trans-continental road from Peking to Han- kow. A line from Shanghai to Woosung, some fourteen miles in length, was opened in 1898, twenty-one years after the first line between the same termini was torn up. The total length of the railways already in opera- tion is about 450 miles. A contract has been let to a Belgian Syndicate for the construction of a trunk-line of about 650 miles in length from Hankow to Paotingfu, where it joins the existing Paotingfu and Lukoachiao line, thus giving through communication with Peking. Work on this line has been commenced at both ends, and large numbers of Belgian engineers arrived in 1899. The bridging of the Yellow Eiver and the cross- ing of the Puh Niw Mountains in Honan, may offer some engineering difficulties. The American-China Development Company has obtained a concession for the construction of a line from Wuchang, on the southern bank of the Yangtsze immediately opposite to Hankow, to Canton. The British-Chinese Corpora- tion has become associated with the American- China Development Company in this project, and the same corporation has obtained a concession for a line con- necting Canton with Kowloon (Hongkong). German concessionnaires have secured the right to construct 70 CHINA two lines from the German Settlement at Kiaochau to Chinanfu and Ichou in the interior of the Shantung province, and an Anglo-German Syndicate has been authorised to make a line from Tientsin to Chinkiang, the Germans having charge of the northern portion of the undertaking and the British of the southern. A British syndicate has also secured the right to construct a line from Shanghai via Soochow to Nanking and north-westward to join the Lu-Han line (as the Han- kow-Peking line is called), and also a line from Soochow md Hangchow to Ningpo. A line from Canton to Chengtu, the provincial capital of Szechuen, has also been mentioned. Surveys have been conducted with a view of finding a practicable route for a railway to connect Burmah with the Yangtsze region in Szechuen, and it is anticipated that a definite project for such a line will shortly be launched. The French have secured a concession for a line from Laokay, near the Tonkin frontier, to Yunnan, and tenders for the execu- tion of the work have been called for. The French have also secured concessions for lines from Lungchow to Nanning and from Nanning to Pakhoi, but it is doubtful whether these will be carried out, as their tendency would be to divert trade from the French colony to the West Eiver route. The Anglo-Italian Syndicate has been authorised to work coal and iron mines in the province of Honan and to build railways connecting the mines with navigable rivers; under this contract a line from Taiyuen to Singanfu and a branch to Siangyang are projected. In Manchuria Eussia is making a railway to connect Port Arthur and Tailienwan with the Trans-Siberian line, and branches in various directions are projected ; and un- successful attempts were made in 1899 to induce the Chinese Authorities to introduce the Russian gauge on their northern lines from the Manchurian border to Peking. The paper inception of a new line from Peking to Kiatcha and thence to Irkutaku via Kalgan has also been made. For the conveyance of the PEKING 7 1 material required in the carrying out of this under- taking a line is under construction from Newchwang, the port at which the material conveyed by sea will be landed. A telegraph line between Tientsin and Shanghai was opened in December, 1882, and lines now connect all the important cities of the empire. PEKING The present capital of China was formerly the northern capital only, as its name denotes, but it has long been really the metropolis of the Central Kingdom. Peking is situated on a sandy plain 13 miles S.W. of the Pei-ho river, and about 110 miles from its mouth, in latitude 39 deg. 54 min. N. and longitude 116 deg. 27 min. E., or nearly on the parallel of Naples. A canal connects the city with the Pei-ho. Peking is ill-adapted by situation to be the capital of a vast Empire, nor is it in a position to become a great manufacturing or industrial centre. The products of all parts of China naturally find their way to the seat of Government, but it gives little save bullion in return. From Dr. Dennys's description of Peking we quote the following brief historical sketch : — " The city formerly existing on the site of the southern portion of Peking was the capital of the Kingdom of Yan. About 222 B.C., this kingdom was overthrown by the CMn dynasty and the seat of Government was removed elsewhere. Taken from the Chins by the Khaitans about A.D. 936, it was some two years afterwards made the southern capital of that people. The Kin dynasty subduing the Khaitans, in their turn took possession of the capital, calling it the ' Western Eesidence.' About A.D. 1151, the fourth sovereign of the Kins transferred the court thither, and named it the Central Eesidence. In 1215 it was captured by Genghis Khan. In 1264 Kublai Khan fixed his residence there, giving it the title of Chung-tu or Central Eesidence, the people at 72 CHINA large generally calling it Shun t'ien-fu. In a.d. 1267, the city was transferred 3 li (one mile) to the north of its then site, and it was then called Ta-tu — ' the Great Eesidence.' The old portion became what is now known as the ' Chinese city,' and the terms ' Northern ' and ' Southern ' city, or more commonly nei-chengi (within the wall), and wai-oheng (without the wall), came into use. The native Emperors who succeeded the Mongol dynasty did not, however, continue to make Peking the seat of Government. The court was shortly afterwards removed to Nanking, which was considered the chief city of the Empire until, in 1421, Yung Lo, the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, again held his court at Peking, since which date it has remained the capital of China." The present city of Peking is divided into two portions, the Northern or Tartar city, and the Southern or Chinese. The former is being gradually encroached upon by the Chinese, and the purely Manchu section of the capital will soon be very limited. The southern city is almost exclusively occupied by Chinese. The general shape of Peking may be roughly represented by a square placed upon an oblong, the former standing for the Tartar and the latter for the Chinese city. The whole of the capital is, of course, walled. The walls of the Tartar city are the strongest. They average 50 feet in height and 40 feet in width, and are buttressed at intervals of about 60 yards. The parapets are loop- holed and crenelated. They are faced on both sides with brick, the space between being filled with earth and concrete. Each of the gateways is surmounted by a three-storied pagoda. The walls of the Chinese city are about 30 feet in height, 25 feet thick at the base, and 15 feet wide on the terre plein. The total circum- ference of the walls round the two cities slightly exceeds 20 miles. The Tartar city consists (Dr. Williams tells us) of three enclosures, one within the other, each surrounded by its own wall. The innermost, called Kin-ching or PEKING 73 Prohibited City, contains the Imperical Palace and its surrounding buildings ; the second is occupied by the several offices appertaining to the Government and by private residences of officials ; while the outer consists of dwelling-houses, with shops in the chief avenues. The Chinese city is the business portion of Peking, but it presents few features of interest to sightseers, while the enclosure known as the Prohibited City is, as its title denotes, forbidden to all foreign visitors. The numerous temples, the walls, the Imperial Observatory, the Foreign Legations, and the curio shops are the chief attractions to the tourist. The streets of the Chinese metropolis are kept in a most disgraceful condition. In the dry season the pedestrian sinks deep in noxious dust, and in wet weather he is liable to be drowned in the torrents that rush along the thorough- fares, where the constant traffic has worn away the soU. 1899 saw the innovation of Legation Street being cleansed, levelled, and macadamised — the greatest urban improvement in three centuries. Experts say that the money lost in time, wear and tear of men, mules and carts every year is greater than the prime cost of macadamising all the main thoroughfares. The con- gestion of the traffic and the personal discomfort of cart-transit are inconceivable to people who have not experienced them. There is an air of decay about Peking which extends even to the finest of the temples, and which powerfully impresses every visitor as sym- bolic of the decadence of Empire. The population of Peking is not accurately known, but according to a Chinese estimate, which is probably much in excess, it is 1,300,000, of whom 900,000 reside in the Tartar and 400,000 in the Chinese city. There is no direct foreign trade with Peking, and the small foreign popu- lation is made up of the members of the various Legations, the Maritime Customs establishments, the professors of the College of Peking, and the missionary body. In August, 1884, the city was brought into direct telegraphic communication with the rest of the 74 CHINA world by an overland line to Tientsin via Tungchow. The year 1899 witnessed two other innovations, which would have been regarded as impossible ten years ago, viz. the erection of large two-storied buildings on prominent sites for the Austrian Legation and the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank. These are breaks with immemorial tradition that the feng-shm must resent elevation in houses other than those of the immortal gods and the son of heaven.* A railway line to Tientsin was opened in 1897, but prejudice still keeps the terminus outside of the walls, and the gates are ruthlessly shut every night at sunset without reference to the convenience of travellers by rail or otherwise. TIENTSIN Tientsin is situated at the junction of the Yun Ho or Hwae Eiver, better known as the Grand Canal, with the Pei-ho in lat. 39 deg. 4 min. N., long. 117 deg. 3 mins. 56 sees. E. It is distant from Peking by road about 80 miles, but the bulk of the enormous traffic between the two cities is by the river Pei-ho as far as Tungchow (13 miles from Peking), and thence by carts and wheelbarrows over the once magnificent but now dilapidated stone causeway. The traffic is now, how- ever, being rapidly diverted to the railway, which was opened in 1897, and the line doubled in November, 1898. Tientsin was formerly a place of no importance, and till recently had few historic associations; till the end of the Ming dynasty (a.d. 1644) it was only a second-rate military station, but at the northern terminus of the Grand Canal it gradually assumed commercial importance, and by the end of the seven- teenth century had become a great distributing centre. The navigability of the Pei-ho for sea-going junks ceases at Tientsin, and tliis made it the emporium * On the 15th March, 1900, the Hongkoiig and Shanghai Bank building was iolally dentroyed by fire; tltecaiue wat purely accidental, and not in any way oonneated toith/tng'thui. TIENTSIN 75 for the very large quantities of tribute rice yearly sent up to the capital, after the Grand Canal shoaled up so as to be unfit for carriage in bulk. The trade of the city is now imperilled by the silting up of the Pei-ho. A river improvement scheme of some magni- tude was inaugurated in 1898 under Mr. A. de Linde, and is now rapidly approaching completion. It is, however, generally believed that no lasting success will attend the remedial measures until steps are taken to deal with Taku Bar by permanent dredging; mean- while it is hoped that by closing the canals and creeks which take off most of the flood tide, the navigation of the river will be restored to its normal state before the year 1900. The expeditions of the allies in 1858-61 greatly enhanced the importance of the city, as it then proved to be the military key of the capital and an excellent base. It was here on June 26th, 1858, that Lord Elgin signed the treaty which was to conclude the war, but which unhappily led to its prolongation. The temple in which the treaty was signed is about a mile distant from the west gate, and is now enclosed in a small arsenal (Hai Kwan Tze) and surrounded by factories for the manufacture of small-arm ammunition. It is worth a visit if only to see the large bell which, as usual, has an interesting tradition associated with it. During the long satrapy of Li Hung-chang the trade and importance of the city developed exceedingly. Li, by the vigour of his rule, soon quelled the rowdyism for which the Tientsinese were notorious throughout the empire, and as he made the city his chief residence and the centre of his many experiments in military and naval education, it came to be regarded as the focus of the new learning and national reform. The foreign affairs of China were practically directed from Tientsin during the two decades 1874-94. The city will ever be infamous to Europeans from the massacre of the French Sisters of Mercy and other foreigners on June 21st, 1870, in which the most 76 CHINA appalling brutality was exhibited ; as usual the political agitators who instigated the riot got off. The Eoman Catholic Cathedral Church, which was destroyed on that occasion, has since been rebuilt, and the new building was consecrated in 1897. The building occupies a commanding site on the river bank. All the missions and many of the foreign hongs have agencies in the city. The population is reputed to be 1,000,000, but there is no statistical evidence to justify such large figures. The area of the city is far less than that of the Ports- mouth boroughs with their 180,000, and the houses without exception are one-storied. The suburbs, however, are very extensive, and there is the usual vagueness as to where the town begins and ends. The city walls are quadrate, and extend about 4000 feet in the direction of each cardinal point. The advent of foreigners has caused a great increase in the value of real estate all over Tientsin, and as new industries are introduced every year, the tendency is still upward. Li Hung-chang authorised Mr. Tong Kin-seng to sink a coal shaft at Tong Shan (60 miles N.E. of Tientsin) in the seventies ; this was done and proved the pre- cursor of a railway, 'which has since been extended to Shanhaikwan for military purposes, and from thence round the Gulf of Liau Tung to Kiuchow ; 1900 will see this line pushed in to Newchwang. In 1897 the line to Peking was opened, and proved such a success that the line had to be doubled in 1898-9. From Peng-tai, about 7 miles from the capital, the trans- continental line to Hankow branches off. This line has been already made as far as Pao-ting-fu, the provincial capital of Chih-li, and is now open to traffic. Its continuation is in the hands of Uie Belgians. About 435 miles in all are open to goods and passenger traffic. As usual, the railway has brought aU sorts of foreseen and unforeseen contingencies with it. Farmers near Shanhaikwan are supplying fruit and vegetables TIENTSIN 77 to Tientsin. An enormous trade in pea-nuts (with Canton) has been created. Coal has come extensively into Chinese household use ; the foreign residents are developing a first-rate watering-place at Pei-tai-ho on the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, and all the various industries of the city have been stimulated. Brick buildings are springing up in all directions, and the depressing- looking adobe (mud) huts are diminishing. The foreigners live in the three concessions, British, French, and German, which fringe the river below the city, and cover an area of less than 500 acres. The Japanese are now (1900) taking up a concession in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Shimono- seki. Very extensive building operations are going on throughout the concessions, which have excellent roads, with police, oil, gas-lamps, etc., etc. The British Muni- cipality has a handsome Town Hall, completed in 1889 ; adjoining there is a well-kept public garden, opened in the year of Jubilee and styled Victoria Park. An excellent recreation ground of ten acres is also being developed, and three miles distant there is a capital race-course. There are two hotels (the Astor House and Globe), two clubs (Tientsin Club and Concordia, the latter chiefly German), a theatre, an excellent library, three churches (Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Union), and no public-houses. Distilling is one of the largest local industries ; it is chiefly from kowliang (sorghum) or millet. Although a spirit, it is called "wine," and is exported to the south in large quantities. The manufacture of coarse, unrefined salt by the evaporation of sea water is also carried on near Taku ; the produce is stacked along the river bank just below the native city, and sometimes gives off very offensive smells, rendering life a burden. The trade in salt is a Government monopoly. Carpets, shoes, glass, coarse earthenware, and fireworks are also made in large quantities in the city, but Tientsin is at present essentially a centre for distribution and collec- tion rather than for manufacture. The exports include 78 CHINA coal, wool (from Kokonor, Kansuh, etc.), bristles, straw- braid, goat skins, furs, wine, etc. The export trade is a recent creation, and is largely due to foreign initiative. Wool-cleaning and braid and bristle-sorting are the chief industries in the foreign hongs except those of the Eussians, who are exclusively engaged in the transit of tea. The imports are of the usual miscellaneous nature : tea for the Desert and Siberia, mineral oil, matches, and needles figure next to piece goods. The fine arts are unknown to the Tientsinese except in the shape of cleverly made mud-figures ; these are painted and make really admirable statuettes, but are difiScult to carry away, being remarkably brittle. The export coal trade is rapidly expanding, 218,618 tons having been cleared in 1898. The general trade is increasing by leaps and bounds, and no wonder, as Tientsin is practically the only sea outlet for the entire trade of the provinces of Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, Kansuh, and part of Honan, with a population not far short of 100,000,000. The total net value of the trade in the years 1896-7-8, less re-exports, was Tls. 51,316,367; Tls. 55,059,017 ; and Tls. 63,064,148 ; the net foreign imports in 1898 being valued at Tls. 32,579,514, and the native imports at Tls. 28,198,595 gross and Tls. 18,390,950 net after deduction of re-exports. The export trade, which twenty years ago was practically nil, was last year, not including re-exports, Tls. 12,093,684. The duty collected was Tls. 1,016.412, an increment of Tls. 43,375 on that of the previous year. Opium tends to a vanishing point from native competition. The figures for 1896-7-8 are piculs 1,170,928, and 912. TAKU This village is situated at the mouth of the Pei-ho, on the southern side of the river, about sixty-seven miles from Tientsin. The land is so flat at Taku that PEI-TAI-HO 79 it is difficult for a stranger to detect the entrance to the river. There are two anchorages, an outer and inner. The former extends from the Customs Junks to three mUes outside the Bar, seaward ; the latter from Liang-kia-yuan on the south to the Customs Jetty, Tz'chu-lin, on the north. The village is a poor one, possessing few shops, no buildings of interest except the forts, and the only foreign residents are the Customs employes and some pilots. A railway from the adjoin- ing town of Tungku (two miles up the river) to Tientsin was completed in 1888. Taku is memorable on account of the engagements that have taken place between its forts and the British and French naval forces. The first attack was made on the 20th May, 1858, by the British squadron under Sir Michael Seymour, when the forts were passed and Lord Elgin proceeded to Tientsin, where on the 26th June he signed the famous Treaty of Tientsin. The second attack, which was fatally unsuccessful, was made by the British forces in June, 1859. The third took place on the 21st August, 1860, when the forts were captured, the booms placed across the river destroyed, and the British ships sailed triumphantly up to Tientsin. The water on the bar ranges from about two to fourteen feet at the spring tides. At certain states of the tide steamers are obliged to anchor outside untH there is sufficient water to cross. PEI-TAI-HO Pei-Tai-Ho is a watering-place on the Gulf of Pe- chi-li, which the energy and enterprise of the foreign communities of Tientsin has called into existence within the last few years. It lies some 22 miles S.W. by W. from Shanhaikwan, where the Great Wall meets the sea, in latitude 39 deg. 49 min. N., longitude 119 deg. 30 min. E., and is distant from Tientsin by railway 157 miles. Nine miles distant is the harbour 8o CHINA of Cheng Wang Kow, which the Chinese Imperial Government has declared its intention of making a Treaty Port. It is hoped by the aid of foreign money that Cheng Wang may be made into an ice-free, deep- water, safe harbour, giving access in all weathers to great ocean-going steamers all the year round, but works of very considerable magnitude and expense will be necessary before this issue is reached. The hinter- land is rich in coal and iron, and has good railway communication with Tientsin and Peking ; there is little doubt that if harbour facilities were given Cheng Wang would soon become a very important emporium. The land round about has all been taken up by a close Chinese syndicate, and as the success of the place might militate against the interests of Tientsin and Tongku, it is not likely to meet with much encouragement there. The boundaries of the Treaty Port have been extended along the foreshore of Shallow Bay for nine miles, and are then spread out as to include the three or four square miles on which the foreigners have settled at Pei-Tai-Ho. The fact that the watering-place lies within the port limits • gives legal title to all land purchase, and will ensure some sort of foreign municipal control in the near future. An attempt is now being made to obtain this from the Imperial Government; meanwhile, the foreign community has made temporary arrangements, and has submitted to voluntary taxation for combined sanitation. Pei-Tai-Ho at present is accessible only by rail from Peking, Tientsin, and Taku, but the current year wUl also see it in railway communication with Newchwaug. The railway station lies from four to six miles from the various settlements, and the journey is made by chair, donkey, or walking. Carriages cannot be used, as the roads are like those wliich General Wade superseded in the Scottish Highlands. There are six miles of beach of every possible variety, and the bathing is excellent from tlie middle of May to the first of October. The country rises at once from the shore to undulating PEI-TAI-HO 8 1 uplands ; most of the houses are at an elevation of fifty or a hundred feet above sea-level. At the west end the country is diversified by the Lotus HiUs, a series of granite rocks which come close to the sea, and are an offshoot from the Pettah Hill twelve miles inland. The Lotus peaks rise to about 400 feet The soil is chiefly a sand formed by disintegrated granite ; it is very dry, fertile, and non-malarial. The water is excellent, but it is feared that the large access of foreigners, and their careless Chinese servants, may issue in well- contamina- tion if precautions are not promptly taken. In 1896 there were about twenty tenements, in 1899 about one hundred ; last summer the population was slightly over four hundred, chiefly from Tientsin, Peking, and the mission stations of Chih-li. There are three major and two minor settlements ; West Shore, Eocky Point, and East Cliff being the designatories of the former. Most of the Tientsin and Peking laymen are at West Shore ; it has the advantage of proximity to the Lotus Hills and the station, and has more pleasing scenery near at hand. Its demerits are a somewhat tame beach — nothing but sand — and inferior bathing. The latter is due to stinging medusm or jellyfish, and to the nearness of the Eiver Tai, which often discolours the water. Both demerits have, however, been exaggerated. The missionaries are chiefly at Eocky Point; there they have an Association which regulates their land tenure, sanitation, Sunday observance, etc. A strong body of laymen has now settled to the west of this "Asso- ciation " settlement, attracted by the central position, better beach, and bathing. The East CUff was originally a mission investment, but is now a general settle ment; it is furthest away from the station, and has inferior bathing (one place excepted), but on the other hand it has magnificent land and sea-scapes and faces due East, unlike the other settlements which have a Southern aspect. The rains are heavy in July and early August, but the sandy soil enables one to be out-of- doors at once after heavy rain. The temperature G 82 CHINA varies from 4 degrees to 10 degrees below that of Peking and Tientsin in the height of summer; there are no hot winds, as the prevailing breeze is nearly south, and is sea-borne. NEWCHWANG Newchwang is the most northerly port in China open to foreign trade. It is situated in the province of Shing-king, in Manchuria. It is called by the natives Ying-tz, and lies about thirteen miles from the mouth of the Eiver Liao, which falls into the Gulf of Liao- tung, a continuation of the Gulf of Pechili. Before the port was opened, comparatively little was known of this part of the Central Bongdom. Man- churia has since, however, been largely colonised by the Chinese, who now outnumber the natives. The word Ying-tz means military station, and that was the only use formerly made of the port. Between the years 1858 and 1860 the British fleet assembled in Ta- lien-wan Bay, and early in 1861 the foreign settlement was established. The town of Newchwang itself is distant from Ying-tz about thirty miles, and is a sparsely populated and uninteresting place, but the advent of the railway is rapidly increasing its im- portance. An extension of the Shanhaikwan railway to Newchwang has been sanctioned, and the Eussians are also at work on a line intended primarily for the conveyance of material for the construction of the line connecting Talienwan and Port Arthur with the Trans- Siberian Eailway. The country about the port of Newchwang is bare and desolate, and in sailing up the ri\er a most cheer- less prospect greets the traveller's eye. Ying-tz is surrounded by dreary marshes, and the land under cultivation produces principally beans. The river is closed by ice for more than three months every year, during which period the residents are entirely cut off TALIENWAN^PORT ARTHUR 83 from the outer world. The climate, however, is healthy and bracing. The population of the place is estimated at 60,000. The chief articles of trade at the port are beans and bean-cake ; 4,220,963 piculs of the former, and 3,695,821 piculs of the latter, being exported in 1898. The net quantity of opium imported in 1898 was 92 piculs, compared with 2453 piculs in 1879. The import of opium has of late years shown an almost continuous decline, the poppy being largely and successfully culti- vated in Manchuria. The total value of the trade of the port for 1898 amounted to Tls. 32,441,315, as against Tls. 26,358,671 in 1897. TALIENWAN Talienwan is a bay to the north-east of Port Arthur, on the Liaotung Peninsula. It was acquired on lease from China by Kussia in 1898, and a free port is to be estabKshed, which will be connected by the Manchurian Eailway with the Trans-Siberian Eailway, of which latter it will in reality be the principal terminus. Talienwan is an open bay, some six miles wide and six deep, and open to the easterly winds. It was in Victory Bay, an inlet of Talienwan, that the British fleet and transports anchored during the hostilities with China in 1860. PORT ARTHUR Port Arthur, at the point of the " Eegent's sword," or Liaotung Peninsula, was formerly China's chief naval arsenal, but was captured in the Japanese War and its defences and military works destroyed. In 1898 Eussia obtained a lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan, and is now rapidly fortifying the former and making it into a great naval stronghold. It will' be connected by the Manchurian Eailway with the Trans-Siberian Line. 84 CHINA CHEFOO Chefoo, in the Province of Shantung, is the name used by foreigners to denote this Treaty Port; the Chinese name of the place is Yentai, and Chefoo proper is on the opposite side of the harbour. Chefoo is situated in lat. 37 deg. 33 min. 20 sec. N. and long. 121 deg. 25 min. 02 sec. E. The port was opened to foreign trade in 1863. The number of foreigners on the books of the various Consulates is about 400, but more than half of them — missionaries — ^live inland. Chefoo has no Settlement or Concession, but a recognised Foreign Quarter, which is well kept, and has good clean roads, and is well lighted. A General Purposes Committee looks after the interests of the Foreign Quarter, and derives the revenue at its disposal from voluntary contributions by residents. The natives are most orderly and civil to foreigners. There are three good hotels, and at least three excellent boarding houses, all of which are full of visitors from July to the end of September. The climate is bracing. The winter, which is severe, lasts from the beginning of December to end of March ; April, May, and June are lovely months, and not hot ; July and August are hot and rainy months ; and September, October, and November form a most perfect autumn, with warm days, cool winds, and cold nights. Strong northerly gales are experienced in the late autumn and through the winter, and the roadstead gives but an uncomfortable, though safe, anchorage for steamers. During the summer and autumn amuse- ments are varied — sea bathing, lawn tennis, picnics, etc. — and there is a good club. The races take place towards the end of September. Chefoo is two days' journey from Shanghai, and in the summer tourist tickets from Shanghai and return are issued by the Indo-China S.N. Co., the China Merchants S.N. Co., and the China Navigation Co. Since the declaration of war (August, 1894) between China and Japan the CHEFOO 85 port has been much frequented by vessels of the different foreign navies, and its close proximity to Corea will cause these visits to be continued; the result is that Chefoo has become a coaling station, and large stocks of Cardiff coal are kept to supply the foreign men-of-war. During the winter of 1894-95 the port was in a state of excitement owing to the close proximity of, and possible occupation by, the Japanese. In 1876 the Chefoo Convention was concluded at Chefoo by the late Sir Thomas Wade and the former Viceroy of Chihli, Li Hung-chang. The bunding of the western shore, recently carried out by the Chinese authorities, has removed many of the difficulties formerly attending upon the shipping business of the port. An enterprise has been recently established by a Wine Company of substantial standing ; the soil of the locality lends itself to such an industry, and the future success of the proprietors of the first Far Eastern wine-growing concern is a matter of consider- able interest. The trade of Chefoo, which is increasing, is principally in bean-cake and beans, of which large quantities are annually exported to the southern ports of China. In 1898 the net export of bean-cake amounted to 975,521 piculs, and of beans to 77,759 piculs, as against 1,298,334 piculs of the former, and 93,102 piculs of the latter in 1897. Silk, straw-braid, and vermicelli are the other chief exports. The import of opium was 498 piculs compared with 3536 piculs in 1879, the trade having gradually dwindled. The net value of the trade of the port for 1898, after deducting re-exports, was Tls. 26,238,774, for 1897 Tls. 22,051,976, and for 1896 Tls. 19,533,953. 86 CHINA WEI-HAI-WEI Wei-hai-wei is situated on the south side of the Gulf of Pechihli near the extremity of the Shantung Pro- montory, and about 115 miles distant from Port Arthur on the north-west, and the same from the German port of Kiaochau on the south-west. Formerly a strongly fortified Chinese naval station, it was captured by the Japanese on 30th January, 1895, and was held by them pending the payment of the indemnity, which was finally liquidated in 1898. Before the evacuation by the Japanese, an agreement was arrived at between Great Britain and China that the former should take over the territory on lease from the latter, and accordingly, on the 24th May, 1898, the British flag was formally hoisted, the Commissioners representing their respective countries at the ceremony being Consul Hopkins, of Chefoo, and Captain King- Hall, of H.M.S. Narcissus, for Great Britain, and Taotai Yen and Captain Lin, of the Chinese war- vessel Foochi, for China. The harbour forms a deep bight or bay, about eighteen miles in circumference, sheltered to the northward by the island of Liukungtao, which is about two miles long from east to west, and one mile from north to south in its widest part, being approximately pear-shaped. The northern or sea coast of Liukungtao is composed of steep cliffs, while the opposite side is sandy beach, the inter- vening hills rising to a height of about 500 feet. The general appearance of the harbour is picturesque, the bay being surrounded with hills, the highest of which is about 1600 feet. The town of Wei-hai-wei, which has a population of about 4000, is situated at the north- west corner of the bay. The harbour is good, having two entrances, one to the north and the other to the east, the easterly one, how- ever, being closed to all ships drawing more than 19 feet of water. Good anchorage is obtainable for the largest ships within a few hundred yards from the island. All KIAOCHAU 87 the Government buildings on the island have or are being put in repair, the largest of these, namely Queen's House, formerly the Chinese Yamen, being used as a Council Chamber, Commissioner's Eesidence, etc., and here the Commissioner dispenses justice every forenoon. The next largest building is now used as an Officers' Club, one corner of which is supposed to be the place where Admiral Ting committed suicide, the house having been formerly his private residence. Amongst the other houses of importance are the Canteen, Warrant Officers' Club, and Barracks. There is also a signal station from which passing ships are signalled. Small quantities of minerals, such as gold, mica, silver, lead, etc., have been discovered, and are about to be worked. There is some shooting to be obtained on the mainland, and good bathing from both the island and mainland in the summer. Sulphur springs are also found on the mainland. There are also cricket, football, hockey, polo, and tennis-clubs. The climate is said to be better than that of any of the Treaty Ports. KIAOCHAU Kiaochau, in Shantung, was occupied by a German squadron on the 14th November, 1897, in satisfaction for the murder of two German missionaries, and on the 2nd September, 1898, it was declared a free port. It is held on lease from China for the term of ninety-nine years. Although the port is free, in the sense that no import or export duties are levied, a branch of the Chinese Customs has been admitted, which takes cognisance of the trade between Kiaochau and Chinese ports. The Bay is an extensive inlet, about two miles north-west of Cape Evelyn. The entrance is not more than If miles across, the east side being a low promon- tory with rocky shores, with the village of Chingtao (" green island," from a small grassy island close to the land) about two miles from the point of the peninsula. 88 CHINA On the west side of the entrance is another promontory with hills rising to about 600 feet. The shore here is rocky and dangerous on the west side, but on the east side is a good stretch of sandy beach. The bay is so large that the land at the head can only just be seen from the entrance (about 15 to 20 miles away), and the water gradually gets shallower as the north side of the bay is approached. Kiaochau city stands at the north- west corner of the bay. There are two anchorages for big ships : one, the larger and better, round the point of the east promontory, on the north side, and the other, smaller one, at Chingtao, on the south side. The hills are nearly bare rock, and gravel, and limestone, but an extensive scheme of afforestation has been decided upon. The soil of the valleys between the ranges and the plain country on the north-east is alluvial and very fertile, and is carefully cultivated. Wheat, barley, millet, maize, Indian corn, and many other grains in smaller quantities are grown. Concessions have been granted for two lines of railway running from Kiaochau into the interior, and there appears to be every prospect of the place rapidly becoming a great commercial emporium. The foreign residential quarter at Tsintau has been well laid out, and there is a good foreign hotel. The first sod of the Shantung Eailway was cut by Prince Henry of Prussia in October, 1899. There is a German newspaper published, daily and weekly, called the Deutsch Asiatiaohen Warte. The climate is temperate, and it is expected that the Bay will, in course of time, become a summer resort for the residents of Shanghai, there being an excellent bathing beach. SHANGHAI The most northerly of the five ports opened to foreign trade by the British Treaty of Nanking is situate at the extreme south-east corner of the province of Kiang-su, iu lat, 31 deg. 15 min. N. and long. 121 SHANGHAI 89 deg. 29 mill. E. of Greenwich, at the junction of the rivers Hwang-po and Woosung (tlie latter called by Europeans the Soochow Creek), about twelve miles above the newly-opened treaty port of Woo-sung, now being marked out for foreign residence by a foreign land company, where their united waters deboucli into the estuary of the Yangtsze. Shanghai lies in a vast plain, the nearest hills, of only some 300 feet in height, being thirty miles to the westward. The soil is alluvial and extremely rich ; it supports a great variety of food and other stuffs. Tlris Iviangsu plain has been called "the Garden of China," and the population here is, perhaps, denser than in any other part of the land — eiglit hundred inhabitants to the square mile is not an exas£;erated estimate. Eice, cotton, and grain are the main products in the immediate neighbourhood ; rice to the west and north, cotton to the west and soutli : but with the greater demand for cotton by the mills started within the last few years, the cultivation of rice is being pushed farther away from Slianghai, and cotton is taking its place. The convenience of inland transit is here very great ; rivers, canals, and creeks are in every direction, but they form a great obstacle to free riding and walking. Mulberry trees are not grown to any extent in the neighbourhood. Wheat, barley, rice, green foods of all kinds, cabbage, turnips, carrots, melons, cucumbers, potatoes, yams, chihlies, the egg-plant, cress, etc., abound. Of fruits, Slianghai is famous for its peaclies ; plums, strawberries, cherries (small in size), peepaws (or medlars), and persiiiions are common. The apple and pear, grape, chestnut, and walnut are brought from the north, oranges and bananas in great quantity from the south. The bamboo is common in the district, as is the pine, cypress, willow, and a species of elm. The chrysanthemum and peony are the favourite flowers. Eoses, tulips, pansies, hyacinths, fuchsias, geraniums, and other European flowering annuals, are highly developed in the public and private gardens of the foreign settlements. Of 90 CHINA birds, the crow, magpie, swallow, and sparrow abound ; many species of lark, finch, and thrush are common, and the feathered tribe, as a whole, is plentiful in Kiangsu ; but it is otherwise with four-footed animals. For a more detailed account of the flora and fauna of the neighbourhood we must refer the general reader to Williams' " Middle Kingdom," and the student to the scientific works and periodicals in the Asiatic Society's library. The river opposite the city and foreign settlements, once a narrow canal, was, some twenty-five years ago, 1800 feet broad at low water, but has been rapidly narrowing till it is now only 1200 feet. The Soochow Creek, which was, judging by old records, at one time at least three miles across, has now a breadth of less than a hundred yards. The average water on the bar at Woosung at high water springs is nineteen feet, the greatest depth of late years being twenty-three feet. The bar is the cause of heavy loss to shipowners and merchants through the detention of ocean steamers. After repeated efforts to induce the Chinese authorities to deepen it, an effort was made to cope with the evil by dredging, but after a few months' work it was found that the experiment must prove ineffective, and in September, 1892, it was abandoned as useless. A sum of Tls. 17,350 was subscribed in 1894 to obtain the opinion of a Euopean expert, the Chinese authorities contributing Tls. 10,000, and in the spring of 1897 the services of the Dutch engineer, Mr. de Eijke, were engaged through the Chamber of Commerce to examine into and draw up a report on this question. Mr. de Eijke, with the assistance of the Coast Inspector's department of the Maritime Customs, made a close study of the river and bar, and his report was last year (1899) printed and circulated. As a result it was proposed that a Conservancy Board should be estab- lished, but nothing definite has yet been done. The cost of putting Mr. de Rijke's schemes into operation would be considerable. SHANGHAI 9 1 The approach by sea to Shanghai is now well lighted and buoyed, and the dangers of the ever-shifting banks and shoals as well guarded as can be expected. Under the superintendence of the engineering department of the Maritime Customs, lighthouses have been erected on West Volcano, Shaweishan, North Saddle, Gutzlaff, Bonham, and Steep Islands, Peiyiishan, and at Woo- sung. There are also two lightships in the Yangtsze below Woosung. History. Shanghai — the name means " upper sea " or " near the sea" — is mentioned as existing in B.C. 249. It was a place of some importance in the eleventh century, when it was made a customs station ; it became a Jisien or third-rate city in the fourteenth century. The walls, which are three and a half miles in circuit, with seven gates, were erected at the time of the Japanese invasion, in the latter part of the sixteenth century. It had been an important seat of trade for many centuries before the incursion of foreigners, and even two thousand years ago was celebrated as the seat of an extensive cotton manufacturing industry. Shanghai was visited in 1832 by Mr. H. H. Lindsay, head of the late firm of Lindsay & Co., and the Eev. Chas. Gutzlaff, in the Lord Amherst, with a view of opening up trade. Mr. Lindsay says he counted upwards of four hundred junks passing inwards every day for seven days, and found the place possessed commodious wharves and large warehouses. Three years later it was visited by the Eev. Dr. Medhurst, who confirmed the account given by Mr. Lindsay. On the 13th June, 1842, a British fleet under Vice- Admiral Sir William Parker, and a military force of 4000 men under Sir Hugh Gough, captured the Woosung forts, which mounted 175 guns, and took the hsien (district) city of Paoshan. On the 19th, after a slight resistance, the force gained 92 CHINA possession of Shanghai, the officials and a large pro- portion of the inhabitants having fled the previous evening, although great preparations had been made for the defence, 406 pieces of cannon being taken possession of by the British. The people, however, rapidly returned, and business was resumed. The same force afterwards captured Chinkiang and Hankow, after which the treaty of Nanking was signed, and the ports of Swatow, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to trade. The city was evacuated on the 23rd June. The ground selected by Captain Balfour, the first British Consul, for a settlement for his nationals, lies about half a mile north of the city walls, between the Yang-king-pang and Soochow Creeks, and extends backward from the river to a ditch connecting the two, called the Defence Creek, thus forming what may be called an island, a mile square. The port was formally declared open to trade on the 17th November, 1843. Some years were occupied in draining and laying out the ground, which was mostly a marsh with numerous ponds and creeks. The foreigners in the mean time lived at Namtao, a suburb between the city and the river, the British Consulate being in the city. In two years a few houses were built in the Settlement, and by 1849 most foreigners had taken up their residence in it. By that time twenty-five firms were established, and the foreign residents numbered a hundred, includ- ing seven ladies. In that year an English Church was built, and on 21st November the foundation of the Eoman Catholic Cathedral at Tungkadoo was laid. The French were, in 1849, granted the ground between the city walls and the British Settlement on the same terms, and, in exchange for help rendered in driving out the rebels who had seized the city in 1853, got a grant of the land extending for about a mile to the south between tlio city walls and the river. They have since, by purchase, extended the bounds of the Conces- sion westward to the " Ningpo Joss-house," a mile from SHANGHAI 93 the river. Negotiations were instituted for an exten- sion of the Concession to Sicawei, a village chiefly occupied by the Jesuits and their converts, situated at the end of the French Municipal road and five miles from the French Bund, but in this the French were only partially successful, a small extension as far as the Old Cemetery being granted them in 1899. The exact dimensions have not yet been deliminated. Later on the Americans rented land immediately north of Soochow Creek, in the district called Hongkew, so that the ground now occupied by foreigners extends for about five miles on the left bank of the river. The land in the British Settlement was assessed in 1896 at Tls. 18,532,573, and that in Hongkew at Tls. 10,379,735 ; in 1890 at Tls. 12,397,810, and Tls. 4,806,448 ; and in 1880 at Tls. 6,118,265 and Tls. 1,945,325 respectively, the total of Tls. 28,912,308 in 1896 showing an advance since 1880 of over two hundred and fifty-eight per cent. While the value of the land in the British Settlement had trebled, that in Hongkew had increased to over five times what it was worth sixteen years previously. A great rise in values took place during the later months of 1895, and this has continued during the last four years, chiefly caused by the influx of native capital seeking safe investment under foreign protection, and by the great increase in population resulting from the establishment of numerous cotton mills, silk filatures, and other industries. The rental assessment in 1898 of 482 foreign houses in the British Settlement was Tls. 605,778, and in Hongkew of 700 houses Tls. 383,854; that of 13,821 native houses in the former Tls. 2,192,459, and of 20,126 in the latter, Tls. 1,188,847, a total annual rental assessment of house property of Tls. 4,370,938. During the last four years more than 10,000 new houses have been built. In the French Concession the assessed value of land was Tls. 4,664,942 in 1899 ; the rental assessment of foreign houses, Tls. 83,500, and of native houses, Tls. 506,250. The British and French Settlements, exclusive of the extension 94 CHINA acquired in 1899, are now all built over, and the vacant spaces in Hongkew are being rapidly covered. Many of the best foreign houses, both in the Settlements and outside roads, are now occupied by Chinese, retired officials and merchants. A petition was sent to Peking in 1899 praying for a greatly enlarged boundary for the Settlement, and this had the support of the Consular Body and also of the native officials and gentry, and after much delay the matter was finally referred to the Viceroy at Nanking for settlement. The extension which was asked for has been granted, and the new territory is being actively surveyed by the Municipal Council for the formation of roads, etc. It is already policed. The exact boundaries of the Settlement now are : — Upon the North : the Soo- chow Creek from the Hsiao Sha Ferry to a point about seventy yards west of entrance thereinto of the Defence Creek, thence in a northerly direction to the Shanghai- Paoshan boundary, thence following this boundary to the point where it meets the mouth of the Kukapang. Upon the east : the Whangpoo Eiver from the mouth of the Kukapang to the mouth of the Yangking-pang. Upon the South : the Yangking-pang from its mouth to the entrance thereinto of the Defence Creek, thence in a westerly direction following the line of the northern branch of the Great Western Koad, to the Temple of Agriculture in the rear of the Bubbling Well village. Upon the West : from the Temple of Agricultiire in a northerly direction to the Haiso Sha Ferry on the Soochow Creek. The Japanese treaty of 1896 gave that Power the right to a separate Settlement at Shanghai, but no definite claim has yet been made for such an area. Most of the land along the outside roads, and at Pootung on the opposite bank of the river, is now also rented by foreigners, but natives have recently been considerable purchasers of landed property within the Settlements. All ground belongs nominally to the Emperor of China, but is rented in perputuity, a tax of fifteen hundred copper cash, equal SHANGHAI 95 to about a dollar and a half per mow, being paid to the Government annually. The Settlement land was bought from the original proprietors at about |50 per mow, which was at least twice its then value. Some lots have since been sold at |10,000 to $16,000 a mow. About six mow equal one acre. As a port for foreign trade Shanghai grew but gradually until it gained a great impetus by the opening, in 1861, of the Yangtsze and northern ports secured by the Treaty of Tientsin, and a further increase by the opening up of Japan. In March, 1848, owing to an assault on some missionaries near Shanghai, Mr. Alcock, the British Consul, blockaded the port and stopped the passage outwards of eleven hundred grain junks. This drastic measure, by which grain for the North was cut off, brought the authorities to their ■ senses, and after sending a man-of-war to Nanking the matter was arranged. The first event of importance since the advent of foreigners was the taking of the city by the Triad rebels on 7th September, 1853, who held it for seventeen months, although repeatedly besieged and attacked by the Imperialists. This caused a large number of refugees to seek shelter within the foreign Settlements, and the price of land rose very considerably. At that time a Volunteer force was formed among the foreign residents, under the com- mand of Captain, afterwards Sir Thomas, Wade, which did really good service. The battle of " Muddy Plat " was fought on 4th April, 1854, when the Volunteers, in conjunction with the Naval forces, consisting in all of 300 men with one field-piece, drove the Imperialists, numbering 10,000 men, from the neighbourhood of the Settlements and burned their camps. Two of the Volunteers and one American were killed, and ten men wounded. Owing to the occupation of the city the authorities were powerless to collect the duties, which for a short time were not paid, and it was in conse- quence agreed in July, 1854, between the Taotai and the three Consuls (British, French, and United States), 96 CHINA that they should be collected under foreign control. This was found to work so much to the advantage of the Chinese Government that the system was extended, subsequently to the Treaty of Tientsin, to all the open ports. The Foreign Inspectorate of Customs was estab- lished in 1861, the headquarters of which were for some years, and according to the original regulations ought still to be, at Shanghai, In 1861 the Taipings approached Shanghai, occupied the buildings of the Jesuits at Sicawei, and threatened the city and settle- ments. The capture of Soochow on 25th May, 1860, had driven a large number of the inhabitants of that city and the surrounding districts to Shanghai for pro- tection, so that the native population increased rapidly. It was variously estimated at from four hundred thou- sand to a million, but the smaller number is probably nearer the truth. By 1861 provisions had increased in price to four times what they had been some years previously. Efforts were made to keep the rebels at a distance from Shanghai j a detachment of British Eoyal Marines and an Indian Regiment garrisoned the walls, while the gates on the side towards the French Settlement were guarded by French Marines. In August, 1861, the city was attacked, and the suburbs between the city walls and river were in consequence destroyed by the French, the rebels being ultimately driven back. In December the rebels to the number of one hundred thousand agaiii threatened the Settle- ments. The approaches were barricaded and the Defence Creek constructed and fortified at an expense of forty- five thousand taels. Before the close of 1862 the rebels had been driven by the British forces beyond a radius of thirty miles around Shanghai. So immensely did the price of land rise that it is stated ground which had originally cost foreigners fifty pounds per acre was sold for ten thousand pounds. At this time the old Eace Course and Cricket Ground, situated within the British Settlement, was sold at such an enormous profit that after the shareholders had been repaid the original SHANGHAI 97 cost there was a balance of some forty-five thousand taels, which the owners generously devoted to the foundation of a fund for the use of the public, to be applied to the purposes of recreation only. Unfor- tunately thirty thousand taels of this amount were lent by the treasurer on his own responsibility to the Club, in which institution he was a shareholder. As the shareholders were never able to repay this loan out of the profits on the Club, the building and furniture were taken over in 1869 by the trustees on behalf of the Eecreation Fund, to which the building still belongs. This fund has proved very useful in rendering assistance to some other public institutions, besides having pur- chased all the ground in the interior of the Eace Course, which is now leased by the Municipality and, with the exception of the steeplechase course at training seasons only, set aside as a Public Eecreation Ground, by which name it is known. At the time the local native Authorities were severely pressed they availed themselves of the services of an American adventurer named Ward, who raised a band of deserters from foreign ships and rowdies of all nations who had congregated at Shanghai, with whose help he drilled a regiment of natives. After Ward was killed the force passed under the command of another low-caste American of the name of Burgevine, who subsecLuently transferred his services to the rebels. The Imperial Authorities found it impossible to control these raw and undisciplined levies, and at their earnest request Admiral Sir James Hope consented to the appointment of Major, afterwards General, Gordon, E.E., to the command. Having by him been made amenable to discipline, this force now rendered the greatest service in the suppression of the rebellion ; indeed, it is generally believed that the Taipings would never have been overcome but for the assistance of "The Ever Victorious Army," as this hastily raised band was named. Amongst other services they regained possession of the important city of Soochow on 27th H 98 CHINA November, 1863, which virtually ended the rebellion. There is, however, much room for doubt as to the wisdom of foreigners aiding in its suppression, many of those best capable of judging being of opinion that the civilisation of the empire would liave had a much better chance of progressing had the decaying dynasty been overthrown. Certainly European nations, merely in exchange for the promise of neutrality, might have made almost any terms. A monument in memory of the officers of this regiment who feU stands at the north end of the Bund. From 1860 to 1866 one British and two Indian Eegiments and a battery of Artillery were stationed at Shanghai. Since that time there have been few historical events worthy of record in a brief summary. On Christmas Eve, 1870, the British Consulate was burned down and most of the records completely lost. In May, 1874, a riot occurred in the French Settlement, owing to the intention of the Municipal Council to make a road through an old graveyard belonging to the Ningpo Guild. One or two Europeans were severely injured, and eight natives lost their lives. A considerable amount of foreign-owned property was destroyed. Another riot took place on 16th and 17th July, 1898, owing to the authorities of the French Settlement having decided to remove the "Ningpo Joss-house." The French Volunteers were called out and a force landed from men-of-war, which measures speedily sup- pressed the riot, fifteen natives being reported killed and wounded. An extensive fire in the French Con- cession in August, 1879, destroyed 221 houses ; the loss was estimated at Tls. 1,500,000. In 1894 a fire outside the native city along the river bank having cleared away a great and noisome collection of huts and hovels, advantage was taken of this clearing by the Native Authorities to make a broad Bund on the model of the Foreign Settlement roads. This Bund extends from the south corner of the French Bund, along the river some three and a half miles, to the SHANGHAI 99 Arsenal at Kao Chang Miao. It was formally declared open by the Taotai in October, 1897. A Council has been formed to supervise this Bund and attend to other native municipal matters. The present head of this Council is the celebrated General Tcheng Ki Tong ; its offices are situated in the Bureau for Foreign Affairs on the Bubbling Well Eoad. It is policed by a special force composed of Sikhs and Chinese. A riot occurred on 5th and 6th April, 1897, in consequence of an increase in the wheelbarrow tax. It was suppressed by the Volunteers and sailors from the men-of-war in port, without loss of life. The Consuls and Muni- cipal Council having submitted to the dictation of the Wheelbarrow Guild, an indignation public meeting was held on the 7th April, the largest meeting ever held in the Settlements. At this meeting the action of the Authorities was so strongly condemned that the Council resigned. A new Council was elected and the tax enforced, the French Municipal Council in- creasing their tax in like proportion. The foreign Settlements celebrated their Jubilee on 17th and 18th November, 1893, when, it is estimated, 500,000 strangers visited Shanghai. A medal was struck as a memorial of the occasion. Government. As at all the open ports, foreigners are in judicial matters subject to the immediate control of their Con- suls, British subjects coming under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, which was opened in September, 1865. Subjects of Her Britannic Majesty have to pay an annual poll-tax of two dollars, for which they have the privilege of being registered at the Consulate and heard as plaintiffs before the Court. There is enforced registration at several of the other Consulates, but it is free of charge. Chinese residents in the Foreign Settle- ments are amenable to their own laws, administered by a so-called Mixed Court, which was established at the lOO CHINA instigation of Sir Harry Parkes in 1864, and originally sat at the British Consulate. It is presided over by an official of the rank of Tung-chi, or sub-prefect. The cases are watched by foreign assessors from the principal Consulates. The working of the Court, especially in regard to civil suits, is far from satisfactory, as the judge has not sufficient power to enforce his decisions. The matter has for some years been supposed to be engaging the attention of the authorities at Peking. For the French Concession there is a separate Mixed Court, which sits at the French Consulate. There is a Court of Consuls which was established in 1870, the judges of which are elected by the Consuls annually, its purpose being to enable the Municipal Council to be sued. In local affairs the residents govern themselves by means of the Municipal Council, under the authority of the " Land Eegulations." These were originally drawn up by H.B.M. Consul in 1845, but have since undergone various amendments. In 1854 the first general Land Eegulations — the city charter, as they may be called — were arranged between the British Consul, Captain Balfour, and the local authorities, by which persons of all foreign nationalities were allowed to rent land within the defined limits, and in 1863 the so-called " American Settlement " was amalgamated with the British into one Municipality. The "Com- mittee of Eoads and Jetties," originally consisting of " three upright British Merchants," appointed by the British Consul, became in 1855 the " Municipal Council," elected by the renters of land, and when the revised Land Eegulations came into force in 1870, the " Council for the Foreign Community of Shanghai North of the Yang-king-paiig," elected in January of each year by all householders who pay rates on an assessed rental of five hundred taels, or owners of land valued at five hundred taels and over. The Council now consists of nine members of various nationalities, who elect their own chairman and vice-chairman, and SHANGHAI. lOI who give their services free. The great increase of municipal business, however, is proving so much a tax on the time of the councillors, the chairman especially, that some new arrangement is necessary. The Secre- tariat was in 1897 strengthened, and its efficiency in- creased, but no move in the direction of a change in the Council's constitution has yet been made. A com- mittee of residents was appointed in November, 1879, to revise the Land Eegulations, and their work was considered and passed by the ratepayers in May, 1881, but the " co-operative policy," under which a voice is given to small Powers having practically no interests in China, equal to that given to Great Britain, caused a delay of seventeen years. The Eegulations were again revised and passed by the ratepayers in March, 1898, and in November the Council received a formal notification that the additions and alterations and bye- laws had received the approval of the Diplomatic Body at Peking, and they have the force of law in the Anglo- American Settlement. They give the Council the power which it had been for nearly twenty years trying to get to compulsorily acquire land for new roads, the exten- sion and widening of existing roads, the extension of lands already occupied by public works and for purposes of sanitation, and to introduce building bye-laws. The rights of the foreign renters and native owners concerned are most carefully guarded, for which purpose a board of three Land Commissioners is to be constituted, one to be appointed by the Council, one by the registered owners of land in the Settlement, and one by resolution of a meeting of ratepayers. At the time of the Taiping rebellion it was proposed by the Defence Committee, with the almost unanimous consent of the landrenters and residents, to make the Settlements and City with the district around a free city, under the protection of the Treaty Powers. Had this proposal, which was thoroughly justifiable owing to the Imperial Govern- ment having lost all power in the provinces, been carried out, Shanghai would have become the chief city I02 CHINA ia China, and it is safe to say would have acted as a leaven, to the ultimate immense benefit of the whole Empire. A separate Council for the French Concession was appointed in 1862, and now works under the " Eeglement d'Organisation Municipale de la Conces- sion Franpaise," passed in 1868. It consists of four French and four foreign members, elected for two years, half of whom retire annually. Their resolutions are inoperative until sanctioned by the Consul-GreneraL The members are elected by all owners of land on the Concession, or occupants paying a rental of a thousand francs per annum, or residents with an annual income of four thousand francs. This, it will be noticed, approaches much more nearly to " universal suffrage " than the franchise of the other Settlements, which, however, it is the intention to considerably reduce under the new Eegulations. The qualification for councillors north of the Yang-king-pang is the payment of rates to the amount of fifty taels annually, or being a house- holder paying rates on an assessed rental of twelve hundred taels. For the French Concession the require- ment is a monetary one of about the same amount. Several efforts have been made to amalgamate the French with the other Settlements, but hitherto without success. A revision of the Eeglements for the French Concession has for some time been under consideration. Meetings of ratepayers are held in February or March of each year, at which the budgets are voted and the new Councils instructed as to the policy they are to pursue. No important measure is undertaken without being referred to a special meeting of ratepayers. The Council divides itself into Defence, Finance, Watch, and Works Committee. This cosmopolitan system of government has for many years worked so well and so cheaply that Shanghai has fairly earned for itseK the name of " The Modol Settlement." SHANGHAI 103 Finances. The Ordinary Eevenue of the " Anglo- American " Settlement for 1898 amounted to Tls. 753,270.05 and was derived as follows : — Tl8. Land Tax, five-tenths of 1 per cent 140,291.37 General Municipal Bates, Foreign Houses, 10 percent 94,071.57 General Municipal Kates, Native Houses, 10 per cent 239,735.33 Wharfage Dues, including $14,000 Contribution fromTaotai 69,900.75 Licences, principally vehicles and opium shops 209,271.03 753,270.05 The Ordinary Expenditure for the same year was Tls. 753,098.86, and was divided among the different departments as under : — Tls. Police Department 182,556.10 Sanitary Department, including Hospitals and Markets 89,326.19 Lighting Tls. 46,798.53, Water supply Tls. 13,086.17 59,884.70 Public Works and Survey, including Garden, Cemeteries, and outside roads 212,119.44 Land and Buildings 10,943.44, Stock and Stores 10,894.59 21,838.03 Secretariat, Legal, and General 68,382.75 Interest on Loans of 1888, '90, '91, '92, '93, '94, '95, '96, '97, and '98, ^to 39,490.36 Volunteers Tls. 16,486.58, Fire Department Tls. 10,378.10, Band Tls. 7,636.61 34,501.29 Education Tls. 11,500.00, Museum Tls. 500, Library Tls. 1000 13,000.00 Loans of 1888 and 1890 debentures paid ... 37,000.00 753,098.86 Debentures were issued during 1898, amounting to Tls. 240,000, to which was added Tls. 4,735.90 surplus on Ordinary Income and Expenditure in 1897 and 1898. Against this was expended for Public Works, Tls. 40,047.85 ; for Koads and Bridges, Tls. 95,681.82, for Police Stations and minor balance of cost of Market and Drill Hall, Tls. 66,961.05, leaving a deficit of Tls. 2,404.58 to Extraordinary Budget for 1899. I04 CHINA The Debt of the Municipality at the close of 1898 was Tls. 1,324,245.35 and the Assets were valued at Tls. 1,439,365.75. The margin, Tls. 115,120.40, may seem somewhat small, but the Municipality has generally been able to procure at five per cent, as much money as it has required. The loan of 1898 was, however, issued at six per cent. The Ordinary Municipal Eevenue for 1899 was estimated at Tls. 767,300 and the Ordinary Expendi- ture at Tls. 763,610; the Extraordinary Revenue, to be procured by the issue of Debentures, at Tls. 145,000 and the Extraordinary Expenditure at Tls. 144,605. In 1898 the Land Tax and the rates on Foreign Houses were each raised by 25 per cent. The Eevenue of the French Concession for 1898 was Tls. 196,638.55. The sources from which it was derived were : — Tls. Land Tax, four-tenths of 1 per cent 18,522.45 Foreign House Tax, 4 per cent 3,115.96 Native House Tax, 8 per cent 40,564.72 Licences, principally vehicles, brothels, and opium shops 64,736.21 Cleaning and Lighting Rates and other Taxes 31,211.15 Paid by the Taotal and Bent of Quay s and Jetties 1 6,532.56 Miscellaneous including Tls. 10,954, Subscrip- tions to Electric Light 21,955.20 196,638.55 The Expenditure of the French Municipality in 1897 amounted to Tls. 229,369.42 and was divided as under : — Tls. Secretariat (Staff and General charges) ... 20,492.66 Public Works 116,946.60 Police Department 43,917.86 Water Supply Tls. 7,479.90, Lighting Tls. 15,520.53 23,000.43 Sanitary Tls. 3,799.58. Education Tls. 2,51 7.03 . . . 6,316.61 Volunteers, 3,100.74, Fire Brigade Tls. 2,820.00, Band Tls. 1,500.00 7,420.74 Hospitals and Orphanage 2,477.00 Telegraphs, Telephones, Observatory, etc. ... 5,752.56 Miscellaneous Tls. 1,508.09, "Impr^vu" Tls. 1.511-27 8,044.96 229,869.42 SHANGHAI 105 The Eevenue and Expenditure for 1898 were each estimated at Tls. 187,975.12. Population. The foreign population increased rapidly up to 1865, but declined considerably during the next ten years. The census of 1865 gave the number of foreign residents in the three Settlements as 2757, army and navy (British) 1851, shipping 981, a total of 5589. In 1870 the total in the Anglo-American Settlement was 1666; in 1876, 1673; in 1880, 2197; in 1885, 3673; in 1890, 3821. By the census of 24th June, 1895, there were in the Settlements north of the Yang-king- pang a total of 4684 foreigners ; 1295 in the English division, 2903 in Hongkew, 486 in outside roads and Pootung. Of these 2068 were males, 1227 females, and 1389 children, against 1086 males, 296 females, and 291 children in 1876; and 1775 males, 1011 females, and 887 children, in 1885. The fluctuations in the foreign population have been very remarkable. Between 1870 and 1880 the number of adult males decreased, while in the next five years it increased by over fifty per cent. In the nine years, 1876 to 1885, the whole foreign population more than doubled, but in the next five years it showed an increase of only 148, of whom 144 were children. The increase has been greatest in Hongkew, where the population is five times what it was in 1876, whereas that of the British Settlement is less than in 1885. The foreign population of the French Concession on the same day of 1895 was 190 males, 78 females, and 162 children, a total of 430 against 444 in 1890. A curious fact is that of children under fifteen only 26 were males while 136 were females. The proportion of different nationalities in aU the Settlements was in 1895, 2002 British, 741 Portuguese, 399 German and Austrian, 357 American, 281 French, 154 Spanish, 89 Danish, 88 Italian, 82 Swedish and Norwegian, 31 Eussian, I06 CHINA 111 of various other European nationalities, 322 Eurasians, 268 Japanese, 127 Indians, and 62 Manila- men and other Asiatics. While the adult foreign male population had increased only 61^ per cent, since the census of 1870, the number of women had been multiplied six and of children nine times. The calcu- lated foreign population in 1898 was 5240. These figures do not include the population afloat, which at the date of the last census was 1306, against 1009 in 1890 and 893 in 1885. Although the Chinese have no right of residence within the Foreign Settlement, and indeed were expressly prohibited by the original Land Eegulations, some 20,000 sought refuge within the boundaries from the rebels in 1854, and when the city was besieged by the Taipings in 1860 there were, it is said, at least 500,000 natives within the Settle- ments. As they found some amenities from " squeez- ing" when under the protection of foreigners, and foreigners themselves being able to obtain a much higher rental for their land, and finding native house property a very profitable investment, no opposition was made to their residence. In 1870 there were in the three Settlements 75,047 ; in 1880, 107,812 ; in 1890, 168,129. The numbers by the last census (June, 1895) were, in the British Settlement 116,204, in Hongkew 103,102, in Foreign Hongs in both Settle- ments 6991, villages and huts within the limits 8429, in shipping and boats 6269, total 240,995 ; an increase of 43 J per cent, in five years. The calculated native population in 1898 was 317,000. The native population of the French Concession on the same date in 1895 was 45,758, against 34,722 in 1890, and the boat population about 6000 ; say a total for the three Settlements and afloat of about 293,000, more than half of whom are adult males. Tlie population is estimated to have increased at the rate of twenty per cent, annually since the date of last census, notwithstanding that rents have risen from thirty to sixty and, in some cases, even one hundred per cent., and that provisions and cost of living SHANGHAI 107 generally, both of natives and foreigners, has greatly increased. The majority are immigrants from other provinces who followed in the wake of foreigners attracted by the high wages paid to skilled and un- skilled labour required for the B^ny industries. The population of the native city is supposed to be about 125,000. The large congregation of natives in the Settlements and the outlying roads is kept in admirable order by a Police force of 90 Europeans, 153 Indians, and 550 natives for the north of the Yang-king-pang, and 42 Europeans and 71 natives for the French Concession, or about one constable for every 600 inhabitants. As the natives have to be tried by their own avithorities, and bribery doubtless works its effects in Shanghai as elsewhere in China, the difiBiculties of organising and efficiently working such a small force are considerable. In few places are life and property more secure. In August, 1899, the Captain Superintendent stated that twenty-four hours had passed without one defaulter being reported, a unique police experience for any city of its population in the world. Climate. The climate of Shanghai is generally allowed to be fairly healthy. The death-rate amongst foreigners ashore and afloat during the past two decades has ranged from 16.4 per thousand (in 1897) to 30.8 per thousand (in 1881). The rate in 1898 was 16.7 per thousand. Partial outbreaks of cholera have occurred at intervals, but the larger proportion of the cases were among the ships in harbour. The highest recorded number of deaths from this cause among foreigners was 32, in 1890. Of these, 11 were amongst residents. In 1892, 1893, 1894, 1897, and 1898 there were no deaths from cholera among foreign residents. There were 20 deaths in 1895, 11 of residents, and 10 in 1896, 3 of residents, from this disease. The highest number of Io8 CHINA deaths of foreigners from sraall-pox was 19 in 1896, of whom 8 were residents. There were two deaths of foreigners from this cause in 1897, and two in 1898. In winter cases of small-pox and typhoid are frequent among the natives. Amongst the shore population the death-rate was 162 per thousand in 1898, and has varied, so far as can be estimated in the absence of an annual census, from 25 per thousand in 1880 to 14.5 per thousand in 1884 and 1897, a rate which compares favourably with that of large towns in Europe. The Health Officer in a late report says that " out of the 75 deaths registered there were but nine which can in any sense be termed climatic." The Chinese authorities reported 3129 deaths amongst the natives in the "Anglo-American Settlement" in 1898, which would make the rate about 9.87 per thousand, but that is without doubt very greatly under the real proportion ; 928 deaths of natives were registered as from cholera in 1895, 18 in 1896, and 2 in 1897. and none in 1898, and from small-pox 138 in 1895, 316 in 1896, 02 in 1897, and 63 in 1898. The thermometer ranges from 25 deg. to 103 deg. Fahrenheit, the mean of eight years having been 59.2 deg. ; winter being 39.1, spring 50.9, summer 78.2, and autumn 62.6. Shanghai approaches nearest to Eome in mean temperature, while the winter temperature of London and Shanghai are almost identical. In October and November there is generally dry, clear, and delightful weather, equal to that found in any part of the world ; but when the winter has fairly set in the north-east winds are extremely cold and biting. On January 17th, 1878, the river was frozen over at Woosung. The heat during July and August is sometimes excessive, but generally lasts only a few days at a time. In late }'oars very severe gales have become more frequent. The mean of the barometer in 1898 ^^•as 30.01 inches. The annual average of rainy days in Shanghai during eight years was 124, the annual rainfall 32.464 inches; 55 wet days occurred in winter, and 69 in summer; the SHANGHAI 109 heaviest shower was on the 24th October, 1875, when 7 inches fell in 2>\ hours. Earthquakes occasionally occur, but have not been known to inflict any serious injury. Description. The streets of the English and French Settlements all run north and south and east and west, mostly for the whole length of both Settlements, crossing each other at right angles. They were when first laid out twenty- two feet wide, but have since, at very great expense, been mostly made much wider. Notwithstanding the soft nature of the soil, they are now kept in remark- ably good order, at least the main thoroughfares. The Municipal Council now leases a stone quarry at Pingchiao, in Chekiang, about 150 miles south-west of Shanghai, from which they obtain about 1700 tons per year of the best stone for road-making. Owing to the nature of the ground, expensive piling or concrete foundations are necessary before any foreign building can be erected, and all stone has to be brought from a long distance. The Soochow Creek, between the English Settlement and Hongkew, is now crossed by seven bridges, four of which are adapted for carriage traffic, and the French concession is connected with the other Settlement by eight bridges crossing the Yang- king-pang. It is proposed to culvert and fill in this Creek, and to make a broad thoroughfare along its line. A report on the scheme is being drawn up. There are several good driving- roads extending into the country, two leading to Sicawei, a distance of about six miles, and one to Jessfield by the banks of the Soochow Creek, for five mUes. Another broad thoroughfare, Yangtsepoo Road, runs by the side of the river for five miles, which is intended ultimately to extend to Woosung. The termini of Jessfield Eoad and Yangtsepoo Eoad now mark the limits in their separate directions of the Foreign Settlement. Several other roads have been proposed, but, although foreigners are prepared to pay no CHINA high prices for the land, the opposition of the ofi&cials has hitherto prevented their construction. Now, how- ever, by the granting of the extension of the Settlements, the Municipal Council has the right to build and police roads in certain adjacent districts. At the time the Taipings approached Shanghai, some roads for the passage of artillery were made by the British military authorities at the expense of the Chinese Government, one of them extending for seventeen miles into the country; but, excepting those close to the Settlement, they have now been turned into ploughed fields. The foreshore in front of the Settlement has been reclaimed, raised, turfed, and planted with shrubs, and forms a delightful and spacious promenade. The trees planted some years ago having now attained a good height, and several more imposing buildings having been completed, the English and French Bunds form as magnificent a boulevard as any in the East. Many foreign houses, nearly all of them with several mow of garden ground, have been, and more are still being, erected near the outside roads, especially on the Bubbling Well, Sicawei, and Sinza Koads, which are the main outlets from the Settlement, and from which most of the other roads branch off. These roads are planted with trees on both sides, forming fine avenues of about five miles in length. A small but well laid-out and admirably kept Public Garden was formed about 1868, on land recovered from the river in front of the British Consulate. It has been considerably extended in area by reclaiming the foreshore. A general Public Garden, intended for Chinese, eight maw in extent, by the bank of the Soochow Creek, was opened in December, 1890. There is a public conservatory well stocked with flowers and ferns. A Park, measuring 36-i by 216 feet, is laid out in Hongkew. The Public Kecreation Ground has also been thoroughly drained, turfed, and laid-out, in spaces not devoted to sport, with flower-beds. These arc all under the care of a public gardener, secured from Kew (tardens, in 1899. SHANGHAI 1 1 1 Immeuse sums have been wasted in various attempts to drain the Settlements, principally from the want of skilled direction ; but the great difficulties in this matter, arising from the lowlying and level nature of the ground, have now been fairly overcome, though much yet remains to be done. The Settlements are well provided with telegraphic fire-alarms. The desire of the Municipal Councils to keep the monopoly in their own hands retarded for many years the inauguration of water- works, but a public company is now established, which furnishes a continuous supply of filtered water at moderate rates. A separate system of waterworks for the French Concession is being inaugurated, and the Chinese waterworks, to supply the native city, were completed in September, 1899. The electric light was introduced in 1882, and 141 arc-lamps are erected on the principal thoroughfares and wharves. In 1893 the Municipality purchased the property and business of the Electric Company, but the administra- tion of the Electric Light Department has not given entire satisfaction, and in 1899 the Municipal Council advertised for tenders for the purchase of its plant and the introduction of a private service. The French Municipality has an excellent electric-light service, and the native Bund is lighted by a Chinese Electric Light Company. Shanghai can boast of several fine buildings of various and varied styles of architecture. Trinity Cathedral, erected from a design by Sir Gilbert Scott, is said to be one of the finest specimens of modern ecclesiastical architecture to be found out of Europe. The foundation stone was laid on 16th May, 1866, and the church was opened for public worship on 1st August, 1869. It is Gothic of the thirteenth century, 152 feet long, 58^ feet wide, and 54 feet from the floor to the apex of the nave. The structure was not comj)leted, however, until 1892, when the spire was erected, the cross being placed on the top on the 4th October of that year. It attains a total height of 160 feet, and, like the body of the edifice. 1 1 2 CHINA i3 built of red brick, with stone dressings. The founda- tion of the spire was laid by the Bishop of Mid-China on the 19th August, 1891. There is a fine Eoman Catholic Church in the French Concession called St. Joseph's, built in 1862, and another in Hongkew known as the Church of the Sacred Heart. There are also the Union Church on the Soochow Creek, a handsome church with spire and beUs in Yunnan Eoad, belonging to the American Methodist Episcopal Mission, a chapel belonging to the London Mission, and one to the American Episcopalians, and a very pretty and prettily situated Seamen's Church at Pootung (latterly disused except for the purposes of a mortuary), besides several mission chapels for natives. The Jesuit Fathers have an extensive mission establishment and orphanages at Sicawei, where a mission has existed for over a hundred years. The present church was built in 1851. To this mission is attached a museum of natural history, etc., and an astronomical and meteorological observatory. In connection with the latter there is a time-ball on the French Bund, and the Fathers hope to introduce Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy between Sicawei, Shanghai, and Woosung for signalling purposes. Under the direction of this institution, a complete system of meteorological observations, embracing the whole of the China Seas, is now carried out. The Shanghai Club occupies a large and elaborate building at one end of the English Bund. It cost Tls. 120,000, and at that is said to have ruined three contractors. It was opened in 1864, and has passed through a varied and peculiar history. The present buildings of the British Consulate and Supreme Court at the other end of the Bund were opened in 1873. Near to them there is a fine Masonic Hall recently rebuilt. Amongst the other conspicuous buildings may be mentioned those occupied by the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China, and the Imperial Cliinese Eailway Administration. The SHANGHAI 1 1 3 Lyceum Theatre, situate in Museum Eoad, is a fair building, seating 700 persons, opened in January, 1874. The members of the German (Concordia) Club have also a handsome little theatre attached to their premises in the Canton Eoad. A new Custom House was completed in 1893 on the site of the old building on the Bund. It is in the Tudor style, of red brick with facings of green Ningpo stone, and has high-pitched roofs covered with red JVench tiles. The buildings have a frontage on the Bund of 135 feet, and on the Hankow Eoad of 155 feet. In the centre of the main building a clock tower, supplied with a four-faced clock striking the Westminster chimes, rises to a height of 110 feet, and divides the structure into two wings. The elevation is a very handsome one. Mr. John Chambers was the architect, and the new building adds an imposing feature to the Bund. Another fine building is the Central Police Station in Foochow Eoad, large and spacious, of red brick with stone dressings, but lacking frontage and surrounding space to set it off to its full advantage. The new Town Hall and Public Markets were completed in 1899, and form the first block of buildings erected out of public funds for the public use. They occupy a prominent site, which is bounded by four roads ; the principal front being upon the Nanking Eoad, the main thoroughfare of the English Settlement. The plan divides the block into two portions, the moiety facing Nanking Eoad being for use by the European community as a Town Hall and Market, and the portion in rear as a Chinese Market. This latter is an airy, open building 156 feet by 140 feet, two stories high, constructed entirely of iron and steel with concrete floors and a roof glazed in such a manner as to admit the north light only. A four-way staircase connects the two floors and is surmounted by an octagonal dome 40 feet diameter. The front building is of red brick with stone dressings. The lower floor consists of the European market 156 feet by 80 feet, and an arcade 156 feet by 45 feet employed for the same purpose. A special and striking feature of the I 114 CHINA building is the handsome staircase, entered from Nanking Eoad, and leading to the Town HaU on the first floor. The walls and arches of this staircase are finished in clean red brickwork with stone dressings, the steps being of concrete with stone handrails and balusters, and encaustic tile floors to halls and landings. The Town Hall is also used by the Shanghai Volunteers for drill purposes. It presents an imposing appearance, being 156 feet long, 80 wide, and 26 feet high to the tie-beams of roof, a massively timbered gallery crossing one end. The floor is of teak laid on steel joists and concrete. The open timbered roof is ceiled under the purlins almost up to the apex, with ribbed panels. The windows are of cathedral glass, and the joinery and dado in this room are of polished teak. It is heated by large American stoves, and special attention has been given to the ventilation. Adjoining this Hall are other large rooms used for public meetings, a Volunteers' Club, and other purposes. The buildings are lighted throughout by incandescent electric lights, the Town Hall having six 300 candle-power incandescent lamps, besides the numerous side lights. The whole of the buildings form an effective group, although the narrowness of the streets on the East and West sides considerably detracts from the possibility of obtaining a good view of tlie block. They took about eighteen months to erect, and have been built from the designs and under the superin- tendence of Mr. C. Mayne, c.E., the Municipal Engineer, and Mr. F. M. Gratton, f.e.i.b.a., of the firm of Morrison and Gratton of Shanghai, as joint architects and engineers. A New Mixed Court, an imposing structure, was completed in 1899, and took the place of the dis- reputable building formerly used. A monument to tlie memory of Mr. A. 1>. Margary, of the British Consular service, who was murdered by Chinese in Yunnan, was unveiled in June, 1880, and a statue of the late Sir Harry Parkes, British Minister to Peking, was erected in 1890. A bronze monument, in memory of the heroic death of the crew of the German gunboat IWn, lost in a SHANGHAI 115 typhoon off the coast of Shantung, on 25th July, 1896, was erected on the Bund, at the end of the Peking Eoad, in N'ovember, 1898. The principal buildings on the French Concession are the Municipal Hall and the Consulate. A bronze statue of Admiral Protet, who was killed when directing an attack on Nan-yao on 17th May, 1862, stands in front of the Municipal Hall. The Public Markets of the French Concession are large and well built, and are perfect as regards sanitary arrangements. Institutions. Among the institutions of the place may be men- tioned the Volunteer Defence Force, consisting of Field Artillery, Light Horse, and three Eifle Companies — one of which is German — and a Naval Company, the latter formed in 1898. Originally formed in 1861, it gradually went to decay, until the fear of attack after the Massacre at Tientsin in 1870 caused its revival with considerable vigour. It again dwindled in numbers, but the last re-organisation under Major HoUiday proved successful, there being now over three hundred members, almost all of whom are effective. This is exclusive of the Home Guard and Band. The infantry is armed with the Lee-Metford rifle. A separate Company of Volunteers under the order of the French Consul-General was formed in May, 1897. The Fire Brigade, which is entirely volunteer, with a paid departmental Engineer, consists of four Engine and one Hook and Ladder Companies. It is pronounced to be .one of the most efficient volunteer brigades in the world. There is a Hospital for foreigners, the building for which, although only completed in 1877, is already found inadequate, and several additions have been made. A Municipal Nursing Home with trained nurses also exists. There are also several Hospitals for natives, and three Municipal Hospitals for infectious diseases, and a Municipal Laboratory where vaccine Il6 CHINA and serum are prepared. The other public institutions may be enumerated as, a Subscription Library contain- ing about 20,000 volumes, a branch of the Koyal Asiatic Society, with the nucleus of a Museum, a Masonic Club, a Sailors' Home, a Polytechnic Institu- tion for Chinese, a Seamen's Library and Museum, a Wind Instrument Band, paid by the Municipality, which gives concerts in the Public Gardens every day during the summer months, a Eace Club, possessing a course of a mile and a quarter, a Country Club on the Bubbling Well Eoad, Parsee, Portuguese, and Customs Clubs, also Pony Paper Hunt, Cricket, Eifle, Yacht, Baseball, Eacquet, Golf, Skating, Football, Swimming, and various other Clubs, Philharmonic and Choral Societies, English and French Amateur Dramatic Societies, and other institutions for amusement and re- creation. There ar^en or eleven Masonic bodies, with over 500 membets.^^ 1876 a District Grand Lodge for North China was constituted, with Shanghai as its headquarters. iNDUSTRIEa There are five docks at Shanghai. The one at Tungkadoo, opposite the city, has a length of 380 feet over all, with a depth at spring tides of 21 feet ; the Old Dock at Hongkew is 400 feet long and 18 feet deep at springs ; Messrs. Boyd & Co.'s New Dock at Pootung, at the low» end of the harbour, measures 450 feet on the blocks, 50 feet wide at bottom and 134 at top, is 80 feet wide at entrance between pierheads, with a depth at highwater spriiigs of 22 feet; the works connected with this dock cover an area of 16 acres. Farnham's "Cosmopolitan" Dock, on the Pootung side about a mile below harbour limits, is 560 feet long on blocks, and 82 feet wide at entrance. A Company was formed in 1896 to build a fifth and lai^er dock, which is now in use and termed the Oriental Dock. All steamers and most sailing vessels now SHANGHAI 1 1 7 discharge and load at the various public and private wharves. The premises of the Associated Wharf Companies have a frontage of about three-quarters of a mile. The Chinese Government has an Arsenal, Dock, and shipbuilding establishment at Kaou Chang Miao, a short distance above the native city. It commenced as a small rifle-factory in 1867. The Great Northern Telegraph Company's cable was laid to Shanghai in 1871, and that of the Eastern Extension Company in 1884, there being now three distinct lines of communi- cation with Europe. An overland line to Tientsin was opened in December, 1881, subsequently extended to Peking, and in 1894 connected with the Eussian land lin^s through Siberia to Europe. There is also a line west to Kashgar, and south as far as Laokay on the Yunnan border, there connecting with the French Tonkin lines and to Bhamo, connecting with the Burmah line. A railway constructed by a foreign company was opened to Woosung in June, 1876, but after running for sixteen months it was purchased and taken up by the Chinese Authorities. During the short time it was running the passenger traffic alone covered the working expenses, leaving sufficient profit to pay a small dividend. Towards the close of 1895 consent was given by the Throne for the construction by the provincial authorities of a line of railway from Shanghai to Soochow, a distance of about eighty miles. This is now in course of construction, the portion between Shanghai and Woosung having been opened to traffic on 1st September, 1898. The extension of the line from the present Woosung terminus, across the creek into Woosung proper, is now being made, the final terminus to be Princess Wharf, iiHHie'diately adjoining the old forts. The Shanghai terminus is too far from the Settlement to permit of the lines being of much use in handling cargo from Woosung. The line is to be extended to Chinkiang and Nanking. A scheme for Tramways in the Settlements has often been put for- ward, but so late as 1896 was refused sanction by the I r 8 CHINA ratepayers, which, however, was given at the annual meeting in March, 1898, and in 1899 tenders were advertised for. There are five locally owned lines of steamers running on the coast and the Eiver Yangtsze. Many manufactories under both native and foreign auspices have sprung up of late years, and would have done so in large numbers long ago had it not been that the native authorities offered strong opposition to any manufactures under the control of foreigners, and pre- vented the importation of foreign machinery. Although the right under the Treaty to import machinery is quite clear, the British Government hesitated to enforce it; but the Japanese, in the treaty of 1895 which closed the war, obtained the insertion of a clause specially authorising its importation. The consequence is that five cotton-spinning and weaving companies have been floated, one under the auspices of Messrs. Jardine, Matheson & Co., one under those of the American Trading Company, one under the manage- ment of Messrs. Ilbert & Co., one by Messrs. Amhold, Karberg & Co., and one by Messrs. Fearon, Daniel & Co., which have built mills of from 40,000 to 60,000 spindles each. With the number of mills working and others in course of construction, the place is rapidly assuming the appearance of a thriving district in Lancashire. At the close of 1898 there were nine Cotton Mills in operation, with about 167,000 spindles, and four Chinese owned, with about 146,000 spindles. It is probable, however, that not more than an average of 60 to 70 per cent, of the foreign-owned spindles were at work at one time, taking slack and busy periods together. Approaching Shanghai from "Woosung, the extensive mills of the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Adminis- tration (a native-owned business) meet the eye — the old premises were destroyed by fire in 1893, and the present buildings were completed in 1895. These mills were the first erected in Shanghai, and the ex-viceroy, Li Hung-chang, has a considerable interest in them. Above these on the riverside are the mills of Ilbert & SHANGHAI 119 Co., Jardine, Matheson & Co., and Arnhold, Karberg & Co., referred to above ; while on the opposite or Pootung shore stands the large and busy mill of the International Cotton Manufacturing Co. There are also a number of ginning factories, foreign and native owned. Much of this cleaned cotton is exported to Japan. Of Silk Filatures Shanghai has 25, with a total of 8000 basins, of which five were foreign managed. In 1898 few worked to the full extent of their capacity, and many only very intermittently. The export in 1895 was 6276 bales of one picul (133^ lbs. each), 5293 piculs in 1896, and 11,429 piculs in 1897. One only of these Filatures is the property of a private firm, the others being owned by Foreign or Chinese Com- panies. These Filatures, which give employment to 20,000 Natives, are scattered over the Hongkew and Sinza districts, with the exception of a large one of 300 basins at Jessfield — the Hing Chong Filature. Of other industries we may note Feather-Cleaning Factories, Hydraulic Packing Factories, a native-owned Paper Mill, two Chinese-owned Match Factories, turning out between them some 80 cases, containing each 100 gross of boxes per day. A large Flour Mill (for grinding wheat, which it is said makes excellent flour), two Kerosene Tank Oil and Tinning establishments and works, and various other industries, which are fast increasiag in number. Shanghai bids fair to soon out- rival Bombay as the largest manufacturing centre in Asia. The " Astor House " in Hongkew, the " Central " in the British, and the " Hotel des Colonies " in the French Concession, besides many second-class houses, give hotel accommodation equal to that of any port in the East. There are five daily newspapers, the North China Daily News, Shanghai Daily Press, and L'Echo de Chine, morning; the Shanghai Mercury and the China Gazette, evening ; also four weeklies, the Ostasi- atische Lloyd, North China Herald, Celestial Empire, and The Union. There are four native daily papers, 1 20 CHINA the 8him-pao, the Hurpao, the Sinrwcm-pao, and the Umveraal Gazette, the latter representing the Eeform movement. These are sold at the prices of ten and eight cash, equal to about a farthing. Some of them have a circulation of 10,000 per day. In one matter, that of postal accommodation, Shanghai is perhaps over- supplied, there being British, French, American, Japa- nese, German, Eussian.and Imperial Chinese Post-offices. The latter was organised by and is at present being con- ducted under the auspices of the Maritime Customs. The Municipal Local Post was in 1898 incorporated with it. It undertakes the transmission of small sums of money and accepts the registration of letters. It will probably be some years before the difficulties inevitable in a country like China are overcome, and foreigners are, justly or unjustly, doubtful as to the inviolability of their correspondence. It is understood that China will apply for admission to the Postal Union. Shanghai was made a port of Eegistry for British ships in 1874. All foreign hongs and even private houses have to give themselves fancy Chinese names, by which only they are known to the natives. The system is, however, ■found to have its conveniences. No less than 4308 jinrickshas, 4379 passenger and cargo-wheelbarrows, 701 ponies, and 543 horse-carriages ply for hire in the Settlements, besides large numbers outside. The currency of Shanghai is the tael weight (equal to one and a third ounces avoirdupois) of silver cast into " shoes " of fifty taels, more or less. The foreign banks issue notes of the value of one dollar and upwards for both taels and dollars. Smaller transactions are conducted in clean Mexican dollars, smaller subsidiary provincial silver coins and copper cash. There are eight foreign and numerous native banks in the Settle- ment. In 1896 the Imperial Chinese Bank, under Chinese and European management, was opened by Imperial Decree. SHANGHAI 1 2 1 Trade and Commekce. Shanghai is the great emporium for the trade of the Yangtsze and Northern and Corean ports, and to some extent for Japan. The total import and export trade of 1868 amounted to sixty-five million taels. It steadily increased each year until 1881, when it reached Hk. Tls. 141,921,357, but afterwards showed a great decline, the total for 1884 having been twenty per cent, less than that of 1881. There has since, however, been a rapid recovery, the total trade in foreign bottoms, import and export, for the last eight years, as given by the Customs Statistical Department, being : — Hk. Tls. 1891. 165,643,863 at Ex. 1.53 Mex. $263,282,109 at Ex. 4s. lid., £40,696,199 1892. 166,827,502 „ 1.54 „ $256,914,353 „ 4s. 4id., £36,319,946 1893. 177,017,836 „ 1.54 „ §272,607,467 „ 3«. llilJ., £34,860,386 1894. 195,622,371 „ 1.61 „ $295,389,780 „ 3>. 2{<2., £31,279,202 1895. 218,733,283 „ 1.53 „ $334,661,923 „ 3s. Sid., £35,772,006 1896. 226,912,516 „ 1.53 „ $347,176,149 „ 3s. 4d., £37,818,752 1897. 265,678,990 „ 1.50 „ $398,618,485 „ 2s. lljd., £39,575,099 1898. 261,205,837 „ 1.51 „ $379,320,814 „ 2s. lOJd.. £36,241,776 The quantity of foreign Opium imported recently declined much owing to increased production of and demand for the native drug, the quality of which is now much superior to formerly, and the taxes very much lighter than on that of foreign growth. The import of 1898, 30,229 piculs, showed however an increase of 2700 piculs over that of 1897. The import of the native drug in 1895, as shown by the Foreign Customs returns, reached 10,413 piculs, or more than four times that of 1893. In 1898 it declined to 7850 piculs owing to short crops and greater demand inland. But it must be borne in mind that the great bulk of the native-grown opium which enters Shanghai does not come under the Maritime Customs supervision. An export of the native growth to foreign countries has now commenced. Owing to the increased silver cost the import of Cotton Goods and Yarn, which for several years had shown an annual increase in quantity of over 25 per cent., fell greatly in 1893, but subse- 122 CHINA quently recovered in the year 1896, showing the astonishing increase of 52f per cent, in value over its immediate predecessor. From 64^ million taels in 1896 it fell to 55 millions in 1898. Shirtings and Drills from America now largely outnumber those of English make, for the reason, it is alleged, that freight from America is much lower than from England. The quantity of imported WooUens slowly increased till 1896, when the import was over 57 per cent, greater than in 1895. As with Cottons, this could not be maintained, 1897 showing a decline of 14 per cent, and 1898 of 39 per cent, on that of 1897. Metals imported fluctuated by not more than ten per cent, during each year of the decade, increasing by an average of about five per cent, per annum till, as with most other foreign imports, there was a remarkable rise in 1896, the value in that year being 44f per cent, greater than in 1895 ; 1897 showed a decline of 20 per cent, and 1898 a rise of 23 per cent. The import of Kerosene Oil was 42,821,383 gallons in 1896, 67,359,323 in 1897, and 69,056,545 in 1898. American declined in 1895 to less than half of the import in 1894, namely, from 36^ to 16 miUion gallons, but has increased each year since, reaching over 42 millions in 1898, while Russian case- oil increased from 4 million gallons in 1894 to 17o in 1897, but fell to 8 millions in 1898, and Russian tank- oil increased from 3 in 1894 to 7.41 million gallons in 1897, falling to 5.49 in 1898. The quantity of Sumatra Oil 13i million gallons ; all in bulk, imported in 1898 was double that of the previous year. The importation of Sugar, which was 247,894 piculs in 1892, rose to a million and a qiaarter in 1894, and has remained about the same since, being 1,138,152 piculs in 1898, of this 514,994 piculs was refined, almost entirely from Hong- kong. Of coal more than half a million tons were imported in 1898, of which 476,000 came from Japan. The export of native produce to foreign countries aggregated over 78 million taels, an increase of 23J millions on the 1896 total, wliich fell to 69 million SHANGHAI 12' taels in 1898. The articles in which the falling off occurred were chiefly Eaw Cotton, Filature Silk, Tea, and Straw Braid, all of which had, however, been ex- ported to an abnormal extent in the previous year. The unprecedented prices asked for raw cotton, and great deterioration in the quality of filature silk and of strawbraid, were the causes of the decline in the export of these goods. Eaw Silk increased from 48,472 piculs in 1896 to 63,979 in 1897, and 65,133 in 1898. The net import of silver fell from 36.6 million taels in 1895 to 6.6 in 1896, and to 4 million in 1897, but rose to 9 million in 1898, there being over ten million taels worth of silver bars brought from Japan. The net export of gold has considerably increased in recent years, having been 6.85 million taels in 1895, 7.2 in 1896, 8.67 in 1897, and 851 miUion taels in 1898. The following tables show the export of Tea and Silk for six years : — Tea— Black. Brick. Green. 1893. ... Piculs 281,339 353,910 234,072 1894. ... „ 304,26' r 338,028 230,215 1895. ... „ 358,631 I 412,694 240,689 1896. ... 151,850 175,398 217,425 1897. ... „ 261,16( ; 507,039 204,358 1898. ... „ 320,994 \ 466,421 185,880 Silk. Wild. Waste. Cocoons. 1893. ... Piculs 57,674 6,034 40,628 6,887 1894. ... „ 60,657 9,909 48,191 6,703 1895. ... „ 68,384 10,065 37,743 7,973 1896. ... „ 46,329 9,487 25,877 7,939 1897. ... „ 64,914 12,166 33,900 8,845 1898. ... „ 56,605 11,737 41,726 6,795 The import trade in Foreign Goods for 1898 may be summarised as i follows : — Hk. Tl8. Hk. Tls. From Great Britain 32,814,335 From British America 1,940,914 From Hongkong ... 27,625,216 From Straits and Aus- From India ... 18,943,142 tralia ... 1,787.497 From United States 16,057,183 From other Countries 1,654,392 From Japan and For- From Chinese Ports... 525,216 mosa ... 15,808,048 Prom Continent of Total Hk. Tls. ... 127,156,897 Europe ... ... 10,000,954 124 CHINA The following were the values of the principal classes of Foreign Goods imported during that year : — Cotton Goods Cotton Yam Opium Kerosine Oil Metals Sugar Coal Woollen Goods Ginseng Cotton (Eaw) Machinery Dyes and Colours . . . Tobacco, Cigars, etc. Seaweed Wine, Beer, Spirits Sandalwood Leather and Leather Goods Timber Matches Soap Railway Plant, etc. Hk. Tl9. 35,375,318 19,991,195 17,581,710 8,353,160 7,083,568 5,593,448 4,107,870 2,400,431 1.561,059 1,361,000 1,306,522 1,056,150 783,178 744,456 680,217 671,883 650,796 625,896 601,843 542,863 535,395 Hk.Tl8. Bice .. 510,223 Glass and Glassware .. 483,029 Beche de Mer ... .. 458,716 Needles .. 448,722 Birds' Nests ... .. 404,893 Household Stores .. 401,301 Sharks' Fins ... .. 375,010 Cement .. 369,464 Mats and Matting .. 356,120 Bags .. 285,908 Paper .. 282,300 Medicines .. 266,651 Silk and Silk GoodB .. 262,996 Clocks and Watches .. 247,421 Stationery .. 236,610 Flour .. 226,491 Indigo .. 212,051 Horns .. 203,380 Sundries .. 9,517,653 Total Hk. Tls. ... 127,156,897 Of the total an amount to the value of Haikwan Tls. 97,730,387 was re-exported ; namely, to the Yangtsze ports Hk. Tls. 43,400,556, to the Northern ports, in- cluding Port Arthur, Weihaiwei, and Kiaochow Hk. Tls. 38,530,001, to Ningpo and Southern ports Hk. Tls. 10,833,164, to Eussian Manchuria Hk. Tls. 1,373,389, to Corea Hk. Tls. 1,573,064, to Japan Hk. Tls. 1,105,493, to Hongkong Hk. Tls. 688,143, to Continent of Europe, Russia excepted, Hk. Tls. 28,650, to Great Britain Hk. Tls. 84,564, and to other Foreign Countries Hk. Tls. 108,363, leaving a balance for local consump- tion and stock of Hk. Tls. 29,426,510. Imports to the value of Tls. 2,395,704 were sent to the interior under Transit Passes. Native Produce to the value of Hk, Tls. 76,090,915 was imported in foreign vessels ; namely, from Yang- tsze Ports, Tls. 44,981,483, from Northern Ports, Tls. 15,791,918, from Southern Ports, Tls. 15,317,514, almost SHANGHAI 125 all of which was re-exported, the net native imports amounting to Hk. Tls. 11,259,760. The total values of Exports and Ke-exports of Native Produce to Foreign Countries, Hongkong, and Chinese ports in 1898 were : — Hk. Tls. Hk. Tls. Silk 29,348,659 Opium 1,050,921 Tea 15,376,151 Nutgalls 843,276 Silk Manufactures 8,866,562 Rice 794,051 Cotton, Raw 6,362,658 „ (Free) 194,376 Cotton Goods and „ (Tribute) 2,510,807 Yarn 3,615,717 Books, Printed 759,469 Hides and Horns ... 3,296,043 Bristles 759,108 Straw Braid 3,063,448 Musk 668,818 Furs and Fur Bugd 3,060,115 Ground Nuts 576,070 Tobacco 2,821,302 Fungus 570,229 Cloth and Nankins 2,625,198 Rhubarb 508,054 OiU (Vegetable) ... 2,431,473 Grass Cloth 504,914 Beans^and Beancakea 2,191,358 Varnish 469,957 Paper" 2,160,381 Pottery 437,887 Wool 1,401,903 Vermicelli and Maca Chinaware 1,595,952 roni 429,247 Seeds 1,246,018 Feathers 391,185 Sugar 1,146,903 Sundries 7,436,860 Medicines 1,131,605 Hemp 1,072,354 Total Hk. Tls. .. 112,789,180 Wax 1,070,151 Of this amount there was > sent to — Hk. Tls. Hk. Tls. Continent of Europe 26,964,550 British America ... 356,593 United States and Other Foreign Countries 72,012 MnTii1xiri/i n Talani^a 10,975,853 . 8,546,020 Great Britain To Foreign Countries 69,084,804 Japan . 8,140,826 Hongkong . 8,006,972 Northern Ports 23,998,711 Bussian Manchuria ,. . 2,488,214 Southern Ports 12,270,439 India and Burmah .. . 1,296,386 Yangtsze Ports 7,435,226 Persia, Egypt, etc. .. . 1,005,133 Corea . 828,724 To Chinese Ports, Straits and Australia 403,521 Hk. Tls. 43,704,376 The goods for export brought down under Transit Passes amounted to Tls. 2,843,181, almost all of which was Eefuse Silk and Cocoons. This was a decrease of Tls. 139,670 from that of 1897. The total Carrying Trade, entrances and clearances, 126 CHINA for the year 1898, was divided amongst the different flags as under : — SteamerB. Tonnage. Sailing. Tonnage. Total. Tonnage. Duties. Tls. BritlBli 2,989 4,300,536 127 197,742 3,116 4,498,278 3,744,159 Japanese 698 676,663 4 170 602 676,833 371,940 German 383 605,392 7 11,710 390 516,463 1,125,834 French .. 117 226,108 — 117 226,108 404,592 Swedish and Nor- wegian 133 137,713 — 133 137,713 90,931 American 46 116,158 43 43,292 89 169,450 76,278 Bussian 42 83,372 4 672 46 81,044 35,348 Danish, Dutch, etc 62 58,029 5 4,624 57 62,653 49,065 Austrian 16 44,936 _. ~. 16 44,936 47,808 Chinese 1,680 1,759,998 664 139,652 2,244 1,899,550 555,328 On Opium 405,911 Totals ... 5,956 7,807,905 864 397,123 6,810 8,205,028 6,907,194 Of these 120 steamers and 13 vessels entered, and 330 steamers and 76 sailing vessels cleared in ballast. The total Customs Eevenue, Hk. Tls. 6,907,194, for the same year consisted of — Hl£. Tls. Hk. Tls. Import Duties 3,895,212 Tonnage Dues ... 401,021 Export Duties 1,190,899 Transit Dues 99,098 Coast Trade Duties 242,684 Opium Likin ... 1,078,280 Of the total value of the Imports of Foreign Goods at all the Treaty ports, and from Hongkong and Macao at non-Treaty ports, fifty-eight per cent, and of the Exports to foreign countries nearly forty-three and a half per cent, passed through Shanghai, besides most of the coasting trade ; more than half of the whole trade of China in foreign vessels thus belonging to " the commercial metropolis of China." SOOCHOW Soochow, the capital of the province of Kiangsu, lies about eighty miles west and a little north of Shanghai, with which it is connected by excellent inland water- ways. The city is a rectangle, its length from north to south being three and a half miles and its M'idth from east to west two and a half. It lies not far from the eastern shore of the great Tailiu lake. Past its walls SOOCHOW 127 runs the southern section of the Grand Canal, which joins Hangchow to Chinkiang ; and in every direction spread creeks or canals, affording easy communication ■with the numerous towns in the surrounding country. It is an important manufacturing centre, with a popu- lation of over half a million. Its two chief manu- factures are satins and silk embroideries of various kinds. In addition, it sends out silk goods, linen and cotton fabrics, paper, lacquer ware, and articles in iron, ivory, wood, horn, and glass. Since the opening of the port manufactures on foreign principles have been introduced, and there are now two cotton mills and several silk filatures. Before the Taiping rebellion Soochow shared with Hangchow the repu- tation of being the finest city in China, but it was almost entirely destroyed by the rebels, who captured it on 25th May, 1860. Its recovery by Major (after- wards General) Gordon on 27th November, 1863, was the first effective blow to the rebellion. Since that disastrous period it has recovered itself greatly, and is once more populous and flourishing, though it has not yet attained to its former pitch of prosperity. It was declared open to foreign trade on the 26th September, 1896, under the provisions of the Japanese treaty. The locality chosen for the Foreign Settlement is under the southern wall of the city, just across the Canal, and is a strip of land about 1\ mile long and a quarter of a mile broad. The western portion has been reserved for a Japanese settlement. The govern- ment has made a good carriage-road along the Canal bank for the whole length of the Settlement, on which carriages and rickshas ply, and on fine days the road is crowded with people from the city, amusing them- selves, walking and driving. The net value of the trade of the port passing through the Foreign Customs in 1898 was Tls. 1,527,424, as against Tls. 1,473,453 in 1897, but this represents only a small portion of the total trade of the port, most of which passes through the Native Customs. 128 CHINA CHINKIANG The port of Chinkiang (or Chen-kiang-fu), which was declared open to foreign trade by the Treaty of Tientsin, is situated on the Yangtsze, about 150 miles from its mouth, and at the point where the Grand Canal enters the river. The history of Chinkiang possesses but few features of interest. The town, as a translation of its name implies ("Eiver Guard"), was at one time a post of considerable importance from a military point of view, when all the rice-tribute from the south of China was transported to Peking by the interior route. The British forces captured the place in July, 1842, and as the cutting off of supplies always operates with great effect, the commanding situation thus secured was not long in producing the desired result upon the Central Government, for the Treaty of Nanking was signed a month afterwards. The Taiping rebels entered the town in April, 1853, and continued to occupy it tiU 1857, when they had to evacuate it from the same cause which had made the Government yield fifteen years before. The city lies between one of the mouths of the Grand Canal and the right bank of the Yangtsze. Most of the houses are built on level ground, but the surrounding hills lend a pleasant appearance to the locality, which is considerably enhanced by the bluff scenery of the island of Ts'io-shan. When the city was abandoned by the rebel forces, its destruction was very nearly complete, and it has "even now hardly recovered its former prosperous aspect. The city is enclosed by walls and defended by rather formidable- looking batteries commanding the river approaches. The foreign settlement occupies a tract of land ex- tending from the mouth of the Canal along the bank of the river. The little settlement has a neat bund, is provided with a club, and has small Protestant and NANKING 129 Catholic churches. It was the scene of a formidable riot on the 5th rebruary, 1889, when about half the foreign houses and buildings were destroyed by a native mob. The population of Chinkiang is estimated at 140,000. The net value of the foreign imports for 1898 was Tls. 12,650,707 as compared with Tls. 13,310,870 in 1897. The import of Opium into Chinkiang in 1898 was 2953 piculs, against 2950 piculs in 1897, and 10,900 piculs in 1884, the trade having declined owing to the competition of the lighter taxed native drug. The net value of the trade of the port for 1898 amounted to Tls. 23,143,548, in 1897 to Tls. 24,145,341, and in 1896 to Tls. 22,950,209. NANKING The city owes its present name, " Southern capital," to having been many times the capital of the Empire, the last occasion being in the Ming dynasty at the com- mencement of the fifteenth century. It is also known as Kiang Ning Fu, being the chief city of the prefecture of Kiang Ning, and the seat of government for the provinces grouped under the designation of Kiang Nan. In official documents it is not considered proper to call the city Nanking, since the Government acknowledges but one capital. Besides Kiang Ning Fu, an elegant Chinese name commonly used is Kin Ling or " golden mound," From the fifth or sixth century B.C. to the present there has been a walled city at this place. Nanking was specified in the French Treaty of 1858 as one of the Yangtsze ports to be opened to trade, but was not formally opened until May, 1899. Nanking is situated on the south bank of the Yangtsze, 45 miles beyond Chinkiang and 205 from Shanghai. From the river little can be seen of it except the long line of lofty grey brick walls which encircle it. The walls have an elevation varying from K 1 30 CHINA 40 to 90 feet, are from 20 to 40 feet in thickness, and 22 miles in circumference. They enclose a vast area, a large portion of which is wilderness or cultivated land. The inhabited portion lies towards the south and west, and is several miles from the banks of the river. What- ever of architectural beauty or importance belonged to Nanking perished, or was reduced to a ruinous condition, at or before its occupation by the Taiping rebels. The world - famous Porcelain Tower, the most beautiful pagoda in China, was completely destroyed during this period of its history, and now only broken and scattered bricks remain of the structure that was once the glory of Nanking. It stood outside the waUs on the south side of the city. The celebrated mausoleum of the Emperor Hung Wu, founder of the Ming dynasty (who died in 1398), with other tombs and monuments, known as the Ming Tombs, are just outside the eastern walls. There are many other interesting ruins in or near the city, including the remains of Hung Wu's Palace. Nanking was first brought into notice among Europeans in 1842, in which year the first British Treaty with China was signed here. During the Taiping rebellion no place suffered more. It was first taken by assault by the Taipings on the 19th March, 1853, and after sustaining a prolonged siege was recaptured by the Imperial forces on the 19th July, 1864, a fatal blow to the rebels. Although Nanking has recovered to a small extent from the prostration which attended its iU-treatment during the rebellion, it has never yet attained any commercial importance. A Naval College was opened here in 1890, for which a large pile of buildings was erected. A dozen teachers and instructors ai-e employed, including three foreigners. The Arsenal and Powder Mills, for many years in charge of foreigners, are now entrusted .to native direction. They are situated just outside the South Gate. The missionaries support three hospitals and a number of schools. A macada- mised road has been built from the steamer landing WUHU 131 clear through the city to the Tung-Tsi Gate in the south wall. The carriages and jinrickshas which have been introduced are much appreciated by the people, and it is proposed to construct similar roads to other parts of the city. As the seat of the viceregal govern- ment and by virtue of its historic associations, Nanking still possesses some importance, and will, no doubt, now that it has been opened to foreign trade, regain a degree of its lost prestige. WUHU This port was opened to foreign trade, by the Chefoo Convention, on the 1st April, 1877. It is situated on the river Yangtsze, in the province of An-hwei, and is a halfway port between Chinkiang and Kewkiang, though nearer to the former. It has the appearance of a thriving and busy town, and is admirably located for trade. This is mainly owing to the excellence of its water communication with the interior. A large canal, with a depth of five to six feet of water in the winter and ten to twelve feet in the summer, connects the port with the important city of Ning-kuoh-fu, in southern An-hwei, fifty miles distant. Another canal runs inland for over eight miles in a south-westerly direction to Taiping-hsien, an extensive tea district. This canal, which is only navigable in the summer, passes through Nan-ling and King-hsien, where the cultivation of silk is carried on, and may some day be of importance. The silk districts of Nan-ling and King-hsien are situated within fifty miles of Wuhu. Besides the canals leading to Ning-kuoh-fu and Taiping- hsien, there are two others communicating with Su-an and Tung-p6. It will be seen, from the above enumeration of the facilities for water carriage from Wuhu, that it is calculated to prove an emporium for commerce. The net value of the foreign imports for the year 1898 was 132 CHINA Tls. 3,921,205, compared with Tls. 3,708,869 in 1897. Coal may some day become a considerable article of export from Wuhu, both Native and Foreign capital having been directed to the great coal-fields of the province. The Commissioner of Customs in his report for 1898 summarised the present position of the industry as follows : — " The China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company are interested in several coal districts, and have expended large sums in the opening of their mining property ; the output has thus far been small, owing to the lack of proper machinery and management. The Chin Kang Company, a wealthy native syndicate, have a Government permit to open mines in several districts, and have been prospecting with a view to developing their property in the near future. A number of smaller companies are operating at present with the sanction of the above corporation, to whom they pay a royalty. Two companies representing foreign capital — the Yangtsze Land and Investment Company, Limited, and the I Li Coal and Mining Company, Limited — have purchased a number of the most valuable mining properties in the immediate neighbourhood of Wuhu. Their mines are in some cases situated within short distances of navigable streams." There is a large trade in timber in Wuhu, but that, like all other trade, is in the hands of the Chinese. The net value of the trade of the port for 1898 was Tls. 10,180,529 as against Tls. 8,888,361 in 1897 and Tls. 11,624,828 in 1896. The town is fairly well built, with rather broader streets than most Chinese cities possess, and is tolerably paved. The tract of land selected for the British Settlement, though admirably suited for the purpose, with good deep water frontage, has not yet been availed of, and there are few foreign houses in the place. The population of Wuhu is estimated at 80,750. This city was the scene of formidable anti-missionary riots in June, 1891. KEWKIANG 133 KEWKIANG Kewkiang (now more generally written Kiukiang) is situated on the river Yangtsze, near the outlet of the Poyang Lake, and is a prefectural city of the province of Kiang-si. It is distant about 187 geographical miles from Hankow and 445 miles from Shanghai. Kew- kiang was before the Eebellion a busy and populous city ; but it was occupied by the Taiping rebels in 1853, and before it was given up to the Imperial troops it was almost entirely destroyed. When the foreign settle- ment was established there, however, the population soon returned, and has continued to increase rapidly : it is now estimated at 55,000. The city is buUt close to the river, the walls running along the banks of it for some 500 yards. Their circumference is about five miles, but a portion of the space enclosed is still unoccupied. The city contains no feature of interest. There are several large lakes to the north and west of it, and it is backed by a noble range of hills a few miles distant. The foreign settle- ment lies to the west of the city and is neatly laid out. It possesses a small bund lined with trees, a club, a small Protestant church, and a Koman Catholic cathedral opened last year. The idea which led to the opening of Kewkiang was, no doubt, its situation as regards communication by water with the districts where the green tea is pro- duced. But the hopes entertained respecting the port have never been wholly realised. The total quantity of tea exported in 1898 was 200,686 piculs, of which 40,299 were green, against 192,942 piculs, including 38,734 piculs green, in 1897 ; the export for 1896 was 230,367 piculs. Kewkiang is the port from whence the ware made at the far-famed porcelain factories at Kin-te-chen is shipped. In 1898, 48,646 piculs of this ware were exported. The net value of the trade of the port for 1898 was Tls. 17,500,552 against Tls. 14,865,563 in 1897. 1 34 CHINA HANKOW Hankow is situated on the river Han at the point where it enters the Yangtsze, and is in lat. 30 deg. 32 min. 51 sec. N., and long. 114 deg. 19 min. 55 sec. E. It was formerly regarded as only a suburb of Hanyang, which it immediately adjoins, and which is a district city of the province of Hupeh, but Hankow has outstripped the older city in wealth and importance. These two towns lie immediately facing the city of Wuchang-fu, the capital of the province, which is built upon the south bank of the Yangtsze. Hankow is distant from Shanghai about 600 miles. Attention was first drawn to Hankow as a place of trade by Hue, a French missionary. Captain Blakiston, in his work " The Yangtsze," gives the following correct description of the place and its surroundings : — " Han- kow is situated just where an irregular range of semi- detached low hills crosses a particularly level country on both sides of the main river in an east and west direction. Stationed on Pagoda Hill, Hanyang, a spectator looks down on almost as much water as land even when the rivers are low. At his feet sweeps the magnificent Yangtsze, nearly a mile in width ; from the west, and skirting the northern edge of the range of hiUs already mentioned, comes the river Han, narrow and canal-like, to add its quota, and serving as one of the highways of the country; and to the north-west and north is an extensive treeless flat, so little elevated above the river that the scattered hamlets wliich dot its surface are without exception raised on mounds, probably artificial works of a now distant age. A stream or two traverse its farther part and flow into the main river. Carrying his eye to the right bank of the Yangtsze one sees enormous lakes and lagoons both to the north-west and south-east sides of the hills beyond the provincial city." The port was opened to foreign trade in 1861. The HANKOW 135 British Settlement is located at the east end of the city, which it joins, and is, together with the race- course, included within the city walls, which are quite modern, having been built at the time of the Taiping Eebellion. It is well laid out, the roads being broad and all lined with well-grown trees. The Bund affords a very fine and pleasant promenade, and has an imposing appearance from the river. There are a large Eoman Catholic and small Protestant and Greek churches, the latter a rather handsome structure built by the Eussian residents. Several brick-tea factories owned by Eussians are located in the Settle- ment. A capital club, with tennis- and racquet-courts, bowling-alley, billiard- and reading-rooms, library, etc., is kept up. The river steamers go alongside hulks moored close to the shore; ocean steamers anchor ia mid-stream. The current is very strong in the river. The native city of Hankow presents no distinctive feature. Like all Chinese cities it is a crowded agglomeration of narrow lanes. The population of Hankow is estimated at 800,000. Cotton cloth mills, established by the Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, com- menced running in 1892, and large ironworks at Han- yang have also been established. In August, 1895, the Wuchang Mint was established, the coinage being identical, with the exception of the territorial designa- tion of the Canton Mint. During the last few years foreign interests at Hankow have undergone a marked development, the chief factor in producing the growth being the com- mencement of work on Lu Han Eailway, a trunk-line connecting Hankow with Peking, the contract for which was let to a Belgian syndicate in 1897. The project had been discussed for some years previously, and in view of the importance the port will derive from direct railway communication with the capital, and from the anticipated opening up of the country in other directions, Germany, France, Eussia, and Japan have since 1895 acquired concessions, and an 136 CHINA extension of the British concession has been granted. Thus, while there was formerly only a bund of half a mile in length in front of the British concession, there is now a continuous line of concessions measuring in all over two miles of river frontage. Building is going on apace, roads have been laid out, and the trade of the port in 1898 was the largest on record. Tea is the staple export. The total export of tea from Hankow (including re-exports of Kewkiang tea) amounted in 1898 to 478,338 piculs (of which 288,193 was to Chinese ports), as compared with 410,019 piculs shipped in 1897, and the quantity of brick tea exported in 1898 was 447,006 piculs. In 1898 opium was im- ported to the extent of 469 piculs as against 518 piculs in 1897. It is computed that 70 per cent, of the opium used at this port is native-grown drug ; the im- port of the foreign article is declining. The trade under the transit-pass system is larger at Hankow than at any other port; its value in 1898 was Tls. 9,100,606 as compared with Tls. 9,467,427 in 1897, and Tls. 6,737,406 in 1896. The net value of the trade of the port in 1898 amounted to Tls. 53,771,445, in 1897 to Tls. 49,720,630, and in 1896 to Tls. 44,306,493. YOCHOW Yochow, with a population of 15,000 to 20,000, is situated in lat. 29 deg. 23 min. N., and long. 113 deg. 8 min. E. (Greenwich), at the outlet of the Tungting Lake. Past it ebbs and flows practically the whole of the trade of Hunan, which, however, adds nothing to the prosperity of the place, as it simply passes by after having paid its inward and outward taxes. The city is the gateway of the province and nothing more. The province of Huuan has been to foreign com- merce what Tibet is to the explorer — a Forbidden Land — and its importance has loomed up to the mind with all the charm of the unknown. Its people, too, ha^e YOCHOW 137 had a reputation for savage ferocity beyond all other Chinese. The people are certainly independent, and are anti-foreign with all the feeling caused by the undoubted valour of the myriads of soldiers they have supplied to the Empire during the last forty years, and by the dense ignorance created by their haughty seclusion; but a recent traveller in Hunan, a missionary of over thirty years' experience, has returned deeply impressed with their manly and self-respecting cha- racter, and other missionaries hold the same opinion. They are intensely patriotic, but their patriotism is rather for Hunan than for the Empire at large. The province is rich in many forms of wealth, though the inhabitants say, with a proudly humble deprecia- tion, that it consists of "three parts mountain, six water, and one arable soil." One of the main staples is rice, of which nearly a million piculs are sent out of the province, to Hupeh and Kueichow, in an average year. The Hunan tea sent to Hankow amounts to about six hundred thousand half-chests a year. The timber passing down past Changteh is valued officially at six million taels a year, and is probably worth more. There is also a large production of cotton. The moun- tain districts contain large fields of coal, both anthracite and bituminous ; iron also is known to exist. Sulphur, antimony, nickel, and other minerals are even now exported, and great possibilities of development are undoubtedly to be found. The local trade of the city of Yochow is of no great importance, and it is not likely that there will be much development even after the port has been opened to foreign residence. It is as the gateway of Hunan that the place will obtain any importance — the point at which transhipment must take place from the steamers plying to and from Hankow, to the junks or other light-draught craft carrying the goods to the true commercial centres of Hunan, viz. Changsha and Siang- tan on the Siang Eiver, and Changteh on the Yuen Eiver, both rivers emptying into the Tungting Lake. The 138 CHINA population of these cities cannot be ascertained, but travellers report that each extends for about five miles along the river bank. Above Yochow the navigation presents no difficulties except those arising from shallow water. The so-called Tungting Lake — a lake in summer, but rather a system of wide, shallow, meandering channels separated by vast alluvial flats in winter — is utilised for navigation only along its Eastern edge on the direct line from Yochow to the mouth of the Siang. The bar of this river has from three to four feet of water at the low-water stage, while that of the Yuen is said to have less than three feet; the latter is generally entered by junks through the winding channels of the delta of the Siang, the direct approach across the lake being neglected, probably because with an unfavourable wind the junks now engaged in the traffic must have a bank from which to track, but possibly also because it may not be easy to find the channel. Steam launches now ply from Yochow to Changsha, but take passengers only, no attempt having been yet made to tow cargo-carrying boats. The city of Yochow is perched on a bluff in a very picturesque way. Its site is, however, not adapted for a transit trade, and it offers no shelter for smsJl craft. The port has, therefore, been opened at Chenglin, five miles to the north and only a mile from the Yangtsze, where a small creek provides the needed shelter for cargo-boats, and a good anchorage is found for steamers. Here the Chinese Government has set aside a place for a cosmopolitan settlement, for which they them- selves will provide roads, police, etc. ; the site contains level ground for business purposes, well raised, but not too high, above flood limits, while higher ground gives good and healthy sites for foreign houses. SHASI 139 SHASI Shasi is one of the ports opened to foreign trade under the Japanese treaty of 1895, the official declara- tion of the opening being dated the 1st October, 1896. The port is situated about 85 miles below Ichang, and is situated at the crossing point of two most important routes of commerce in Central China, namely, from east to west and from north to south, and vice versa. The population, according to a census taken in 1896, amounts to 73,400, and the floating population, of which no account is kept, may be estimated at 10,000 more. The town itself is much like other native towns of its size. It lies below the level of the river, from which it is protected by a huge embankment which runs for miles above and below the town. Formerly Shasi was an important distributing centre, but the opening of Ichang to foreign trade diverted much of the traffic to the last-named port. It was hoped that when Shasi itseK was opened it would regain its im- portance as a point of distribution, but the experience now gained shows that the development is likely to be slow. On the 9th and 10th May, 1898, a serious anti- foreign riot occurred at Shasi. The Customs Office and the residence of the Commissioner, the Customs boats, the premises of the China Merchants' Company and their hulk, the office of the Foreign Board, the Japanese Consulate, the premises occupied by the native agents of Messrs. Butterfield & Swire and Messrs. Jardine, Matheson & Co., and a number of newly-erected Chinese houses were burnt by the mob. Kerosene oil being used to feed the conflagration, and the foreign residents were driven out of the port, narrowly escaping with their lives. The Custom House was re-opened on the 1st July of the same year. In August, 1898, an area of 3800 Chinese feet in length, by 800 to 1200 in breadth, lying along the river-side below the town, was assigned to Japan as a Japanese I40 CHINA concession. The British Consulate was withdrawn in January, 1899, British interests being placed under the care of the Consul at Ichang. The estimated value of the trade of the port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs was in 1898 Tls. 171,110, showing a decrease of Tls. 145,402 on the previous year. The bulk of the carrying trade is, however, carried on by junks, which do not come under the control of the Foreign Customs. '*o'- ICHANG Is one of the four ports opened to foreign trade on the 1st April, 1877, in accordance with clause 1, section 3, of the Chefoo Convention. Ichang is situated in lat. 30 deg. 44 min. 25 sec. N., long. Ill deg. 18 min. 34 sec. E., on the left bank of the river Yangstze, about 393 miles above Hankow, and some ten miles below the entrance to the great Ichang gorge. The navigation of the river to this port is comparatively easy for vessels of light draught, but great care is necessary for all vessels when in the neighbourhood of Sunday Island, owing to the shifting sandbanks. The anchorage is off the left bank, opposite the foreign residences, and is good, except in freshets, when the anchors should be sighted every two or three days. The port is the centre of a hilly country, the productions of which are rice in the valleys, cotton on the higher grounds, winter wheat, barley, and also the tungtzu trees, from which the ordinai-y wood oil is obtained by pressing the nuts gathered from the trees. In the sheltered vaUeys, amongst the mountain ranges west of the city, oranges, lemons, pomelos, pears, plums, and a very superior quality of persimmons ai-e grown and find a ready market in the city and at Shasi. Ichang has increased in importance since the opening of Chungking. All cargo for the latter port is landed here and trans- ferred to chartered junks. In the same way cargo CHUNGKING 141 brought down in chartered junks from Chungking and intended for the lower river and coast ports is shipped here on river steamers, which make regular voyages to and from Hankow. Native opium is largely grown froD(i here westwards, and is increasing in quantity and improving in quality. The climate of Ichang is drier than that of the lower river ports — summers very warm, winters dry and pleasant. The native population is estimated at about 35,000. The foreign residents are few in number, educated native agents representing the four or five foreign hongs doing business here. Fine new Consular and Customs buildings have recently been erected, and have improved the appearance of the Settlement very much. The net value of the trade of the port, excluding transhipment cargo, was in 1898 Tls. 1,295,729, in 1897 Tls. 1,794,380, and in 1896 Tls. 2,210,301. The foreign imports amounted to Tls. 490,282. The gross value of the trade of the port, including re-exports, was in 1898 Tls. 16,089,058, in 1897 Tls. 18,750,433, in 1896 Tls. 15,089,604. CHUNGKING The city of Chungking, situated in lat. 29 deg. 33 min. 30 sec. N., long. 107 deg. 2 min. E., may well be described as not only the commercial capital of Szechuen, but of the whole of "Western China. The foreign import trade centres here, and is then distributed by a smaller class of trading junks up the various rivers of the province. AU exports — yellow silk, white wax, hides, leather, feathers, bristles, rhubarb, musk, opium, and the large assortment of Chinese medicines — are received, assorted, repacked, and shipped to Ichang, Hankow, and Shasi, consignments to the latter port being transhipped there into smaller junks, and 142 CHINA forwarded to the southern provinces, via the Tungting lake. The city occupies the end of a high and rocky blufif forming a peninsula at the junction of the river Kia-ling with the Yangtsze, 1400 miles from the mouth of the latter. The principal streets of the city, in which are many fine shops, are on the side of the Yangtsze. It is surrounded by a crenelated stone wall in good repair, which is some five nules in circumference, pierced with nine gates. This wall was built in 1761, replacing an older one. The climate of Chungking is depressing, the summer being hot and damp, the winters raw and chilly, with thick fogs from November to March. Spring and autumn can indeed hardly be said to exist. The ordinary rise of the river is about 70 feet ; in 1892 it rose 96 feet, and in 1897 to 101 feet, the water not being able to force its way fast enough through the gorges. An extraordinary landslip occurred in Sep- tember, 1896, some distance below Chungking, which formed a dangerous rapid, and greatly interfered with traffic on the river. Operations are now in progress for the removal of the obstruction. On the Irft bank of the Kia-ling and facing Chungking, extending below the junction of the two rivers, is the walled city of Kiang-Peh-ting, formerly within the district of Li Min Fu, but now incorporated in Chungking Fu. These two cities and the large villages in their immediate neigh- bourhood are estimated to contain a population of about 300,000. The port was declared open to foreign trade in March, 1891, but business did not actually commence until the 18th June, since which date a large trade has been done both in imports and exports, canied in foreign char- tered junks, but latterly the trade has been checked by rebellious disturbances. The net value of the trade for 1898 was Tls. 17.426,872, for 1897 Tls. 17,971,376, and for 1896 Tls. 13,131,509. The Yangtsze is navigable for steamers from Ichang, not only to Chungking, but as far as Suchau-fu, where HANGCHOW 143 the Min river joins the Yangtsze, but before the Japanese war steamers were not allowed to ascend above Ichang. By the Japanese treaty of 1894, how- ever, the right of steam navigation to Chungking was secured, and in the spring of 1898 the voyage was suc- cessfully accomplished by Mr. A. J. Little with the small steamer Leechuen, which, however, being of limited power, had to be tracked up the rapids in the same way as junks. HANGCHOW Hangchow, the capital of the province of Chekiang, is situated 150 miles south-west of Shanghai, and 127 miles south of Soochow, on the Chien-tang Eiver at the apex of a bay which is too shallow for the navigation of steamers. The mouth of the river is, moreover, periodically visited by a bore or tidal wave, which fiurther endangers the navigation. Haining is the best place for observing this famous bore, which is formed by the north-east trade wind heaping up the water of the Pacific on the China coast and causing enormous tides. Hangchow Bay is shaped like a funnel, and the mass of water rushing up, more and more concentrated as it advances, is suddenly confronted by the current of the river. The momentary check causes the water to assume a wall-like formation ; then, growing to a height of 15 feet, and gathering momentum with the immense pressure behind, forcing its volume into the comparatively narrow waterway, it tears past the sea- wall with a roar like thunder at a rate sometimes exceeding 15 miles an hour. Before the Taiping re- bellion Hangchow shared with Soochow the reputation of being the finest city in the Empire, on account of its wealth and splendour, but it was almost destroyed by the rebels. It has since rapidly recovered, and is once more populous and flourishing, though it has not yet 1 44 CHINA regained its former pitch of prosperity. The popula- tion is estimated at 750,000, including suburbs. As a manufacturing centre Hangchow takes place even before Soochow. Its three great trades are silk-weaving, including several kinds of crape and gauze, the produc- tion of fans of all kinds, and the making of thin tinfoil, from which are formed the imitation ingots of silver, burnt as sacrificial offerings by the Chinese. In addition, it sends out thread, string, colours, drugs, lacquer, and many other articles in small quantities. The communication by water with Shanghai is par- ticularly good, and might be much improved with very little trouble by a small amount of dredging at a spot in the Grand Canal twenty miles from Hangchow. Ningpo, about eighty miles distant, can also be reached by boat from Hangchow, but the canals are not so large and convenient. Hangchow was declared open to foreign trade on the 26th September, 1896, in accordance with the terms of the Japanese treaty. Steam launches ply regularly to and from Shanghai, and to and from Soo- chow, with passenger-boats in tow, making the trip in from 18 to 24 hours. One of the sights of Hangchow is the famous western lake, dotted with islets crowned with shrines and memorial temples, and spanned by causeways joining island to island. The general pic- turesque effect is heightened by temples, pagodas, and similar monuments judiciously placed in effective spots, while the slopes of the hills bordering the lake on the west are bright with azaleas, honeysuckle, and peach- bloom, and* clusters of bamboos, several kinds of conifers, the stillignia, camphor tree, and maple in rich profusion, all help to make the scene ideally perfect. The site selected for the Foreign Settlement extends for a mile along the east bank of the Grand Canal ; it covers over half a square mile, and is about four miles from the city wall. The Custom House and Commis- sioner's and Assistants' residences are built on the Cus- toms Lot, and an imposing Police Station has also been put up. On the west side, opposite the Settlement, a NINGPO 145 cotton mill, owned by Chinese and built and worked on western lines, is in operation. A native-owned steam silk filature is also in existence, although not working for the present. The net value of the trade of the port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs for 1897 was Tls. 7,670,619, and for 1898 Tls. 7,993,479. The commodities chiefly dealt in were opium, tin, Japanese copper, kerosine oil, soap, sugar, prepared tobacco, varnish, paper fans, silk piece goods, raw silk, and tea. The imports of foreign goods amounted to Tls. 2,086,840, and the exports to Tls. 5,033,245. A brisk trade has been done during 1899. NINGPO Ningpo is situated on the river Yung, in the province of Chekiang, in lat. 29 deg. 55 min. N., and long. 121 deg. 22 min. E. It was one of the five ports thrown open to foreigners in 1842. Foreigners had, however, visited Ningpo at an early date. Portuguese traded there in 1522 ; a number of them settled in the place in that and succeeding years, and there was every prospect of a rising and successful Settlement soon being established. But the lawless acts of the Portu- guese soon attracted the attention of the Government, and in 1542 the Governor of Chekiang ordered the Settlement to be destroyed and |the population to be exterminated. A large force of Chinese troops soon besieged the place, destroying it entirely, and out of a population of 1200 Portuguese, 800 were massacred. No further attempt at trade with this port was made till towards the close of the seventeenth century, when the East India Company established a factory at the island of Chusan, some forty miles from Ningpo. The attempt to found a trade mart there, however, proved unsatis- factory, and the factory was abandoned after a very few years' trial. The port was deserted by foreigners for 146 CHINA many years after that. When hostilities broke out between Great Britain and China in 1839, the fleet moved north from Canton, and on the 13th October, 1841, occupied Ningpo, and an English garrison was stationed there for some time. In March, 1842, an attempt was made by the Chinese to retake the city, but the British artillery repulsed them with great slaughter. Ningpo was evacuated on May 7th, and, on the proclamation of peace in the following August, the port was thrown open to foreign trade. Ningpo is built on a plain which stretches away to a considerable distance on either side. It is a walled city, the walls enclosing a space of some five miles in circumference. The walls are built of brick, and are about twenty-five feet higL They are fifteen feet wide at the summit, and twenty-two at the base. Access is obtained to the town by six gates. A large moat com- mences at the north gate and runs along the foot of the wall for about three miles on the landward side, until it stops at what is called the Bridge Gate. The main street runs from east to west. Several of the streets are spanned by arches erected in memory of distinguished natives. Ningpo has been celebrated as possessing the fourth library of Chinese works, in point of numbers, which existed in the empire. It was owned by a family who resided near the south gate. The site occupied by the foreign residences is on the north bank of the river. The population of Ningpo is estimated at 255,000. The foreign trade at Ningpo has never been large. This is owing to a considerable extent to the proximity of Shanghai; the native guilds preventing direct dealings with foreigners. A Cotton - mill was es- tablished in 1896, and commenced work in June of that year. Of Tea, there were 54,029 piculs exported in 1898, 75,399 in 1897, and 178,004 in 1896, the falling off being due to a diversion of the Fychow tea trade, which formerly passed through this port, but is now forwarded to Shanghai via Hangchow. WENCH OW 147 The net value of the trade ot the port was Haikwan Tls. 14,418,534 in 1898, Tls. 16,042,136 in 1897, and Tls. 17,123,444 in 1896. WENCHOW Wenchow-fu, one of the five ports opened to foreign trade by the Chefoo Convention, is the chief town in the department of the same name occupying the south- east corner of Chekiang province. The city is situated on the south bank of the river Ou-kiang, about twenty miles from its mouth, in lat. 27 deg. 18 min. 4 sec. N., long. 120 deg. 38 min. 28 sec. E. The site is a well- cultivated plain, bounded on all sides, but at a distance of some five miles, by lofty hills. The walls are said to have been first erected during the fourth century, and enlarged and re-built by the Emperor Hung Wu in 1385. They are formed of stone, diagonally laid at the foundation, and partly also of brick, and measure about four miles in circumference. The streets are wider, straighter, and cleaner than those of most Chinese cities. They are mostly well paved with brick and kept in careful repair by the householders. They slope down on either side to waterways, which in their turn com- municate with canals permeating the whole city. There are numerous large nunneries and temples in Wen- chow. The Custom House, outside the chief gate, known as the Shwang Men or "Double Gate," the Taotai's Yamen, the Prefect's and other public offices in a cluster, and the Foundling Hospital, all near the centre, are the other chief buildings. The latter insti- tution, built in 1748, contains one hundred apartments. Among the objects of greatest interest and curiosity to the stranger are two pagodas situated on " Conquest " Island, abreast of the city. They are both of great antiquity and, with the houses close by, were for some time the retreat of Ti Ping, the last Emperor of the Sung dynasty, when seeking to escape from the Mongols 148 CHINA under Kublai Khan. The British Consul and the Customs outdoor staff occupy foreign-built houses on the island. His Majesty Ti Ping has left behind him autographs preserved to this day in the adjoining temple. The estimated population of the city is 80,000. There is no foreign settlement at W^nchow, and the foreign residents are a mere handful, consisting almost entirely of ofBcials and missionaries. A large quantity of native opiuin is produced in the vicinity of Wen- chow. There is a considerable native export trade in wood, charcoal, and bamboos, brought down the river on rafts from Ch'u-chow. The annual value of this trade is estimated to be not less than $2,000,000. The shops and yards engaged in it are situated in the west suburb, where immense quantities of bamboos and poles are kept on hand. Wenchow is also celebrated for its bitter oranges. The export of Tea in 1898 was 13,047 piculs, as compared with 13,310 piculs in 1897. The value of the net trade of the port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs for 1898 was Tls. 1,437,728, for 1897 Tls. 1,255,204, and for 1896 Tls. 1,083,221. SANTU (FUNING-FU) Santu was voluntarily opened to foreign trade by the Chinese Government on the 1st May, 1899. It is a port in the Samsah Basin, a few miles north of Foochow. A good deal of the tea shipped from Foochow comes from Samsah district, but owing to the opposition of the carrying coolies, who thought their earnings were threatened by the opening of the new port, there was little direct shipment in 1899. The Samsah Basin, on account of its picturesque scenery, has been described as a miniature Inland Sea of Japan. FOOCHOIV 149 FOOCHOW Foochow (or Fuh-chau-fu) is the capital of the Fokien province. It is situated in lat. 26 deg. 02 min. 24 sec. N., and long. 119 deg. 20 min. E. The city is built on a plain on the northern side of the river Min, and is distant about thirty-four miles from the sea, and nine miles from Pagoda Island, where foreign vessels anchor. The attention of foreigners was early attracted to Foochow as a likely place where commercial inter- course could be profitably carried on in the shipment of Bohea Tea, which is grown largely in the locality. Before the port was opened, this article used to be carried overland to Canton for shipment, a journey which was both long and difficult. The East India Company, as early as 1830, made representations in favour of the opening of the port, but nothing definite was done till the conclusion of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. The early years of intercourse with the natives were anything but what was anticipated. The navigation of the river was difiicult, there was no market for imports, and several attacks by the populace rendered the port an undesirable place of residence for some time. It was not until some ten years after the port had been opened that there was much done in the export of tea from the interior, but after that the quantity shipped increased largely, and Foochow became one of the principal tea ports in China. Since 1880, when the tea trade of the port reached its highest figure, the export being 737,000 piculs, the prosperity of the place has been on the wane, and in 1898 the shipment of this its staple product was 305,555 piculs only, including 35,962 piculs brick tea. The city is built around three hills, and the circuit of the walled portion is between six and seven miles in 1 50 CHINA length. The walls are about thirty feet high, aud twelve feet wide at the top. The streets are narrow and filthy, but the number of trees about the official quarter of the city, and the wooded hills enclosed by the walls, give a picturesque appearance to the general view. Two well-preserved pagodas stand within the city walls. Near the east gate of the city are several hot springs, which are used by the natives for the cure of skin diseases, and are believed to be very efficacious. The Foochow people excel in the manufacture of minia- ture monuments, pagodas, dishes, etc., from what is called " soap-stone," and in the construction of artificial flowers, curious figures of birds, etc. A few miles above the city the river divides into two branches, which, after pursuing separate courses for fifteen miles, unite a little above Pagoda Anchorage. The Foreign Settlement stands on the northern side of the island thus formed, and which is called Nantai. A bridge across the river, known as the Long Bridge or Bridge of the Ten Thousand Ages, aifords access to the city. The climate of Foochow is mild and delightful for about nine months of the year, but in the summer it is rather trying, the range of the thermometer then being from 74 deg. Fahr. to 98 deg. A refuge from the heat of summer can, however, be gained by a three hours' chair-ride to the top of Kuliang, which mountain resort is now much frequented by the foreign residents. The thermometer indicates an average of 10 degrees cooler on the mountain than it is in Foochow ; the nights are always cool, and blankets a necessity for comfort. Sharp Peak also affords a seaside and bathing resort which is much appreciated. The scenery surrounding Foochow is very beautiful. In sailing up the Min river from the sea, vessels have to leave the wide stream and enter what is called the Kimpai Pass, which is barely half a mile across, and enclosed as it is by bold, rocky walls, it presents a very striking appearance. The Pass of Min-ngan is narrower, and with its towering cliffs, surmounted by fortifications FOOCHOW 151 and cultivated terraces, is extremely picturesque, and has been compared to some of the scenes on the Ehine. The Yung Fu, a tributary of the Min, also affords some charming scenery, the hills rising very abruptly from the river bank. The Min Monastery, the Moon Temple, and the Kushan Monastery, all occupying most romantic and beautiful sites, are fine specimens of Chinese religious edifices, and are much resorted to by visitors. Game abounds in all the ravines and mountains in the vicinity of Foochow, while tigers and panthers are common in the more remote hills, and some of these beasts have been killed within ten miles of the city. On the 1st August, 1895, a fearful massacre of missionaries occurred at Hwasang, a village near Kucheng, 120 miles west of Foochow, nine adults (eight of them ladies) and one child being killed, and another child receiving injuries from which it died some days later. Foreign vessels, with the exception of those of very light draught, are compelled to anchor at Pagoda Island owing to the shallowness of the river, which has been increasing of late years, and the difiiculties of navigation ; even at the anchorage the river is silting up in several places. The limits of the port of Foochow extend from the City Bridge to the Kimpai Pass. The Mamoi Arsenal, near Pagoda Anchorage, is an extensive Government establishment, where several good-sized gunboats have been built. The Arsenal was bombarded by the French on the 23rd and 24th August, 1884, and reduced to partial ruin, but has since been restored. The establishment is now being re-organised, and is adminis- tered by French experts. The construction of a new dock in connection with the Arsenal was commenced in November, 1887, on Losing Island. The dock is over 300 feet long, and has very powerful pumps and a good steel caisson. A small daily paper called the Foochow Echo is published. The population of Foochow is estimated at 650,000. The net value of the trade of the port coming under 152 CHINA tlie cognizance of the Foreign Customs was lor 1898 Tls. 15,725,908, for 1897 Tls. 13,556,494, and for 1896 Tls. 14,622,764. AMOY Amoy was one of the five ports open to foreign trade before the ratification of the Treaty of Tientsin- It is situated upon the island of Haimun, at the mouth of the Pei Chi or Dragon Kiver, in lat. 24 deg. 40 min. N., and long. 118 deg. E. It was the scene of trade with western nations at a very early date. The Portuguese went there in 1544, but in consequence of their cruelty towards the natives, the Chinese authorities forcibly expelled them, and burned thirteen of their vessels. The English had commercial dealings there up to 1730, when the Chinese Government issued an edict pro- hibiting trade with foreigners at all ports except Canton. They made an exception as regards Spanish ships, which were allowed to trade at Amoy. The vessels of other nationalities, however, continued to visit the place and did so till the city was captured in 1841. The Treaty of Nanking was signed soon after- wards, by which all foreigners were admitted to trade there. In describing Amoy, Dr.Williams says : — " The island (upon which Amoy is built) is about forty miles in circumference and contains scores of large villages besides the city. The scenery within the bay is pic- turesque, caused partly by the numerous islands which define it, surmounted by pagodas or temples, and partly by the high barren hills behind the city. There is an outer and an inner city, as one approaches it seaward, divided by a high ridge of rocky hills having a fortified wall running along the top. A paved road connects the two. The entire circuit of the city and suburbs is about eight miles, containing a population of 300,000, while that of the island is estimated at 100,000 more. AAfOV 153 The harbour is one of the best on the coast ; there is good holding ground in the outer harbour, and vessels can anchor in the inner, within a short distance of the beach, and be perfectly secure ; the tide rises and falls from fourteen to sixteen feet. The western side of the harbour, here from 675 to 840 yards wide, is formed by the island of Kulangsu. It is a picturesque little spot, and maintains a rural population of 3500 people. Eastward of Amoy is the island of Quemoy or Kinmun (Golden Harbour), presenting a striking con- trast in the low foreground on its south shore to the high land on Amoy." The population of the city is, however, now estimated at 96,000. Amoy ranks as a third-class city. It is considered, even for China, to be very dirty, and its inhabitants are unusually squalid in their habits. There are several places of interest to foreigners in the vicinity, and excursions can be made to Chang-chow-fu, the chief city of the department of that name, and situated about 35 miles from Amoy. The island of Kulangsu is about a third of a mile from Amoy, and the residences of nearly all the foreigners are to be found there, although most of the foreign business is transacted on the Amoy side. There is a good Club in the Settlement, adjoining which is the cricket-ground. A neat little Anglican Church has also been erected. A Japanese Settlement was marked out in 1899. There are three granite docks at Amoy, the largest being 310 feet by 60 feet ; they are owned and managed by foreigners. A small shipping sheet called the Amoy Gazette is published daily. The foreign residents number about 280. There has always been a comparatively good trade done at Amoy, There is frequent and pretty regular steamer communication with Hongkong, Swatow, and Foochow. Direct communication with Manila and the Straits Settlements is also maintained. The total export of Tea for 1898 was 150,442 piculs (including 140,969 piculs re-exported) as against 144,420 piculs (including 132,293 piculs re-exported) in 1897 and 213,017 piculs 154 CHINA in 1896. The Tea re-exported is mostly from Formosa. The export of Sugar for 1898 was 953 piculs to foreign countries, and 187,041 to Chinese ports. The net importation of Opium for 1898 was 3790 piculs as compared with 4306 piculs in 1897 and 3818 piculs in 1896. The net value of the trade of the port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs was for 1898 Tls. 13,251,360, for 1897 Tls. 12,973,616, and for 1896 Tls. 13,012,047. SWATOW Swatow, which was first thrown open to foreigners by the Treaty of Tientsin, is situated at the mouth of the river Han, near the eastern border of the Kwangtung province, in lat. 23 deg. 20 min. 43 sec. N., and long. 116 deg. 39 min. 3 sec. E. It is the shipping port for the city of Cha'o-chow-fu, the seat of the local govern- ment, 35 miles inland, and San-Ho-Pa, 40 miles farther up the river. Swatow is built on the northern bank of the Han, which forms part of an alluvial plain through which the branches of the river flow. The shore on the opposite side is bold and striking, the hills stretching away to the coast and forming what is known to sea- going people as the " Cape of Good Hope ; " Pagoda HiU rises at the opposite side ; and in a direct line from this lies the large island of Namoa. The first foreign trading depot in this locality was inaugurated at Namoa, where the opium vessels used to anchor, but it was subsequently removed to Double Island, which is situated just inside the river and is four miles from Swatow. Foreigners here made them- selves notorious in the early years of the Settlement by the kidnapping of coolies, and so strong was the feeling shown against them by the natives that no foreigners were safe far from Double Island, while they were strictly forbidden to enter Swatow, and it was not SWA TOW 155 until 1861 that they could do so. In tlie country round Swatow the antipathy to foreigners was of much longer duration. The British Consul was held techni- cally to reside at Cha'o-chow-fu, and subsequent to 1861 several ineffectual attempts were made to pass tlirough its gates. In 1866 a visit was made under more favourable circumstances, but it is only within the last few years that the population has refrained from annoyance and insult to foreigners within its walls. In 1862 the lease of a piece of land was applied for and granted to the British Government on the north bank of the river about a mile from Swatow, but so strong were the demonstrations of the populace against it that the matter fell through. Foreign residences, however, commenced to spring up here and there, and many of them are consequently somewhat scattered, though the majority are in or near the town of Swatow. The yearly increasing traffic of the port has led to much overcrowding on the narrow strip of land on which it is built, and since February, 1877, no less than 21J acres have been reclaimed from the sea, the greater part of which is now covered with shops and houses. The climate of Swatow is reputed to be very salu- brious. The town occupies, however, an unenviable position as regards typhoons, on account of being opposite the lower mouth of the Formosa Channel, and it has on many occasions been subjected to all the violence of these terrible storms, which almost every year sweep across the lower coast of China. The population of Swatow is estimated at 35,000. The foreign trade of Swatow has never been large, but of late years it has shown a slight increase. A considerable trade is done in Sugar, there having been 789,298 piculs brown and 667,465 picuLs white exported in 1898 (nearly all to Chinese ports) against 704,270 piculs brown and 629,780 piculs white in 1897. The China Sugar Eefining Co. of Hongkong have a large Sugar Eefinery here, but work has for some time been 156 CHINA suspended. A large beancake factory was also started in 1882. The net value of the trade of the port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs was for 1898 Tls. 35,383,998, for 1897 Tls. 28,398,001, and for 1896 Tls. 27,276,480. CANTON Canton is situated on the Chu-kiang or Pearl Eiver, in latitude 23 deg. 7 min. 10 sec. N., and longitude 113 deg. 14 min. 30 sec. E., and is the capital of the pro- vince of Kwangtung. It is sometimes called the City of Eams and the City of Genii, both of which names are derived from ancient legends. Canton is a foreign perversion of Kwangtung, its real name. One of the first cities in the Chinese Empire, it is also the seat of government for the province, and is the residence of the Viceroy of " The Two Kwang " (Kwangtung and Kwangsi). The Tartar General is likewise resident here, besides a number of other Government officials of more or less distinction, including the Haikwan, or Superintendent of Customs, a post always held by a Manchu. Owing to its favoured situation. Canton became at an early date the Chinese port to which the traffic of European countries was first attracted. The Portuguese found their way thither in 1516, and Arab navigators had been making regular voyages between Canton and the ports of Western Asia as early as the tenth century. The Dutch appeared on the scene about a hundred years later than the Portuguese, and these in their turn were supplanted by the English. The latter, towards the close of the seventeenth century, founded the very profitable trade which was conducted for nearly one hundred and fifty years by the Agents of the East India Company, who established a Factory there in 1684, which was afterwards celebrated throughout the world. From 1684 the export of tea to England IJAXTI>N. FLOWKl; nilA'I'S. MAHBLE KOCK. WEST lilVEI!. [Page 156. CANTON 157 increased rapidly. The Company's monopoly terminated in 1834. In 1839 Great Britain was led to a declara- tion of war with China in consequence of the oppression to which foreigners were subjected by the native authorities, and Canton was menaced with capture in 1841. A pecuniary ransom was, however, received in lieu of the occupation of the city, and hostilities were for the time being suspended. The lesson, unfortu- nately, was without effect, and the arrogance of the Chinese authorities continued unabated. The British campaign in Central China ensued, and the result was the signature of the Treaty of Nanking (August 29th, 1842), by which what was called the Co-Hong monopoly at Canton was abolished and four additional ports thrown open to foreign trade. Nevertheless, the pro- visions of the Treaty continued to be ignored in the City of Eams, and foreigners were stiU denied admit- tance within its walls. The result of protracted annoyances and insults was that in October, 1856, Sir Michael Seymour, with the fleet, again opened hostilities, and some two months later a mob in retaliation pillaged and burned all the foreign residences. In December, 1857, Sir Charles Straubenzee, in command of an expedition which had been specially despatched from England, attacked the city, and it was taken on the 29th of that month. The French also sent out an expedition, and the city was occupied by the AlKed Forces until October, 1861, a period of nearly four years. The city proper extends to a breadth of about two miles, is about six miles in circumference, and is enclosed by walls about twenty feet thick and from twenty-five to forty feet high. The suburbs spread along the river for nearly five miles. The entire circuit, including the suburbs, is nearly ten miles, the waiQs enclosing about six miles. What is called the New City now was formerly known as the Southern Suburb, The Western Suburb stretches for miles along the river. There are sixteen gates giving admission into the city beside two water-gates. Canton contains great 158 CHINA attractions for foreign visitors in its numerous temples, pagodas, etc., and in the many curio shops to be found there. As a specimen of Chinese architecture the Chin Chew Club is well worthy of inspection, and the Examination Hall, the City of the Dead, the Execution Ground, the Gaols, the Arsenal, an ancient Water Clock, and the Mahomedan Mosque are among other show places. The French Mission have erected a large and handsome Gothic cathedral, with two lofty towers surmounted by spires, in the city. The structure is entirely built of dressed granite. A Mint, constructed by the late Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and furnished with a very complete plant, has been erected near the North Gate, commenced work in 1889, and now issues a silver subsidiary coinage as well as copper cash. The buildings cover a large area. On the opposite side of the river the Honam Temple and Monastery is the principal attraction. The population of Canton is estimated at 2,500,000, which is the figure given in the last issue of the Customs Trade Reports. A native ofiBicial report in 1895 gave the population as 499,288 only ; but this was exclusive of the boat population and is believed to have been inaccurate as regards the land population. When the foreign merchants returned to Canton to establish trade after the capture of the city by the English at the close of 1857, they found the Factory and the buildings along the river in ruins. Recourse for accommodation was consequently had to warehouses on the HoiMim side of the river. Considerable dis- cussion subsequentlytook^ace as to the selection of a site for a permanen!ril^^3|!| Settlement, and it was eventually determined otcc an extensive mud-flat known as Shameen should be filled in and appropriated. In 1859 an artificial island was created there, a canal constructed between the northern side of the site and the city, and solid and extensive embankments of masonry built. If took about two years to complete this undertaking, and cost no less than $325,000. Of CANTON 159 this sum four-fifths were defrayed by the British, and one-fifth by the French Government, to whom a portion of the reclaimed land was given. Up to 1889 most of the French concession remained unutilised, but in that year a number of lots were sold and are now built upon. The French also received a grant of the old site of the Viceroy's Yamen, on which the Catholic Cathedral has been erected. Shameen is pleasingly laid out, and the roads are shaded with well-grown trees. A neat church, called Christ Church, stands at the western end. There is good hotel accommodation. During an anti- foreign riot on the 10th September, 1883, sixteen houses and the Concordia Theatre on the Settlement were burned by the mob. In consequence of the decline in the importance of Canton as a place of trade, caused principally by the opening of some of the northern ports, many of the merchants by whom lots were purchased there in 1861, at enormous prices, withdrew from Canton altogether. The trade no\r, transacted there by foreigners is limited. Tea and Silk are the staple exports. The total export of Tea for the year ending 31st December, 1898, was 10,025 piculs, in 1897 13,501 piculs, and in 1896 10,900 piculs. The extent to which the trade has fallen off will be seen on a comparison of the above figures with those for 1888, when the export was 131,141 piculs. The quantity of Kaw Silk (exclusive of Eefuse and Wild Silk) exported in 1,898 was 33,853 piculs, in 1897 30,716 piculs, and 23,28? piculs in 1896. These figures, however, which are taken from the Foreign Customs returnSjAknot give thfe lota! export, but only those in foreigiHpssels. Both Tea and Silk are carried in large quantities to Hongkong by junk, for transhipment. The net value of the trade of the port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs was for 1898 Tls. 49,554,973, for 1897 Tls. 49,934,391, and for 1896 Tl» 46,160,343. Ample means of communication exist between Canton and Hongkong, a distance of about ninety- five miles, by l6o CHINA foreign steamers plying daily, and a large number of native craft. There is daily steam communication with Macao. Steamers also run regularly between Shanghai, Hongkong, and Canton. There is a safe and commodious anchorage within 150 yards of the river wall at Shameen. Canton was connected by telegraph (an overland line) with Kowloon in 1883, and another overland line was completed from Canton to Lungchau- fu, on the Kwangsi and Tonkin frontier, in June, 1884. The electric light has been introduced into a portion of the city. A projected railway between Canton and Kowloon has received the Imperial sanction and a preliminary survey has been made, but it still remains a project. The survey by an American syndicate of a railway route to connect Canton with Hankow was also made in 1899. WHAMPOA. This village was formerly the seat of a large portion of the foreign trade with Canton, as foreign sailing vessels are not allowed to go farther up the Pearl Eiver. The trade in sailing vessels has, however, dwindled to very small proportions, and Whampoa is now almost deserted. A branch of the Maritime Customs is stationed here. The large mud docks formerly belonging to the Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Company were sold to the Chinese Government, and have since been used for the gunboat squadron. A Government Torpedo S«}^ool has been established here. * # The village, known as Bamboo Town, is a dirty and unattractive place without any feature of interest, but the scenery around is picturesque and pleasing. Two lofty pagodas on neighbouring eminences are con- spicuous objects from the river. The first of these, called the Whampoa Pagoda, is built on an island rising abruptly from the river to the height of 100 CHINESE KOWLOON NEW CUSTOMS l6l feet. It was erected about the year 1598, and is very much out of repair. A good-sized tree grows from the brickwork at the summit. The other pagoda, called the First Bar Pagoda, is nearer to Canton, and occupies a hill which is considered the guardian hill of the province. It was built between the years 1621 and 1628 as a palladium to the waterway of the provincial capital. The importance of Whampoa is now a thing of the past. The place will always, however, possess some interest for foreigners, since the earliest recollections of foreign commercial intercourse with China are associated with it, all foreign ships being in old times compelled to anchor at Whampoa. CHINESE KOWLOON NEW CUSTOMS. This is the inclusive name given to the Chinese Customs stations placed around Hongkong for the purpose of collecting duty on the trade carried on by Chinese junks between Hongkong and Chinese ports. In 1899, when the New Territory was taken over by Hongkong, the Customs stations had to be removed from their former locations which had been brought within the British boundary, and the present stations are situated at Taishan, Lintin, Shayuchung, and Samun (Fooniang), besides which there are a number of frontier patrol-posts from Deep Bay to Mirs Bay. LAPPA. Lappa, also called by the Chinese Kung Pak, is an island, directly opposite the Inner Harbour of Macao, the distance across being from 1^ to 1^ miles. One of the stations of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs is located here, and another on an islet called Malow- chow. Lappa is under the jurisdiction of the Heungshan M l62 CHINA Magistrate. It possesses no features of interest beyond the fact that it is the principal Customs station in the neighbourhood of Macao. The net value of the trade passing through the Lappa Custom Houses in 1898 was Tls. 12,030,939, in 1897 Tls. 13,143,774, and in 1896 Tls. 12,596,298. SAMSHUI. Samshui, one of the ports opened in 1897 under the Burmah Convention, is situated near the junction of the West, North, and East Elvers, two miles from the river bank, its port being Hokow. The town is sur- rounded by an imposing wall, but the houses are poorly built and the place is wanting in life. Between the town and the river is a fine nine-storied Pagoda. The business centre of the district is Sainam, a large and well-built town about three miles distant, situated on a creek leading to Fatshan. An interesting occupation carried on in Sainam is the tinning of rice-birds, soles, and game. The rice-birds are caught in reed patches at night in a bag net, into which the birds are swept by a rope drawn over the reeds. The season is short, lasting only for about six weeks in the autumn. According to the Treaty, Samshui and Kongkun together constitute the port. The formal opening took place on the 4th June, 1897. The net value of the trade of the port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs, for the year 1898 was Tls. 1,614,913. WUCHOW-FU. Wuchow-fu, opened to foreign trade by the Special Article of the Burmese Frontier Convention, is situated on the Sikiang (West Eiver) at a distance of about 220 miles by the present authorised routes from Canton or Hongkong. It is the principal city of the prefecture WUCHOW-FU 163 bearing the same name, and is also the seat of the district magistrate of Ts'ang Wu. The scenery of the West Eiver is interesting, and in many places fine. The first portion which demands attention in the voyage up stream is the Shui Hing Gorge. Here the river, which lower down is about a mile wide, flowing through level land, suddenly narrows to about a quarter of that width, and winds through a pass about five miles long where mountains rise on each side to a height of two thousand feet. On leaving the gorge the river again widens, but hills line the sides all the way to Wuchow, now and then closing in and forming tortuous defiles, in some of which the stream appears as a mountain lake, entrance and exit being alike undistinguishable when the middle is reached. The city of Wuchow is situated on the left bank of the West Eiver at its junction with the Fu or Kweilin Eiver, a navigable stream which affords communication with the provincial capital. The population of the place is about 50,000. The city wall, which climbs the hills in rear, is about a mile and a half in circumference. The streets are for the most part mean and dirty. The business quarter comprises the best. This consists of two or three streets, which round the corner outside the city walls at the junction of the two rivers. The principal would compare favourably with a second-rate street in Canton, the others are inferior. The annual inundations which take place here are a peculiar feature of the place. The West Eiver is affected to a very great degree by the rainfall, so much so that the differ- ence between the winter and summer levels of the water is as much as sixty feet. The summer freshets are a great source of inconvenience. When the water rises, sometimes half of the streets and the lower storeys of the houses in them are flooded, the people have to move all their belongings upstairs, communication has to be carried on in boats, and business is seriously interfered with. But the Chinese do not seem to mind the in- convenience much. They have gone on century after 1 64 CHINA century submitting to the same yearly invasion of their dwellings by the water without the slightest attempt to improve matters. They simply suspend business and retire to their upper storeys when the inundations come, wait there till they subside, and then resume work. The foreigners who establish themselves here wUl hardly be content to take things so easily ; they will require houses above high-water mark, and in a year or so we may expect to see the city adorned by a few buildings reaUy suited to the necessities of the place. The history of Wuchow presents some points of interest. The mythical emperor Shun (B.C. 2200), while on a tour of inspection of his southern domains, died in the wilds of Ts'ang Wu, and one tradition re- lates that his grave is to be found in the Great Cloud Mountain, three miles to the east of the city. Of the niae divisions into which the Great Yu (b.c. 2250) divided the empire, Ching Chow was the region lying between the Tungting Lake and the southern kingdom of Yiieh, the present Annam, and of Ching Chow, Ts'ang Wu was an important sub-division. When the rule of the house of the First Emperor, Chin Shih Huang, came to an end in B.c. 206, a certain official known as Chao To took possession of Southern Yiieh and appointed Chao Kuang, prince of Ts'ang Wu, to reside at Kuanghsin, an old town which was situated one mile to the east of the present Wuchow, and which no longer exists. In the year B.c. 135 Han Wu Ti despatched one of his generals to conquer Southern Yiieh, who divided it into seven districts, one of which was Ts'ang Wu, and placed all under the control of an officer known as the Governor of Annam, to reside at Kuangshin, In A.D. 592 the present city of Ts'ang Wu or Wuchow was built, and thenceforward became the seat of government. The province of Kwangsi was first defined in the year 1364 by the last of the Sungs. In 1465 the office of Governor-General of the Liang Kwang was instituted by the Ming Emperor Cheng WUCHOW-FU 165 Hua. This officer resided for some sixty years at Ts'ang Wu, and then occasionally went to reside at Shui Hing in Kwangtung, one of the present ports of call on the river, returning as necessity arose to Wuchow. Things stood this way at the commence- ment of the present dynasty, but in 1665 the seat of provincial government was transferred to Kweilin, and Wuchow reverted to the status of an ordinary pre- fectural city. In the autumn of 1857 it fell, after a siege of a hundred days, into the hands of the Boat Rebels, who, availing themselves of the anarchy caused by the Taipings, appear to have harried this and the neighbouring province for many years. The city was, however, retaken two years later. Since then the course of events in Wuchow has not been marked by anything noteworthy, except the occurrence of a large fire about the middle of the year 1894, which consumed the greater portion of the business quarter of the city. But all the houses destroyed have been rebuilt, and the only trace of the catastrophe is that furnished by the superior look of the new buildings. As regards trade, Wuchow bids fair to be a place of importance. It is situated at the head of navigation from the sea and just below where the West Eiver and Fuho rapids commence. It is thus of necessity a port of transhipment, and, as such, a centre to which business will converge. On reference to the Customs returns it wiU be seen that a good beginning has been made. The import of foreign goods is already considerable, and will continue to increase as new districts are opened up by means of the transit pass. In short, the present of Wuchow as a treaty port gives every promise of a prosperous future. The port was opened on the 4th June, 1897. The net value of the trade coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs during 1898 was Tls. 4,221,758. I 66 CHINA KWANGCHAUWAN Kwangchauwan is a bay in the province of Kwang- tuDg, leased, together with its shores for a distance inland as yet undefined, by France from China. The French flag was hoisted on the 22nd April, 1898. The bay lies in lat. 21 deg. 15 min. N. and long. 110 deg. 30 min. E., a'^d is approximately about two hundred miles W.S.W. from Hongkong. A large island renders it a completely landlocked harbour, with two narrow entrances. The harbour is about twenty miles long, and for about half this length the width is from five to six miles, but it then narrows to one and a half or two miles. The place appears to have been imperfectly surveyed before it was taken over by the French, and disappointment with the new acquisition has been expressed on account of the difficulty of the channels and the small extent of deep water. A river of some size discharges into Kwangchau Bay, and on this river is situated the town of Chikhom, a trading centre of considerable importance, carrying on a large trade by junks with Macao and Kongmoon. The neighbouring district is richly cultivated, and it is believed that minerals exist. The new French territory is separated by only a low range of hills from the valley of tlie West Eiver. No permanent official establishment has as yet been organised pending the completion of the survey and demarcation. Towards the close of 1899, Marshal Sou was sent specially from Peking with full powers to decide upon the delimitation of territory, but unfortunately just before his arrival two French naval ensigns were attacked and murdered. The French strengthened their naval and military forces already on the scene, to exact reprisals, and fighting ensued in which about three hundred Chinese were killed — principally braves sent to preserve order, but generally believed to provoke hostilities with official connivance. The demarcation was concluded in December, 1899, PAKHOt 167 but the questions of responsibility and compensation for the murder of the French officers and attacks on the French troops, were to be settled at Peking. The exact delimitation has not yet been published. PAKHOI Pakhoi is one of the ports opened to foreign trade by the Chefoo Convention in 1876. It is situated on the Gulf of Tonkin in long. 109 deg. 6 min. E. and lat. 21 deg. 30 min. N. The British Consul hoisted his flag on the 1st May, 1877, and the foreigners were well received by the natives. Pakhoi is the port for the important city of Lienchau, from whence considerable quantities of foreign piece goods were formerly distributed over the country lying between the West Eiver and the seaboard, but now that the West Eiver has been opened to steam navigation it is expected that the bulk of the trade will be diverted to that route. The net value of the trade of Pakhoi in 1898 was Tls. 4,166,059, in 1897 Tls. 4,209,935, and in 1896 Tls. 4,685,138. The town is situated on a small peninsula and faces nearly due north. It stands at the foot of a bluff nearly forty feet high, which deprives it of the south- west breeze in summer, while in winter it is exposed to the full force of the north-east monsoon. From the bluff an extensive, partly cultivated plain stretches, over which there is' some .sport, snipe, plover, quail, and pigeons being found in large numbers, while duck and other water-fowl are not numerous. The climate is considered to be very salubrious. The estimated population of the port is 20,000. No port in China is more easily approached and entered than that of Pakhoi. The landmarks are con- spicuous and unmistakeable. The channel is wide and deep and has no hidden danger to be avoided. The anchorage is a mile and a half from the town. There 1 68 CHINA is good landing at high water, but at ebb tide only for small boats. The construction of a railway by a French Company from Pakhoi to Nanning has been authorised, but work on the project has not yet been commenced. A free school, under the direction of M. Mercier Baune, has been opened by the French Government to teach the French language to the Chinese and others. HOIHOW (IN HAINAN) Hoihow is the seaport of the city of Kiung-chow (the seat of government in the island of Hainan, and distant from its port about three and a half miles) which was opened to foreign trade on the 1st April, 1876. The position of the port, though geographi- cally favourable, is topographically unsuitable for the development of any extensive commercial transactions, vessels being compelled to anchor some two miles from the entrance of the creek, or branch of the main river upon which Hoihow is situated. The tides are ex- tremely irregular, and the anchorage is liable to the visitation of very severe typhoons, being moreover entirely unprotected from the north. The width of the Hainan Straits, between Hoihow and the mainland — the Lien-chau peninsula — is about twelve milis. As regards health, Hoihow compares favourably with other parts of Hainan, though fever and ague are said to prevail to some extent. The port is badly, supplied with water. The approaches to the shore are extremely shallow, so that loading and unloading can only be carried on at certain states of the tide. Despite this disadvantage, however, the advent of foreign steamers has given a considerable impulse to trade.. The town itself contains about 12,000 souls, and is governed by a Tsan-fu, or Lieutenant-Colonel; the population of Kiungchow being 41,000. The native mercantile population, though HOIHOW {IN HAINAN) 169 respectable, is by no means rich. No foreign settle- ment has as yet been formed, and with the exception of the Eoman Catholic Orphanage, erected in 1895, and the American Presbyterian Mission Hospital and doctor's residence, the houses occupied by the foreign residents are Chinese, converted into European habita- tions by alterations and improvements. H.B.M. Con- sulate obtained a site after fourteen years' negotiations, and a consulate building is now (January, 1900) nearlj'- completed : it is situated to the S.W. of the Hospital. Towards the end of 1897 a piece of land was granted to the French Government for the construction of a Consulate ; this site is situate on the Northern side of the river and facing Hoihow town. The building was completed and occupied in July, 1899. Since the beginning of 1899 a free school has been opened by the French Government for teaching the French language to the Chinese, and by the end of the year an officer from the Tonldn Medical Staff was detailed to this port for the purpose of giving the natives and others free attendance and medicine. The foreign residents at present number about sixty. The net value of the trade of the port in 1898 was Tls. 3,680,258, in 1897 Tls. 3,300,239, and in 1896 Tls. 2,760,185. A large export trade in pigs, poultry, eggs, and provisions is carried on with Hongkong. A steam plant for the' preparation of albumen for the European market was established by a FrMich firm in 1896. It was bought in 1898 by Messrs A. Schomburg & Co. A harbour light and one at Lamko (western entrance of the Hainan Straits) were opened in 1894; and one at Cape Cami in 1895. 1 70 CHINA LUNGCHOW This city is situated at the junction of the Sung-chi and Kao-ping rivers in lat. 22 deg. 21 min. N., and long. 106 deg. 45 min. E., near the south-western border of the province of Kwangsi, and was selected as the seat of the frontier trade of that province with Tonkin. The continuation of the two above rivers is known as Tso-chiang, or left branch of the West Eiver, and it enters the main stream some 30 miles above Nanning. The town is prettily placed in a circular valley sur- rounded by hills, and has a new wall completed in 1887. The population is estimated to number about 22,000. Lungchow, from a military point of view, is considered, by the Chinese, to be a place of importance, and considerable bodies of troops are stationed, and the headquarters of the Provincial Commander-in-Chief are established, between it and the Tonkin frontier. It was opened to the Franco-Annamese trade on the 1st June, 1889, but so far the little trade existing has been of a very petty description, and will continue so until the Langson railway, which was opened in December, 1894, is extended to Limgchow. This ex- tension has been authorised by the Chinese Grovern- ment, and a further extension to Nanning is in contemplation. Telegraph communication exists with Canton and other places down the West Eiver, with Mengtzii in Yunnan, ma Po-se, and with places in Tonkin. An establishment of the Imperial Maritime Customs is maintained here. The net value of the trade coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs was for 1898 Tls. 134.885, for 1897 Tls. 108,947, and for 1896 Tls. 111,328. MENGTSZ 171 MENGTSZ This is a district city in south-east Yunnan, and together with Man-hao, a village on the left bank of the Eed Eiver, was opened to trade by the Additional Convention to the French Treaty of Tientsin of the 25th April, 1886, signed' at Peking on the 26th June, 1887. The town is two days' journey from Man-hao and about six days' from the frontier of Tonkin at Laokay, and is beautifully situated, being built on a cultivated plateau twenty miles long by about twelve miles in breadth, encircled by picturesque mountains, and 4580 feet above the level of the sea. It has a population of about 12,000 persons, but before the Mahommedan rebellion was a place of much more importance, as the numerous well-built temples, many of them now in ruins, still testify. It is, however, a considerable commercial emporium even now, and is becoming an important centre for the distribution of foreign goods imported via Tonkin. The French Consul hoisted his flag at Mengtsz on the 30th April, 1889, and the Customs station was opened in the following August. The value of the trade coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs for 1898 was Tls. 3,672,650, for 1897 Tls. 3,451,765, and for 1896 Tls. 2,476,675. The Chinese merchants avail themselves largely of the advantages offered by the transit pass system, and the value of goods sent into the interior under transit passes during the year 1898 amounted to Tls. 2,325,431 or about 94 per cent, of the quantity imported. The climate of Mengtsz is temperate and salubrious, though every year, principally in the hot season, the plague makes numerous victims among the natives. In 1898 the plague appeared at the end of June and disappeared early in September. The number of victims probably did not exceed 150 in the city and neighbouring villages, but no really trustworthy 172 CHINA Statistics are obtainable. The mortality was certainly the lowest since the plague appeared at Mengtsz. During the winter good sport is obtained, snipe and wild-fowl being abundant in the plain, and some pheasants and partridges in the hilly districts. A new French Consulate was finished in 1893, new dwelling- houses for members of the Customs service in 1894, and a new Custom House in the spring of 1895. All these buildings are outside the East gate of the city. On the 22nd June, 1899, a riot occurred in the course of which the Customs House and French Consulate were looted. No foreign merchants have as yet started business in Mengtsz. A railway from Laokay to Yunnanfu ma Mengtsz is projected and tenders for the work have been invited by the Tonkin Government. HOKOW Hokow was opened to foreign trade by the Supple- mentary Convention between China and France of 20th June, 1895. A French Vice-consulate was established in August, 1896, which is subordinate to the Mengtsz Consulate, and an office of the Customs under the con- trol of the Mengtsz Customs was opened at Hokow on 1st July, 1897. Hokow is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Ked Eiver, at its junction with the Nanhsi Eiver and is immediately opposite Laokay, an important garrison town in Tonkin. The village has some 4000 inhabitants, who live in bamboo houses and huts with thatched roofs. Hokow is about 420 li from Mengtsz by land. The total value of the trade of Hokow from July to December, 1897, was only Hk. Tls. 43,807. The value of the trade is not separately stated in the Mengtsz Customs report for 1898, except that the value of the transit trade is given as Tls. 39,338. SZEMAO 173 SZEMAO Szemao, opened to the Tonkin frontier trade by the Gerard Convention of 1895, and to British trade by the Burmah Convention of 1896, is situated in the south- western part of the Province of Yunnan, in latitude 22 deg. 47 min. 29 sec. N. and longitude 100 deg. 46 min. E. It is a sub-prefectural walled town, built on a gently rising ground overlooking a well-cultivated plain. The elevation is 4700 feet above the sea level, and the population is estimated to be about 15,000. The climate is delightful, the temperature rarely ex- ceeding 80 degrees (Fahr.) during the summer and seldom falling below 50 degrees in the winter months. The plague, such a common visitor throughout Yunnan, is as yet unknown in Szemao. The place is distant from both Yunnan-fu (the capital of the province) and Mengtsz eighteen days, and from the frontier eight to twelve days. It was opened in the early part of 1897, and so far has not fulfilled the expecta- tions of its potential importance as a trading centre. The value of the trade of Szemao for 1898 was Tls. 261,719 as compared with Tls. 185,974 in 1897. No foreign traders reside at Szemao, the trade being entirely in the hands of local merchants, who have no agencies in either Tonkin or Burmah. The principal article imported is raw cotton, which comes from the British Shan States, particularly from Keng Tung. A telegraph line from Tiing Hai via Yuan Chiang and Pu Erh-fu, connects Szemao with the existing Chinese overland telegraphs, and another one from Szemao to " Moung Hou " (the first French post across the frontier) makes a junction with the Tonkin lines. A few years ago there was much talk about connecting Szemao by railway with Burmah, but as the trade will probably never be sufficient to justify such an expensive undertaking, the idea seems to have been given up. During the winter of 1898-99 the Burmah 1 74 CHINA Yunnan frontier from Bhamo to the Kunlung Ferry, and from a point west of Meng Lem to the Mekong was properly defined. There yet remains that portion of the boundary running through the territory of the Kawas, a savage tribe of head-hunters who are likely to give some trouble to the Frontier Commission. Work was commenced during the dry winter season of 1899. HONGKONG HONGKONG The Island of Hongkong, the most eastern of British possessions, is situate off the coast of the Kwangtung province, near the mouth of the Canton river. It is distant about 40 miles from Macao and 90 from Canton, and lies between 22 deg. 9. min. and 22 deg. 17 min. N. lat. and 114 deg. 5 min. and 114 deg. 18 min. E. long. The Chinese characters representing the name of the island (Heung Kong) may be read as signifying either Good Harbour or Fragrant Streams. History and Government. Before the British ensign was hoisted on Possession Point the island can hardly be said to have had any history, and what little attaches to it is very obscure. Scantily peopled by fishermen and agriculturists, it was neveir the scene of stirring events, and was little affected by dynastic or political changes. It is alleged, however, that after the fall of the Mings in 1628 some of the Emperor's followers found shelter in the forests of Hongkong from the fury of the Manchus. The penin- sula of British Kowloon has more claim to association with Chinese history. In the year a.d. 1287 it is recorded that the last Emperor of the Sung dynasty when flying from Kublai Khan, the Mongol conqueror, took refuge in a cave in Kowloon, and an inscription on the rock above is said to record the fact. The in- scription consists of the characters Sung Wong Toi, N 1 78 HONGKONG meaning the Sung Emperor's Pavilion. On the cession of the territory to Great Britain the natives petitioned the Hongkong Government that the rock might not be blasted or otherwise injured, on account of the tradition connecting it with the Imperial personage above men- tioned. In 1898 a resolution was passed by the Legis- lation Council preserving the land on which the rock stands for the benefit of the public in perpetuity. Hongkong is a Crown Colony and was ceded to Great Britain by the Chinese Government in 1841. In the troubles which preceded the first war with China the necessity of having some place on the coast whence British trade might be protected and controlled, and where officials and merchants might be free from the insulting and humiliating requirements of the Chinese Authorities, became painfuUy evident. As early as 1834 Lord Napier, smarting under his insolent treat- ment by the Viceroy at Canton, urged the Hpme Government to send a force from India to support the dignity of his commission. "A little armament," he wrote, " should enter the China seas with the first of the south-west monsoon, and on arriving should take pos- session of the island of Hongkong, in the eastern entrance of the Canton river, which is admirably adapted for every purpose." Two years later Sir George Eobinson, endorsing the opinion of Lord Napier that nothing but force could better our position in China, advised " the occupation of one of the islands in this neighbourhood, so singularly adapted by nature in every respect for commercial purposes." In the early part of 1839 affairs approached a crisis, and on the 22nd March, Captain ElUot, the Chief Superintendent of Trade, requii'ed that all the ships of Her Majesty's subjects at the outer anchorages of Canton should proceed forthwith to Hongkong, and, hoisting their national colours, be prepared to resist every act of aggression on the part of the Chinese Government. When the British community left Canton, Macao afforded them a temporary asylum, but their presence HONGKONG 1 79 there was made the occasion by the Chinese Govern- ment of threatening demonstrations against that settle- ment. In a despatch dated 6th May, 1839, Captain Elliot wrote to Lord Palmerston : — " The safety of Macao is, in point of fact, an object of secondary moment to the Portuguese Government, but to that of Her Majesty it may be said to be of indispensable necessity, and most particularly at this moment ; " and he urged upon his Lordship " the strong necessity of concluding some immediate arrangement with the Government of His Most Faithful Majesty, either for the cession of the Portuguese rights at Macao, or for the effectual defence of the place, and its appropriation to British uses by means of a subsidiary Convention." Happily for the permanent interests of British trade in China this suggestion came to nothing, and Great Britain found a much superior lodgment at Hongkong. The unfortunate homicide of a Chinaman in a riot at Hongkong between British and American seamen and natives precipitated events, and in view of the measures taken by the Chinese in reference to Macao, Captain Elliot felt that he ought no longer to compromise the safety of that settlement by remaining there. He accordingly left for Hongkong on the 24th August, 1839, Mrs. Elliot and her child having previously embarked. It was hoped that his own departure, with the of&cers of his establishment, might satisfy the Chinese, but it soon became evident that they intended to expel all the EngUsh from Macao. It was accordingly determined that they should leave, and on the 25th August the exodus took place. The whole of the British community (with the exception of a few sick left behind in hospital) embarked, and under the convoy of H.M.S. Volage arrived safely at Hongkong. At that time there was, of course, no town, and the community had to reside on board ship. The next measure of the Chinese was to stop supplies of food; the water also was reported to be poisoned, a placard being put up on shore warning Chinese against drinking l8o HONGKONG it. This led to a miniature naval battle in Kowlooo Bay. On the 4th September Captain Elliot, in the cutter Louise, accompanied by the Pearl, a small armed vessel, and the pinnace of the Volage, went to Kowloon, where there were three large men-of-war junks whose presence prevented the regular supplies of food. A written remonstrance was sent off to the junk of the commanding mandarin. After six hours of delay and irritating evasion a boat was sent on shore to a distant part of the bay with money to purchase supplies, which the party succeeded in doing, and they were on the point of bringing their purchases away when some mandarin runners approached and obliged the natives to take back their provisions. The English returned with this intelligence, and Captain Elliot, greatly provoked, opened fire on the three junks. It was answered with spirit by the junks and a battery on shore. After a lire of almost half an hour the English force hauled off, from the failure of ammunition, for anticipating no serious results they had not come prepared for them. It was evident, however. Captain Elliot says in his account of the engagement, that the junks had suffered considerably, and after a delay of about three-quarters of an hour, they weighed and made sail from under the protection of the battery, with the obvious purpose of making their escape. By this time the English had made cartridges, and they drove the junks back to their former position. Evening was now closing in, and in the morning it was decided, for reasons of policy, not to renew the attack. A com- plete relaxation of the interdict against the supply of provisions followed. Some little time after this event an arrangement for the resumption of the trade was arrived at, and there was a partial return to residence at Macao. The arrangement was of but a few weeks' duration, however, and on the 3rd November a naval engagement took place off Chuenpee, when the Chinese retired in great distress. The British ships returned to Macao, arriving on the evening of the same day, and HONGKONG l8t arrangements were immediately made for the embarka- tion of those of Her Majesty's subjects there who thought it safest to retire, and on the evening of the 4th November they arrived at Hongkong. Captain Elliot considered the anchorage of Hong- kong unsafe, as being " exposed to attack from several quarters," and already, on the 26th October, His Excellency had required the removal of the British merchant shipping to Tong-Koo, which he deemed safer. The shipping community did not share this opinion, and on the same day that the notice appeared an address, signed by the masters of thirty-six vessels, was presented to Captain Elliot requesting that they might be allowed to remain at Hongkong. On the 8th November H.M.'s Plenipotentiary replied, adhering to his former decision. Thereupon another remonstrance was addressed to him, signed by "twenty firms, the agents for Lloyd's, and for eleven Insurance Offices." Captain Elliot, however, still adhered to his decision, and a few days afterwards the removal to Tong-Koo took place. In 1840 the expedition arrived, and Hongkong became the headquarters of Her Majesty's forces. On the 20th January, 1841, H.M.'s Plenipotentiary issued a circular to H.M.'s subjects announcing the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the Imperial Commissioner, Keshen, and himself. One of the terms was stated in the circular as follows : — ■ " 1. The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British Crown. All just charges and duties to the Empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa." On the 26th January, the island was accordingly taken formal possession of in the name of Her Majesty the Queen. The treaty was subsequently repudiated by both parties, and it was not until the conclusion of the Nanking Treaty in 1842, that the Chinese Government formally recognised the cession of the island. In the mean time it was held by the British— -who had come 1 82 HONGKONG to stay — and on the 1st May, 1841, the Public Notice and Declaration regarding the occupation of Hongkong ■was published. On the 7th May of the same year, 1841, the first number of the Hongkong Gazette was published, printed at the American Mission Press, Macao. This first number contained the notification of the appointment (dated 30th April) of Captain William Caine, of Her Majesty's 26th (Cameronian) Regiment of Infantry, as Chief Magistrate, the warrant being under the hand of Charles Elliot, Esquire, Her Majesty's Plenipotentiary, etc., etc., "charged with the govern- ment of the island of Hongkong." Captain Elliot's idea was that the island should be held on similar terms to those on which Macao was at that time held by the Portuguese, and the Chief Magistrate, instead of being charged to administer British law, was authorised and required "to exercise authority, according to the laws, customs, and usages of China, as near as may be (every description of torture excepted), for the preserva- tion of the peace and the protection of life and property, over all the native inhabitants in the said island and the harbours thereof; " and over other persons according to British police law. The first land sale took place on the 14th June, and building thereafter proceeded rapidly, the population of the new town at the end of the year being estimated at 15,000. On the 6th Feb- ruary, 1842, Hongkong was formally declared a free port by Sir Henry Pottinger, who had succeeded Captain Elliot as Plenipotentiary. Until the signing of the treaty, however, the ultimate fate of the new settle- ment remained in doubt. Sir Kobert Peel, when asked in the House of Commons whether it was the intention of Her Majesty's Government to properly colonise the place or give it up, declined to answer what he deemed an unparliamentary question during a period of open war with the country by whom the cession of the island was both made iiiul repudiated. The Treaty of Nanking, Imwever, settled all doubts. On the 23rd June, 1843, Keying, the Imperial Conimissioner, arrived HONGKONG 1 83 in Hongkong, for the exchange of the ratifications of the treaty, and the ceremony took place in the Council room on the 26th of that month, and immediately afterwards the Eoyal Charter, dated 5th April, 1843, erecting the island into a separate colony, was read, and Sir Henry Pottinger took the oaths of office as Governor. At first progress was rapid. The Queen's Eoad was laid out for a length of between three and four miles, and buildings rose rapidly. But a check was received owing to the unhealthy conditions which were developed by the breaking of the malarious soil, and in 1844, soon after the arrival of Sir John Davis, who assumed the government in June, the advisability of abandoning the island altogether as a colony was seriously discussed. Mr. Montgomery Martin, H.M.'s Treasurer, drew up a long report, in which he earnestly recommended the abandonment of a place which, he believed, would never be habitable for Europeans, instancing the case of the 98th Eegiment, which lost 257 men by death in twenty-one months, and of the Eoyal Artillery, which in two years lost 51 out of a strength of 135, and gave it as his opinion that it was a delusion to hope that Hongkong could ever become a commercial emporium like Singapore. Sir John Davis, in a despatch dated April, 1845, strongly com- bated Mr. Martin's pessimist conclusions and expressed a firm belief that time alone was required for the development of the colony and for the correction of some of the evils which hindered its early progress. Sir John (who died in November, 1890, in his ninety- sixth year) lived to see his predictions most amply verified, and in after years must have reflected with satisfaction on the fact that his views prevailed in Downiug Street. On the 26th May, 1846, the Hong- kong Club-house was opened with a ball, and was occupied by the Club for over fifty years, being vacated in July, 1897, when the Club moved into new and more commodious premises on the New Praya. Sir John Davis resigned in January, 1848, and left the 184 HONGKONG colony on the 30th March of that year, Major-General Stavely administering the government until the arrival, a few weeks later, of Sir George (then Mr.) Bonham. During Sir George Bonham's administration, which lasted, with two intervals, until April, 1854, the colony continued to progress, but the garrison and residents still suffered severely from malaria. On the 13th April, 1854, Sir John Bowring took the oaths as Governor, and held the reins until May, 1859. Sir John Bowring was the last Governor who united that office with that of Minister Plenipotentiary and Super- intendent of British Trade in China. During his administration various public works were constructed, and the Bowrington Canal made. In September, 1859, Sir Hercules Eobinson arrived and assumed the administration. In 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon was placed under British control, and soon afterwards became a great camp, the English and French troops of the Allied Expeditionary Force being for some time quartered there. The principal work effected during the Government of Sir Hercules Eobinson was the construction of the original Praya wall, in connection with which an extensive reclamation of land from the sea was made. Prior to that time the marine lot- holders had the entire control of the sea frontage of their lots, and no public road, properly speaking, existed along the water frontage. In 1862 the Clock Tower was completed, and the Hongkong Mint was erected, but owing to the loss attending its working it was closed early in 1864. In March, 1865, Sir Hercules Eobinson left the Colony, and Mi-.] Mercer, Colonial Secretary, became Acting Governor until the arrival, in March, 1866, of Sir Eichard MaoDonnell. In November, 1867, a great fire occurred, which swept the whole district between the Queen's Eoad and the Praya, from the Cross Roads to the Harbour Master's Office. During Sir Eichai'd MacDonneU's vigorous administration the revenue of the Colony, which had fallen much below the expenditure, was augmented by HONGKONG 1 85 the imposition of the stamp duties and other measures. One of His Excellency's last ofScial acts was to preside at the opening, in February, 1872, of the Tung Wa (Chinese) Hospital. In April, 1872, Sir Arthur Ken- nedy arrived and assumed the reins of Government, which he held with such dexterity that he acquired the title of " good Sir Arthur," and a bronze statue of him has been erected in the Public Gardens. Under his administration the Colony prospered, but the year 1874 was made memorable in Colonial annals by one of the most destructive typhoons which has ever visited it, causing enormous damage and the loss of thousands of lives. The peaceful reign of Sir Arthur Kennedy was followed by the stormy administration of Sir John Pope Hennessy, who arrived in April, 1877, and left in March, 1882. In this interval the trade of the Colony increased greatly and Governor Hennessy accumulated a large surplus, but public works made little progress, the Breakwater at Causeway Bay being the principal work completed during his administration, while the Observatory was projected. On Christmas Day, 1878, a fire broke out in the Central District of Victoria which destroyed 368 houses and entailed enormous loss on the community. On Sir John's departure Sir William (then Mr.) Marsh, the Colonial Secretary, assumed the government, and affairs proceeded placidly until the arrival, in March, 1883, of Sir George Bowen. His advent was the signal for great activity in the prosecu- tion of public works, amongst others being the Tytam Waterworks, the Victoria College, the Lunatic Asylum, and the enlargement of the Government Civil Hospital. He was also the means of securing to the residents the privilege of nominating two of the unofficial members of the Legislative Council. Sir George Bowen left Hongkong on the 19th December, 1885, and another interregnum followed. Mr. Marsh administered the government until April, 1887, when he retired from the service, and Major-General Cameron assumed the reins until the arrival of Governor Sir William Des 1 86 HONGKONG Vceux in October of the same year. The Colony steadily progressed, though naturally with some fluctu- ations in its prosperity, until in 1889, when, writing to the Secretary of State on its condition and prospects. Sir William Des Vceux was able to remark, with obvious satisfaction : — " It may be doubted whether the evidences of material and moral achievement, presented as it were in a focus, make anywhere a more forcible appeal to eye and imagination, and whether any other spot on the earth is thus more likely to excite or much more fully justifies pride in the name of Englishman." After that date a period of deep depression, arising partly from the fluctuations of exchange, partly from over-speculation, and partly from other causes, was experienced, and continued for five years. Sir William Des Vceux resigned the govern- ment on the 7th May, 1891, and in the absence of the Colonial Secretary Major- General Digby Barker was sworn in as Acting Governor. Sir William Eobinson was appointed Governor, and arrived in the Colony ou the 10th December, 1891. The year 1894 wiU be memorable in the annals of the Colony as the disastrous year of the plague. The disease, which is endemic in Yunnan, and some years previously had appeared at Pakhoi, this year made its appearance at Canton, and from there was introduced to Hongkong. The Colony was declared infected on the 10th May, and the mortality rapidly increased imtU at one time it reached more than a hundred a day. Energetic measures were taken to cope with the disease, a system of house-to- house visitation being established by means of which all cases were promptly discovered and at once removed to hospital or, where death had already taken place, buried, and every house in the Chinese quarters was whitewashed and cleansed. Special hospitals were erected and the medical stall' was augmented by additions from the Ai-my and Navy and the Coast Ports. The Colony was especially indebted to the Shropshire Light Infantry for the services of about HONGKONG 1 87 three hundred volunteers from the regiment, who were engaged in the house-to-house visitation and cleansing. Captain Vesey while engaged in this work contracted the disease and died from it, and one sergeant and four privates also suffered from it. The other corps of the Garrison as well as the Navy likewise lent assistance. Amongst other measures taken to combat the disease, a portion of the Taipingshan district, where the cases were most numerous, was cleared of its inhabitants, for whom accommodation was provided elsewhere, and the property in the condemned area was subsequently resumed by the Crown, the intention being that it shall be reconstructed in accordance with sanitary require- ments. The disease reached its climax on the 7th June, when 107 deaths and 69 new cases were reported. After that date its virulence decreased, and on the 3rd September the proclamation declaring the Colony infected was withdrawn. The total number of deaths recorded was 2547. In the mean time the trade of the Colony had suffered severely. Large numbers of the natives fled, it being estimated that the population was reduced at one time by no less than 80,000, and the usually busy Queen's Eoad appeared almost deserted. As the disease waned the population returned, business was gradually resumed, and with the withdrawal of the quarantine imposed at the other ports vessels which had for the time being passed by Hongkong resumed their regular calls. In 1896 the disease again made its appearance, but was much less virulent than in 1894, and in 1898 there was another visitation, in con- nection with which two of the sisters of the Government Civil Hospital lost their lives, having contracted the disease while in the discharge of their duties. The year 1899 saw still another visitation, the number of deaths amounting to over 1400. A vigorous policy of sanitation is now being carried out. Sir William Eobinson left Hongkong on the 1st February, 1898, and until the arrival of Sir Henry Blake on 25th November, 1898, the Government was administered by Major-General Wilsone Black. 1 88 HONGKONG The following is a list of those who have adminis- tered the Government from the date on which the Island was erected into a Colony : — 1843. Sir Henry Pottinger, Bart., o.c.b. 1844. Sir John Francis Davis, Bart., k.c.b. 1848. Samuel George Bonham, o.b. 1851. Major-General W. Jervois (Lieut-Governor). 1851. Sir S. George Bonham, Bart., k.c.b. 1852. John Bowring, ll.d. (Acting). 1853. Sir S. George Bonham, Bart., k.c.b. 1854. Sir John Bowring, ll.d. 1854. Lieut.-Golonel Wm. Caine (Lieut.-Governor). 1855. Sir John Bowring, Knight, ll.d. 1859. Colonel Caine (Lieut. -Governor). 1859. Sir Hercules G. B. Robinson, Knight. 1862. William Thomas Mercer (Acting). 1864. Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, Knight 1865. William Thomas Mercer (Acting). 1866. Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell, Knight c.b. 1870. Major-General H. W. Whitfeild (Lieut-Governor). 1871. Sir Richard G. MacDonnell, k.c.m.g., c.b. 1872. Sir Arthur E. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., o.b. 1875. John Gardiner Austin (Administrator). 1876. Sir Arthur E. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., c.b. 1877. Sir John Pope Hennessy, k.c.m.g. 1882. William Henry Marsh, c.m.q. (Administrator). 1883. Sir George Ferguson Bowen, g.c.m.q. 1885. Wm. Henry Marsh, c.m.g. (Administrator). 1887. Major-General W. G. Cameron, c.b. (Administrator). 1887. Sir George William Des Voeux, k.c.m.g. 1890. Francis Fleming, c.^i.o. (Administrator). 1890. Sir George William Des Voeux, K.c.if.G. 1891. Major-General G. Digby Barker, c.b. (Administrator). 1891. Sir William Robinson, g.c.m.g. 1898. Major-General Wilsone Black, c.b. (Admmistrator). 1898. Sir Henry Arthur Blake, o.c.m.g. The Government is administered by a Governor, aided by an Executive Council of five oflBcials and two unofficials. The Legislative Council is presided over by the Governor, and is composed of the Officer Com- manding the Troops, the Colonial Secretary (who also holds the office of Registrar-General), the Attorney- General, the Treasurer, the Director of Public Works, the Harbour Master, the Captain Superintendent ot HONGKONG 1 89 Police, and six unofficial members, one of whom is elected by the Chamber of Commerce and another by the Justices of the Peace. The other four, two of whom are Chinese, but British subjects, are appointed by the Government. Finances. The revenue for 1898 was $2,918,159, being an increase of $231,245 on the revenue of the previous year, and the ordinary expenditure was $2,841,805, in addition to which an expenditure of $135,846 on extra- ordinary public works chargeable against the loan was incurred. The Colony has a small public debt, a loan of £200,000 having been contracted in 1886. Another loan of £200,000 was contracted in 1893, and in 1894 the unredeemed balance of the first loan was converted from 4 per cent, debentures into Z\ inscribed stock, thus bringing it into uniformity with the loan raised in 1893. The public debt now stands at £341,800, repayment of which is provided for by a sinking fund. The annual rateable value of the city of Victoria is $4,241,919, that of Kowloon (not including the New Territory) $418,977, and that of the various villages on the island and the Hill District $325,938. Desceiption. The island is about 11 miles long and from 2 to 5 broad ; its circumference is about 27 miles. It consists of a broken ridge of lofty hills, with few valleys of any extent and scarcely any ground available for cultiva- tion. The only valleys worthy of the name are those of Wong-nai Chung and Little Hongkong, both of which are remarkably beautiful and well wooded, being, in fact, the only parts where any considerable arborescent vegetation was formerly to be found. The island is well watered by numerous streams, many of which are 190 HONGKONG perennial. The city and suburbs are supplied with water from the Pokfolum, Tytam, and Wong-nai Chung reservoirs. The first-named, constructed in 1866-69, has a storage capacity of sixty-eight million gallons, while the Tytam reservoir, constructed in 1883-88, and extended in 1896, has an area of about 29 acres and a storage capacity of about three hundred and ninety million gallons. From the Tytam reservoir the water is conveyed into town by means of a tunnel a mile and one-third in length and a conduit along the hillside some 400 feet above the sea level and nearly four miles in length, on which a fine road — called the Bowen Road — has been formed, which commands the most charming views of the city and the eastern dis- trict, and is a favourite resort of pedestrians. In many parts the conduit is carried over the ravines and rocks by ornamental stone bridges, one of which, above Wanchai, has twenty-three arches. The Wong-wai Chung reservoir, completed in 1899, has a capacity of twenty-seven million gallons. The natural productions of the Colony are few and unimportant. There is little land suitable for tillage, and nothing is grown but a little rice and some vege- tables near the outlying villages. There are large granite quarries, both on the island and in Kowloon, and there is a small export of this stone. A bed of fire-clay exists at Deep Water Bay, and bricks and earthenware pipes are manufactured from it. The forests now growing up and in course of being planted may one day become a source of revenue. The approaches to the port are fairly well lighted. A lighthouse on Green Island lights the western entrance of the harbour, the light being a fixed dioptric one of the fourth order, visible at a distance of fourteen miles ; and the eastern approach is indicated by a group-flashing dioptric light of the first order, visible at a distance of twenty-two miles, erected by the Chinese Government on Waglan Island, while a smaller light on Gape CoUinson, visible at a distance of eight miles, HONGKONG I9I assists navigators to make the Ly-ee-mun Pass. A lighthouse on Gap Eock, about thirty miles to the south, was completed and first displayed its beacon on the 1st April, 1892 ; it is connected with the port by a cable, and the approach of vessels is signalled from it to the Post Ofi&ce. The harbour of Hongkong is one of the finest and most beautiful in the world, having an area of ten square miles, and, with its diversified scenery and varied shipping, presents an animated and imposing spectacle. It consists of the sheet of water between the island and the mainland, and is enclosed on all sides by lofty hills, formerly destitute of foliage, but the slopes are gradually becoming clothed with yoimg forests, the result of the afforestation scheme of the Government. The city of Victoria is magnificently situated, the houses, many of them large and hand- some, rising, tier upon tier, from the water's edge to a height of over four hundred feet on the face of the Peak, while many bungalows are visible on the very summit of the hills. Seen from the water at night, when lamps twinkle among the trees and houses, the city, spreading along the shore for upwards of four miles, affords a sight not to be forgotten. Nor on landing are the favourable impressions of the stranger dissipated or lessened. The city is fairly well built, the roads and streets are for the most part admirably made and kept, and many of the thorough- fares delightfully shaded with well-grown trees. The European business quarter occupies the middle of the city, from Pottinger Street to the City Hall, but with the exception of this limited area almost all the lower levels, especially the Western District, are covered by a dense mass of Chinese shops and tenements. The Botanic Gardens are situated just above Government House, and are beautifully laid out in terraces, slopes, and walks, with parterres of flowers. A handsome fountain adorns the second terrace, around which the European children and their amahs resort daily. 192 HONGKONG There i8 a band-stand, presented by the Parsee com- munity, some aviaries, orchid houses, and ferneries, and seats are provided in every spot where a view is obtain- able or shade afforded by the varied foliage. A fine bronze statue of Sir Arthur Kennedy, Governor of the Colony 1872-76, erected by public subscription, stands above the second terrace looking down on the foimtain. It was unveiled in November, 1887, by Governor Sir William Des Vceux. The chief public building is the City Hall, erected in 1866-69 by subscription ; it con- tains an elegant theatre, numerous large rooms used for balls and public meetings, an excellent and valuable Library, and a Museum yearly increasing in impor- tance. In front of the main entrance is a large fountain presented in August, 1864, by Mr. John Dent, a merchant of the Colony. Eastward of the City Hall is a fine open space or lung in the shape of the Parade Ground south of the road and of the Cricket Ground on the north. The latter is furnished with a neat Pavilion, and the turf is kept in perfect order. The Government Offices, Supreme Court House, and Post Office are plain but substantial edifices. Government House occupies a commanding situation, in picturesque grounds pleasingly laid out, in the centre of the city. The Gaol is a large and massive structure. The Police Barracks and Central Station adjoin the Gaol, as does the Magistracy, a small and inconvenient structure. The Police Force numbers over 900, of whom 156 are Euro- peans, 350 Indians, and 400 Chinese. The Lunatic Asylum consists of two small buildings, one for Europeans and the other for Chinese, below the Bonham Boad. The Government Civil Hospital is a large and well-designed building affording extensive accommodation, situated in the Western part of the town. The Alice Memorial Hospital, situated at the corner of Hollywood Eoad and Aberdeen Street, is a useful and philanthropic institu- tion, which is also the headquarters of the Hongkong College of Medicine for Chinese ; affiliated with it is the Nethersole Hospital on Bonham Eoad. The Royal HOKGKdNG. KOWLCJON PENINSULA. IliiKGKuNG IIAIiDijUR. [Page 192. HONGKONG 193 Naval Hospital occupies a small eminence near Bow- rington. The Queen's College, a handsome and com- modious structure, which stands on a fine site, having its chief frontage on Staunton Street, is the home of the chief Government educational institution in the colony. It was opened in 1889. The Tung Wa Hospital, a Chinese institution, occupies a large and roomy build- ing. The Barracks for the garrison are extensive, and constructed with great regard to the health and comfort of the troops, and the buildings belonging to the Naval Establishment are substantial and spacious. The cantonments lie, on both sides of the Queen's Eoad, between the Cricket Ground and Arsenal Street, Wanchai. There are also extensive Barracks at Kowloon, in which the "Hongkong Kegiment" are quartered ; and a magnificent sanatorium (formerly the Mount Austin Hotel) at the Peak for the European troops. Headquarter House, the residence of the General in Command of the Troops, occupies a pleasant elevation overlooking the cantonments. A new and commodious Central Market was opened in 1895. The building of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank is large, handsome, and massive, and would do credit to any city. It occupies a fine site next to the City Hall, and has frontages on Queen's Eoad and Connaught Eoad. The exterior walls and elegant fluted pillars are of dressed granite, and the offices on the Queen's Eoad frontage are crowned with a large dome. An extensive reclama- tion along the city water frontage from West Point to Murray Eoad is now approaching completion, and the various sections as they are ready are being rapidly built upon. On the eastern section a handsome build- ing for the Hongkong Club was finished in 1897, and was occupied in Jvdy of that year. Near the Club stands the Jubilee statue of Her Majesty the Queen, the erection of which was postponed until this site became available ; it was unveiled on the 28th May, 1896. The statue represents Her Majesty in a sitting posture, and is of bronze enclosed in a stone canopy, o 194 HONGKONG The Clock Tower, near Pedder's Wharf, was erected by public subscription in 1862, and the illuminated clock was presented to the Colony by the firm of Messrs. Douglas Lapraik & Co. The tower, though of fair pro- portions and height, is now somewhat dwarfed by the lofty new building of the Hongkong Hotel The chief religious buildings are : St. John's Cathe- dral (Anglican), erected in the year 1842, occupies a commanding site above the Parade Ground, and is a Gothic church of considerable size but with few pre- tensions to architecture. It has a square tower, with pinnacles, over the western porch, and possesses a peal of bells. A new chancel was built in 1869-70, the foundation stone of which was laid by the Duke of Edinburgh on the 16th November, 1869. A handsome stained window in the east end, over the altar, to the memory of the late Mr. Douglas Lapraik, another in the north transept erected in 1892 to the memory of the late Dr. Stewart, formerly Colonial Secretary, one in the south transept to the memory of those who perished in the wreck of the Bokhara, and another to the memory of the Hospital Sisters, who died in 1898, are the chief adornments of the interior. It also possesses a fine three-manual organ containing 47 stops, erected in 1887. St. Peter's (Seamen's) Church, at West Point, close to the Sailors' Home, is a neat Gothic erection with a spire. It also has a stained glass window, pre- sented in 1878. St. Stephen's Church, for Chinese, was built in 1892. It is a neat building in red brick with white facings, with a tower and spire about 80 feet high, standing on the Pokfolum Eoad side of the Church Mission compound. Union Church, a pleasing edifice in the Italian style of architecture, with a spire, and containing accommodation for about 500 persons, formerly stood in Staunton Street, but was rebuilt in 1890, on the plan of the old building, on a new site above the Kennedy Eoad, together with a parsonage adjoining. This church possesses an organ, and the three rose windows are filled with stained glass. A HONGKONG 1 95 small Wesleyan chapel stands at the junction of Queen's Eoad and Kennedy Eoad. The Eoman Catholic Cathedral is situated in Glenealy ravine, near the Botanic Gardens, and is a large structure in the Gothic style ; the bell tower is at present incomplete, and the central tower is furnished with an insignificant wooden apology for a spire. It was opened for worship in 1888. St. Joseph's Church, in Garden Eoad, is a neat edifice erected in 1876 on the site of one destroyed by the great typhoon of 1874 ; St. Anthony's Church on the Bonham Eoad, near West Point, is an ugly structure, erected in 1892 by the munificence of a late Portuguese resident; St. Prancis' Church, at Wanchai, and the Church of the Sacred Heart, at West Point, are small and unattractive structures. There are two Maho- medan mosques, one in Shelley Street and the other at Kowloon, the latter being for the accommodation of the men of the Hongkong Eegiment. There are also several Protestant mission chapels. St. Joseph's Col- lege, a school for boys managed by the Christian Brothers (Eoman Catholic), occupies a large and hand- some building on a prominent site below Eobinson Eoad. The Italian Convent, in Caine Eoad, educates a large number of girls, and brings up many orphans gratuitously. The Asile de la Sainte Enfance, in Queen's Eoad East, is in the hands of French Sisters, who receive and train up numbers of Chinese found- lings. The Eoman Catholics also possess a Eeformatory at West Point for Chinese boys, which is e£&ciently managed. Other denominations likewise support charitable establishments, conspicuous among which are the Diocesan Home and Orphanage, the Berlin Foundling Hospital on Bonham Eoad, which has a neat little chapel attached (in which services according to the Lutheran creed are held), the Baxter Vernacular School, the Victoria Female Home and Orphanage, etc. St. Paul's College, situated between Pedder's Hill and Glenealy Ea-rine, was erected in 1850, and was origi- nally founded for the purpose of giving a theological 196 HONGKONG training to young Chinese and others intended for the ministry of the Anglican Church, but is now an ordi- nary school. A small chapel is attached. The college is the residence of the Bishop of Victoria, who is its warden. The Protestant, Eoman Catholic, Parsee, Jewish, and Mahomedan Cemeteries occupy sites in Wong-nai Chung Valley, and are kept in good order. The Protestant Cemetery is almost a rival to the Public Gardens, being charmingly situated and admirably laid out with fountain, flower-beds, and ornamental shrubs. The principal Chinese cemetery is on the slopes of Mount Davis, near the Pokfolum Bead, and is dismally bare and injudiciously crowded. Institutions. There are several clubs in the Colony. The principal are the Hongkong Club on the New Praya, the Club Germania in Wyndham Street, and the Lusitano Club in Shelley Street. There are also the Victoria Eecrea- tion Club, which possesses bath and boat-houses and gymnasium, on the Praya near the Cricket-ground ; a cricket club, a football club, a polo club, a golf club, a hockey club, a rifle association, and a yacht club. The Ladies' Eecreation Club have several prettily-laid-out tennis-courts and a pavilion in their grounds on the Peak Eoad. The Hongkong General Chamber of Commerce have a room in the City Hall, and meet annually. The Committee form its executive, and the Chamber is frequently asked by the Government for its opinion on questions affecting commerce. The Freemasons' Hall, erected in 1865, is situated in Zetland Street, and belongs to the parent lodge, the Zetland. The Sailors' Home occupies a site at West Point, and there is a Mission to Seamen. The British Mercantile Marine Officers' Association and the Institution of HONGKONG 197 Marine Engineers have been formed, and watch over the interests of those professions. The Hongkong Benevolent Society does good work among the indi- gent waifs occasionally cast destitute on the Colony. Among other institutions is the St. Andrew's Society, primarily established to ensure the fitting celebration of the anniversary of Scotland's patron saint. The annual races are held at the latter end of February, under the auspices of the Hongkong Jockey Club, on the Eace-course in Wong-nai Chung Valley, at the east end of the town, a beautiful spot enclosed by fir-clad hills. On this occasion the whole colony makes holiday, and the stands and course are crowded with one of the most motley collections of humanity to be seen in any part of the world. Gymkhanas are also held monthly during the summer. A regatta is held in December in the harbour, but it does not evoke the same enthusiasm as the races. Athletic Sports are also got up every year by the residents and the garrison, and occasionally swimming-matches and boat-races take place. There is an Amateur Dramatic Club, the members of which give several performances in the City Hall Theatre during the season. There are two large Chinese theatres, where the Chinese drama is pretty constantly on view. The Tung Hing Theatre, which was only completed and opened in 1892, is a fine building constructed on modern principles, and with special regard to the safety of the auditors. There are three daily papers published in English : the Hongkong Daily Press, which appears in the morn- ing; the China Mail and the Hongkong Telegraph, issued in the evening. There are two weekly papers, the Hongkong Weekly Press and China Overland Trade Report and the Overland China Mail. The Chronicle and Directory fw China, Japan, Straits Settlements, etc., appears annually, published at the Daily Press ofiice. The China Review, which is devoted to reviews and papers on Chinese topics, is published once every two months. The native Press is represented by four daily 1 98 HONGKONG papers — the Chung Ngoi San Po, which is the oldest and most influential, published at the Daily Press office ; the Wa Tsz Yat Po, or Chinese Mail ; the Tstm Wan Yat Po, and the Wai San Yat Po. There is a Portuguese weekly paper called Porvir. The Govern- ment Gazette is published once a week. There are several good hotels in Victoria. The principal one in the city is the Hongkong Hotel, close to the Clock Tower, and extending from the Praya to Queen's Eoad, a handsome building, six stories high, and containing 150 rooms. The Peak Hotel is situated at Victoria Gap, about 1400 feet above the sea, and provides extensive accommodation on a most luxurious scale. Industries. Manufactures are yearly increasing in importance. There are three large sugar refineries : the China Sugar Eefining Company's establishments at East Point and at Bowrington, and the Taikoo Sugar Eefinery at Quarry Bay. In connection with the first-named Company there is also a large Distillery, where a con- siderable quantity of rum is manufactured. There is an Ice Factory at Bowrington, a large Eope Factory in Belcher's Bay, Steam Saw Mills at Bowrington, a Glass Manufactory and a Match Manufactory at Kowloon, a Feather Cleaning and Packing Establish- ment at Kennedytown, a Soap Factory at Shaukiwan, and two or three Engineering Works. The Green Island Cement Company has works at Deep Water Bay, on the south side of the island, and at Kowloon Bay, beyond Hongkong. A Paper Mill on a consider- able scale, fitted with the best English machinery, was erected at Aberdeen in 1891. The works of the Hong- kong and China Gas Company are situated at West Point, and those of the Hongkong Electric Company at Wanchai. The city is illuminated partly by gas HONGKONG 199 and partly by the electric light, the latter having been introduced at the end of 1890. Among the industries pursued by the Chinese are glass-blowing, opium-boil- ing, soap-making, vermilion and soy manufacture, tanning, dyeing; beancurd, toothpowder, and cigar- making, boat-building, etc., etc. The Hongkong Cotton Spinning, Weaving, and Dyeing Company, Limited, has a mill of 50,000 spindles at So Kunpo, which com- menced running with 12,000 spindles in June, 1899. There is excellent dock accommodation. The Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Company, Limited, have three extensive establishments, one at Kowloon, one at Tai Kok Tsui, and the third at Aberdeen on the south side of the island. The establishments of this company are fitted with all the best and latest appli- ances for engineering and carpenter's work, and the largest vessel in H.M.'s Navy has been received into the No. 1 Dock at Kowloon. The docks and slips are of the following dimensions : — Kowloon — No. 1 (Admiralty) Dock — 576 feet in length, 86 feet in breadth at entrance at top and 70 feet at bottom, and 30 feet depth of water over siU at ordinary spring tides. No. 2 Dock — Length on keel blocks, 371 feet ; breadth at entrance, 74 feet ; depth of water over sUl at ordinary spring tides, 18 feet 6 inches. No. 3 Dock — Length on keel blocks, 264 feet ; breadth at entrance, 49 feet 3 inches ; depth of water over sill at ordinary spring tides, 14 feet. Patent Slips : No. 1 — Length on keel blocks, 240 feet; breadth at entrance, 60 feet; depth on the blocks, 14 feet. No. 2 — Length on keel blocks, 230 feet ; breadth at entrance, 60 feet ; depth of water on the blocks at ordinary spring tides, 12 feet. Tai Kok Tsui: Cosmopolitan dock — Length on keel blocks, 466 feet; breadth at entrance, 85 feet 6 inches; depth of water over sill at ordinary spring tides, 20 feet. Aberdeen : Hope Dock — Length on keel blocks, 430 feet ; breadth at entrance, 84 feet ; depth of water over sill at ordinary spring tides, 23 feet. Lament Dock — Length on keel blocks, 333 feet; 200 HONGKONG breadth at entrance, 64 feet ; depth of water over sill at ordinary spring tides, 16 feet. The Kowloon and Cosmopolitan Docks are in close proximity to the shipping in port, and are well sheltered on all sides. The approaches to the Docks are perfectly safe, and the immediate vicinity affords capital anchorage. The Docks are substantially built throughout with granite. Powerful lifting shears with steam purchase at Kow- loon and Cosmopolitan Docks stand on a solid granite sea-wall, alongside which vessels can lie and take in or out boilers, guns, and other heavy weights. The shears at Kowloon are capable of lifting 70 tons, and the depth of water alongside is 24 feet at low tides. There are other establishments at which shipbuilding and foundry work is carried on, and some good-sized steamers have been launched in the Colony. Her Majesty's Naval Yard likewise contains machine-sheds and fitting-shops on a large scale, and repairs can be effected to the machinery of the British men-of-war with great expedi- tion. A large extension of the Naval Yard has been decided upon. The Peak District. A well-made but rather badly graded mountain road leads up to the summit of Victoria Peak, with numerous other paths branching off from it at Victoria Gap along the adjoining hills. A tramway, on the Midre-rope system, has been laid to the Victoria Gap, where the stationary engine is fixed, the lower terminus being close to St. John's Cathedral, aud was opened to traffic on the 30th May, 1888. Passengers can alight at the Kennedy, Bowen, and Plantation Roads, where plat- forms are provided for their accommodation. Within the past few years the number of bungalows and houses on and about the Peak has increased so much that they now form quite a considerable alpine village. The Military erected a sanatorium on the heights near Magazine Gap in 1883, and in 1897 acquired the HONGKONG 201 handsome and commodious Mount Austin Hotel for the same purpose. The Peak Church was opened for worship in June, 1883. Comfortable accommodation for visitors is afforded at the Peak Hotel. The road from Victoria Gap westward leads to Victoria Peak, which is 1823 feet above the sea, and rises almost abruptly behind the centre of the city of Victoria. On the summit is placed the flagstaff, from which the approach of the mails and other vessels is signalled. An excellent and well-graded road, commencing on the Bowen road, leads to Magazine Gap, near which a second hill village of foreign residences has been formed, on the southern side of the hills, at an eleva- tion of about 900 feet above the sea. The Eueal Districts. There are several villages on the island, the largest of which is Shau-ki Wan, situate in a bay in the Ly- ee-mun Pass, a great resort of Chinese fishing-craft. Aberdeen, known to the Chinese as Shek-pai-wan, on the south of the island, possesses a well-sheltered little harbour, also much frequented by fishing-craft. Two large docks of the Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Company are situated there, and add to the importance of the place. Pokfolum, on the road to Aberdeen, about four miles from Victoria, was formerly a place of resort for European residents in the hot weather, and some elegant bungalows were erected in pleasant and picturesque situations, commanding fine sea views and cool breezes, but since the development of the Peak district Pokfolum has been comparatively neglected. The sanitarium of the French Missions is located at Pokfolum, and is a fine building with an elegant chapel attached. The Dairy Farm is also situated there. Wong-nai Chung is snugly located at the head of the valley of that name, and is the most accessible of all the villages from Victoria. Stanley, situated in a 202 HONGKONG small bay on the south-east of the island, was once the site of a military station, but the barrack build- ings have been pulled down, and the village is now stationary. A cemetery on the point contains numerous graves of British officers and soldiers. One of the places most in favour with pedestrians who are not afraid of a good long tramp is the little village of Tytam Tuk, nestling among trees at the mouth of the stream of the same name, which here enters Tytam Bay, the most extensive inlet on the southern coast. There are good carriage-roads from Victoria both to Aberdeen and Shau-ki Wan and bridle-roads to Stanley and Tytam, and as a memorial of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee a new road round the island is to be made. Saiwan is a small village picturesquely situated in Saiwan Bay, just outside the Ly-ee-mun Pass, and is also much frequented by picnic parties. In the belief that it was a healthy locality, small barracks were erected there early in the forties, but the experiment proved most disastrous, for in five weeks out of a detachment of twenty English soldiers five died and three more were removed in a dangerous condition. The buildings were therefore soon abandoned. Shek O is a small but prettily located village occupying a small valley shut in from the water on the eastern coast, not far from Cape D'Aguilar. KOWLOON AND OTHER DErENPEXCIES. Across the harbour is the dependency of British Kowloon. The peninsula was first granted in per- petual lease by tlic Kwaugtung Government to Sir Harry (then Mr.) Smith I'arkes, but was definitely ceded to Great Britain in 1860 by Article VI. of the Peking Convention. It has an area of four square miles, and has latterly made considerable progress. Yau-ma Ti, the principal village, has increased in population, and bids fair to some day become an HONGKONG 203 important town. There is a considerable Chinese junk trade at this place, and amongst other industries is a preserved ginger factory. The Military and Police Eifle Eanges are at the back of and near the village. Gas Works were erected here in 1892, and the settled portion of the peninsula is now lighted with gas. "Waterworks were established in 1895. A regiment of Indian infantry is stationed at Tsim-tsa Tsui, where barracks and of&cers' quarters are located and a Ma- hommedan mosque has been erected. At Tsim-tsa Tsui, too, a number of European houses have been erected and numerous gardens laid out, and this portion of the peninsula, which faces Victoria, is gradually developing into a European residential settlement. A fine bund, with a massive granite wall, has been constructed there, and an extensive range of godowns buUt and several fine wharves made, for discharging cargo and coaling. There is also a briquette factory. The Navy maintains a small naval yard, subsidiary to the principal establishment on the Hongkong side. A well-equipped Observatory is situated on Mount Elgin ; and a large and handsome Police Station for the Water Police occupies an emi- nence just above the new praya. In front of this Station is a Time Ball, which is dropped daily. A steam ferry plies regularly between Tsim-tsa Tsui and Victoria; ferry boats also run between Victoria and Yau-ma Ti and Hung-ham, where the principal docks of the Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Company are situate. The Cosmopolitan Dock and works, also belonging to the same company, are situated at Fuk Tsun Heung, formerly known as Sam Shui Po. In 1898 an agreement was entered into whereby China cedes to Great Britain for ninety-nine years the territory behind Kowloon Peninsula up to a line drawn from Mirs Bay to Deep Bay and the adjacent islands, including Lantao, th#extent of the New Territory being about 376 square miles, namely, 286 square miles on the mainland and 90 square miles on the islands. 204 HONGKONG The ceremony of formally taking over the territory was fixed for the 17th April, 1899, when the British flag was to be hoisted at Taipohu, and the day was declared a general holiday. Attacks, however, having been made on the parties engaged on the preliminary arrange- ments, the mat-sheds erected for the accommodation of the police having been burnt, and other evidences of an organised opposition having been given, it was deemed advisable to assume full jurisdiction on the 16th April, on which date the flag was hoisted by the Hon. J. H. Stewart Lockhart, C.M.G., Colonial Secretary. Military operations were found necessary to overcome the opposition, and on the 18th April the rebels were completely routed in an action fought at Sheung Tsun, their force numbering some 2600 men. On the British side there were no fatalities and only one or two slight casualties ; on the Chinese side a number were killed and wounded, but the exact figures were not ascertained, as men hit were carried away by their friends. In the Convention it was provided that Kowloon City was to remain Chinese, but it having been established beyond a doubt that the hands of the Chinese officials were by no means clean in respect of the disturbances which occurred on the taking over of the leased area, the Home Government determined to mark their sense of the duplicity of the Chinese in a suitable manner, and orders were accordingly issued to the military autho- rities to seize Kowloon walled city and Shamchun. This was done on the 16th May, 1899, no opposition being encountered at either place. The Hongkong Volunteer Corps took part in the expedition to Kowloon City. Shamchun, the other place seized, is an im- portant town on the river of the same name just beyond the boundary originally agreed upon. Unfortunately it has not been retained, having been restored to the Chinese authorities in November, 1899. The New Territory under British jurisdiction is being developed by the construction of roads ; police stations have been established, and a system of administration by means HONGKONG 205 of village communities organised. The headquarters of the administration are at Taipohu. The principal islands and their estimated population are as follows : — Tsing I, 400; Ma Wan, 400; Lantao, 6860; Ping Chau, 600 ; Cheung Chau, 5000 ; Lamma, 460. Of the islands and islets in the waters of the colony (exclusive of the recent acquisitions) the most im- portant is Stonecutter's Island, formerly known as Wong Chune-chow, opposite to and about three-quarters of a mile from the north-western extremity of the Kowloon peninsula. The island is an irregular ridge about a mile in length, and a little over a quarter of a mile broad. The Gunpowder Depot is on the eastern end, near the wharf ; the principal eminences are occu- pied by batteries more or less formidable, and no one is allowed to land without a i permit. The Quarantine Station is also located here. After the great typhoon of September, 1874, two or three thousand bodies of the victims found afloat were interred on Stonecutter's Island. Kellet's Island is a small rock near East Point, on which a fort formerly stood, but which has been replaced by a small magazine. Green Island, at the western entrance of the harbour, has been planted with trees, and now justifies its name all the year round. A lighthouse has been placed on its south- western extremity. One Tree Island is a tiny rock near the entrance to Aberdeen. A Dynamite Depot has been erected on it. Aplichau, a considerable island opposite Aberdeen, of which harbour it forms part, has a populous fishing village on its northern shore facing Aberdeen. Lantao and Lamma Islands were brought under British jurisdiction by the Kowloon Convention of 1898. Both islands are sparsely popu- lated by agriculturists and fishermen. 206 HONGKONG Population, Garrison, and Defences. The total population of the Colony, according to the census taken in January, 1897, numbered 246,880, compared with 221,441 in May, 1891, and 160,402 in 1881. The resident civil population was composed as follows : — Europeans and Americans other than Portu- guese 3269, Portuguese 2263, Indians 1348, Eurasians 272, other races 882, Chinese 200,005. The mercantile marine numbered 1971, of whom 356 were Europeans and 1523 Chinese. The Chinese floating population numbered 31,752. The army, including an Indian regiment, numbered 2850, and the navy 2268. Of the resident population and mercantile marine, 2374 were natives of the British Isles, 223 Americans, 118 French, 366 German, 163 Jewish, and 105 Spanish, the balance being spread over various other nationalities. The population of Victoria is about 165,000. The popula- tion of the New Territory is estimated in round figures at 100,000. The garrison, according to the estimates for 1899- 1900, consists of three companies of Garrison Artillery, 657 of all ranks; Engineers, eleven officers and 179 men; Infantry, six-eighths of a battalion, 779 of all ranks ; Army Service Corps ; seven Colonial Corps, eleven companies of Infantry, four of Local Artillery, one of Local Engineers, 1921 of all ranks; Depart- mental Corps, nine officers and 33 men of the Royal Army Medical Corps, five of the Army Ordnance Department, 18 of the Army Ordnance Corps, and six of the Army Pay Corps. Total of aU ranks, 3625. There is also a Volunteer Corps consisting of a battery of Light Field Artillery, three Machine-gun Companies, an Engineer Company, an Infantry Company, and a Band. The approaches to the harbour are strongly fortified, the batteries consisting of well-constructed earthworks. The western entrance is protected by three batteries on HONGKONG 207 Stonecutters' Island and two forts on Belcher and Fly- Points, from which a tremendous converging fire could be maintained, completely commanding the Sulphur Channel. Another small battery, on the hill above and west of Eichmond Terrace, has a wide range of fire. The Ly-ee-mun Pass is defended by two forts, and if vessels survived that fire they would then have to face the batteries at North Point and Hungham which completely command the eastern entrance. Another battery on the bluff at Tsim-tsa Tsui, Kowloon, com- mands the whole of the centre of the harbour. The batteries are armed with the latest breech-loading ordnance. In addition to the fortifications the Colony possesses a small squadron for harbour defence. This consists of the turret ironclad Wivern, 2750 tons, carrying four guns, the gunboats &k (at present detached for service on the Yangtsze) and Tweed, each carrying three guns, and four torpedo-boats. The crews of these vessels are borne in the receiving ship Tamar, which is also the head- quarters of the Commodore and his staff. The Naval Yard is an extensive range of workshops and offices east of the Artillery Barracks, and the Naval Authorities have another large establishment on the Kowloon side near to Yau-ma-Ti. Climate. As intimated in earlier paragraphs, Hongkong formerly enjoyed a most unenviable notoriety for unhealthiness, and in years past the troops garrisoned here suffered grievously from malarial fevers. A great deal of the sickness in the early days of the Colony was caused by excavating and otherwise disturbing the disintegrated granite of which the soU of the island mainly consists, and which appears to throw off malarious exhalations when upturned. At the present time, however, the Colony is one of the healthiest spots in the world in 2o8 HONGKONG the same latitude. The influence of the young pine forests created by the Afforestation Department has no doubt been beneficial in checking malaria, and the attention latterly bestowed on sanitation has not been without its due effect. The annual death-rate per 1000 for the whole population in 1898 was 22-3, as compared with 18'85 during the previous year and an average of 23 during the preceding five years (exclusive of 1894) ; these deaths, however, include no less than 1175 from plague, and if these are omitted the death-rate appears at 17'7. The death-rate among the white races was 162, among the Chinese 22-5, and among the coloured races 3 3 '6. The following table shows the fifteen years' means of the annual and monthly values of the principal meteorological elements, taken from the Observatory Eeport for 1898 :— HONGKONG 209 P" CM CQ mcooocOi-t-^ocoo(N;^fet>»5»« o'-'l'i^t-.QOt^OiCO ... .*■. f>a'H I— t Oa>oos oo(N'-iom t>COiO'HOTj(t*fe;C<»5i'-t &<» <^. «i g ^ S 55 S '^ «i » =«. >>: q & 2 g I^OSOSCO COiOlN'H^ r; (N CN C^ C^ W O'HCOOOCOOSCOt-ffONiOOOh-eCM'^^'M (N (N tN tH CO .OOCCOt:-!7^*g^^^'» (NTt*5D(N00C0C0O00O05«DW'09B"* -CD(?4iCmi-(t-OTOSiO"«i> S.C^ 1 '^ g ^ S 28 S "^ OS t>-U5OC0CQSSi-(i0O'«0i'^feoC0l> ■s -1 «= ^. S 3 ;S 5 ^ "^ q -: t^ '^ *^. :i; 2 I;- CO CO (N W Ol^^co^-'HO'^^o^H■^»ooooOQOlCfeT^col> S m iM ^ h 3 2 o> •o^'j^ is a s a I ■ 2 § .3 -s .a -9 -I -I .f I iiilaaig.S^g|a|ao-|g|o ^a -^ I S § « -a i § 1 1 § I g 3 1 1 1 1 ■lO HONGKONG Trade. Hongkong is a free port, and there is no complete official return of the imports and exports compiled, but the value of its trade is estimated at about £50,000,000 per annum. During the year 1898 the following tonnage entered and cleared : — KATIONALITT. BHTESED. Ve8»eU. Tong. CLEA2ED. .VcsaeU. Tons. American ... 113 86,798 118 92,736 Austrian 25 66,159 26 66,236 Belgian 1 2,174 1 2,174 British . 3,734 4,362,837 3,722 4,3*2,811 Chinese 213 262,835 211 260,832 Cliineae junks . 29,466 1,814,281 29,740 1,812,473 Danish 69 43,427 6S 43,024 Dutch 6 8,839 6 8,839 French 158 176,341 156 175,455 German 746 898,012 740 891,563 Hawaiian 7 13,855 7 13,855 Italian 14 19,789 14 19,789 Japanese 240 502,618 241 502,837 Norwegian ... 207 190,611 203 187,282 Russian 2 3,898 2 3,899 Siamese 1 309 1 309 Spanish 3 1,200 3 1,391 A total of 19,069 vessels of 7,292,911 tons entered, and 18,216 vessels of 7,268,337 tons cleared with cargoes. There also entered in ballast 15,936 vessels of 1,161,072 tons, and cleared 16,773 vessels of 1,157,167 tons. The trade chiefly consists in opium, cotton, sugar, salt, flour, oil, cotton and woollen goods, cotton yarn, matches, metals, earthenware, amber, ivory, sandal- wood, betel, vegetables, granite, etc., etc. There is an extensive Chinese passenger trade, now chiefly restricted, however, to the Straits Settlements, Nether- lands India, Borneo, the Philippines, Siam, and Indo- China. Hongkong possesses unrivalled steam communica- tion. The P. & 0. S.N. Co. and the M.M. Co. convey the European mail weekly, the Norddeutscher Lloyd HONGKONG 2 1 1 Co. maintain a regular fortnightly mail service between Bremen and Hongkong, the P.M.S.S. Co., 0. & 0. S.S. Co., and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha maintain a mail service with San Francisco, the Canadian Pacific Eail- way Co. a regular mail service with Vancouver, B.C., a regular line has been established by the Northern Pacific S.S. Co. to Tacoma, and Oregon, Portland ; the Eastern and Australian S.S. Co. and the China Naviga- tion Co. keep up a frequent but rather irregular service with the Australian Colonies, and the Nippon Yusen Kaisha maintains services to Europe, India, Australia, and the United States (Seattle). In addition to all these, several great lines of merchant steamers run between ports in Great Britain and Hongkong, of which the China Mutual S.S. Co., Ocean S.S. Co. and the Glen, Warrack, Mogul, Ben, Union, and Shell lines are the most conspicuous. The Austrian Lloyd's steamers also ply from Trieste to Hongkong, those of the Hamburg-Amerika line from Hamburg, and the Navi- gazione Generale Italiana Company's steamers run monthly from Genoa. There is frequent but irregular steam communication between Java and Hongkong. Between the ports on the east coast of China, Formosa, and Hongkong the steamers of the Douglas S.S. Co. ply regularly twice a week, and those of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha weekly, and there is constant steam communication with Hoihow, Manila, Saigon, Haiphong, Tourane, Bangkok, Borneo, etc. With Shanghai, Tien- tsin, and the ports of Japan there is frequent communi- cation by steamers of the Indo-China, China Navigation, and other lines, in addition to the English and French and German mail steamers, which leave weekly. Between Hongkong, Macao, and Canton there is a daily steam service, and tri-weekly steamers as far as Wuchow on the West Eiver, MACAO MACAO Macao is situated in 22 deg. 11 min. 30 sec. N. latitude, and 113 deg. 32 min. 30 sec. E. longitude, on a rocky peninsula, renowned, long before the Portuguese settled on it, for its safe harbour for junks and small vessels. The Portuguese, who had already settled on the island of Lampacao, and frequented for trading purposes Chin-chew, Lianpo, Tamao, and San-choaa (St. John's Island, where Francis Xavier, the celebrated missionary, died), first took up their residence at Macao in 1557. Shortly after their arrival pirates and adventurers from the neighbouring islands commenced to molest them. The Chinese authorities were powerless to cope with these marauders, who went so far as to blockade the port of Canton. The Portuguese manned and armed a few vessels and succeeded in raising the blockade of Canton and clearing the seas. The town of Macao soon afterwards began to rise, and during the eighteenth century trade flourished there, the difficulty of residence at Canton greatly contributing towards it. The East India Company and the Dutch Company had establish- ments in Macao. Historians are divided in opinion as to whether the possession of Macao by the Portuguese was originally due to Imperial bounty or to right of conquest. There can be no doubt, however, that it was held at a rental of 500 taels a year until Governor Eerreira do Amaral 2l6 MACAO in 1848 refused to pay the rental any longer, and forcibly drove out the Chinese Custom-house, and with it every vestige of Chinese authority. This bold stroke cost him his life in August, 1849, for he was waylaid and barbarously murdered near the Barrier of Porta Cerco and his head was taken to Canton. The sovereignty of Portugal over the peninsula was, however, formally recognised by China in the Treaty signed with Portugal in 1887. The colony is separated from the large island of Heang-shan by a wall built across the narrow con- necting sandy isthmus. Two principal ranges of hills, one running from south to north, the other from east to west, may be considered as forming an angle, the base of which leans upon the river or anchoring place. The public and private buildings, a cathedral, and several churches, are raised on the declivities, skirts, and heights of hillocks. On the lofty mount eastward, called Charil, is a fort, enclosing the hermitage of Na. Sra. de Guia, and westward is LiUau, on the top of which stands the hermitage of Na. Sra. da Penha ; entering a wide, semi-circular bay, which faces the east, on the right hand stands the fort San Francisco ; and on the left, that of N. Sra. de Bom Parto. Seen from the roads, or from any of the forts crowning the several low hills, Macao is extremely picturesque. The public and private buildings are gaily painted and the streets kept very clean. In the town there are several places of interest apart from the fan-tan or gambling saloons. The Gardens and Grotto of Camoens, once the resort of the celebrated Portuguese poet Camoens, are worth seeing, as also the noble fapade of the ancient Jesuit church of San Paulo, burnt in 1835. The Cathedral is a large plain structure having no architectural pretensions, and the various parish churches are stucco edifices, ugly without and tawdry within. Pleasant excursions can be made to the Hot Springs of Y6-mak, about sixteen miles from Macao, accessible by steam launch. In winter snipe MACAO 217 are to be found in the neighbourhood and afford good sport. After the cession of Hongkong to the British the trade of Macao declined rapidly, and the coolie traffic subsequently developed there gave it a certain notoriety. This traffic, pregnant with abuses, was abolished in 1874, Tea continues to be an article of export, showing the value of about $500,000 a year. Essential oils are also exported to some extent. There is like- wise some trade in opium. Silk filature, brick and cement works, and other factories have also been established. The commercial activity of the place, however, so far as the Portuguese are concerned, is a thing of the past. There is still a fair native trade carried on, the value of which, according to the Chinese Customs returns from Lappa, in 1898 reached Tls. 12,030,939 as compared with Tls. 13,143,774 in 1897. As the harbour is fast silting up, however, most of the native trade will soon desert the place unless efficient dredging operations are inaugurated. Some work has recently been done in this direction, but the operations are on a smaU scale. Owing to its being open to the south-west breezes, and the quietude always prevailing, Macao has become the frequent retreat of invalids and business men from Hongkong and other neighbouring ports. There are two well- conducted hotels: the Boa Vista and Hing Kee's Hotel. The Hongkong, Canton, and Macao Steamboat Com- pany runs a daily steamer (Sundays excepted) between Macao and Hongkong, leaving the former port at 8 o'clock a.m. and Hongkong at 2 p.m. Another Company also runs a regular steamer daily between Hongkong and Macao. Between Macao and Canton there is a daily steam service, Sundays excepted. The distance from Macao to Hongkong is 40J miles, and to Canton 88 miles. Macao is connected with Hongkong by telegraph. The population of Macao, with its dependencies of Taipa and Colowan, according to 2l8 MACAO returns made in 1896, was — Chinese, 74,568; Portu- guese, 3898 ; other nationalities, 161 ; or a total of 78,627. Of the Portuguese 3106 were natives of Macao, 615 natives of Portugal, and 177 natives of other Portuguese possessions. Of the foreigners 80 were natives of Great Britain. INDO-CHINA INDO-CHINA The French possession of Indo-China lies between 8 deg. 30 min. and 23 deg. 23 min. N. lat., and 97 deg. 40 min. and 107 deg. E. long. (Paris), and comprises the colony of Cochin-China and the protectorates of Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and the Laos, the whole being under the direction of a Governor-General, who is assisted by the " Conseil Supdrieur de L'Indo-Chine." The latter is a movable body, meeting in any of the chief towns according to the summons of the Governor- General, but Hanoi, the capital of Tonkin, appears to be taking rank as the principal seat of the administra- tion. According to a decree of the 8th August, 1898, the Council consists of the Governor-General, President, the General Commanding the Troops, the Commander- in-Chief of the China Squadron, the Lieutenant- Governor of Cochin-China, the Eesidents Superior of Tonkin, Annam, and Cambodia, a representative of the Laos Administration, five other officials, the President of the Colonial Council of Cochin-China, the Chairmen of the Saigon, Hanoi, and Haiphong Chambers of Commerce, of the Cochin-China and Tonkin Chambers of Agriculture, the Chairmen of the Annam and Cam- bodian Mixed Chambers of Commerce and Agriculture, and two native members appointed by the Governor- General. The full Council meets once a year, and provision is made for a permanent Commission to transact such business as may arise between the sessions. The deltas of Cochin-China and Tonkin are fertile ; 222 INDO-CHINA Annam, connecting them, is a long mountainous tract, with a narrow littoral on one side and a wild, sparsely populated hill-tract stretching to the Mekong on the other. Eice, cotton, sugar, seeds, tobacco, spice, and fish, are the principal productions of the alluvial districts. The principal mineral production is coal, which is mined at Tourane, on the coast of Annam, and at Hongay and Kebao on the Tonkin coast. Other minerals, including gold, silver, tin, copper, lead, etc., are said to exist in the Protectorate. The principal harbours are Haiphong in Tonkin. Tourane and Thuanan (for Hu6) iu Annam, and Saigon. The climate in general is hot and humid. The year is divided into two seasons, the wet and the dry. The general budget for 1899 amounted to $17,620,000 and the local budgets were as follows : — Tonkin, |3,993,639; Annam, $1,845,835; Cochin-China, $4,550,000; Cambodia, $1,997,600; and Laos, $692,531; making a total of $30,699,604 A loan of 200,000,000 francs has been approved by the French Chambers for the construction of railways in Indo-China, and provision is also made for a Govern- ment guarantee on a projected line running into Yunnan, which is to be constructed by a private Company. The lines approved in Indo-China are (1) Haiphong-Hanoi-Laokay ; (2) Hanhoi-Namdinh- Vinh ; (3) Tourane-Hu6-Quangtri ; (4) Saigon-Thanhoa- Langbiang; (5) Mytho-Cantho. The population consists of at least 17,500,000, most of whom are Annamites, the Cambodians and Laotians coming next in about equal numbers. The Chinese number 150,000, and Europeans amount to a little over 6000. The Tonkinese are larger and more robust than the Cochin-Chinese, and more intelligent and active. The Chinese have immigrated in large numbers to the south of Cochin-China, where they have obtained almost the exclusive possession of industries and commerce. The Cambodians are naturally apathetic, and have given way to the Chinese and Annamites. INDO-CHINA 223 The Laotians and Mois, oppressed by their neighbours and by their mandarin system, are lazy, timid, and suspicious. The Muongs, who occupy all the basins of the Eiver Noire and Song-ma, are more handsome and robust than the Annamites. The Nuns resemble the Chinese and the Thos belong to the Kmer race. The total force of the French army in Indo-China in 1897 was 24,100. The force is composed as follows : 3 regiments infantry marine, 4800; 5 battalions of the foreign legion, 3600 ; 4 regiments of native tirailleurs, 14,100; 6 batteries of European artillery, 800 ; and artillery auxiliaries (European), 500. There have to be added to the above the auxiliary services and the gendarmerie, which bring the total up to 24,500, under the orders of a General of Division and two brigadiers. There is also in Indo-China a native militia of 10,000 men. The trade of the colony is rapidly increasing, the value having risen from 139,078,174 francs in 1888 to 205,231,545 francs in 1897. The exports, which reached a value of 67,665,437 francs in 1888 amounted to 117,048,554 francs in 1897. The principal article of export is rice, of which 13,720,824 piculs were shipped in 1897. The total imports amounted in value to 39,388,286 francs in 1888, and to 51,922,684 francs in 1897, the large increase being mainly in goods imported from France, the value of which rose from 9,687,119 francs in 1888 to 20,825,931 francs in 1897, while imports from foreign countries only rose from 29,701,167 francs to 31,096,753 francs. In the im- portant item of piece goods, which seem to be the staple most severely hit by the differential tariff, the trade is being rapidly monopolised by France. Thus in 1888 goods of this class from France figured for 1,944,138 francs only, while in 1897 the value had risen to 10,662,422 francs, foreign goods, on the other hand, falling from 13,452,917 francs to 7,248,983 francs. 2 24 INDO- CHINA TONKIN Anciently an independent kingdom, but since 1802 a province of Annam, Tonkin is situated between lat. 19 deg. and 23 deg. N. and long. 102 deg. and 108 deg. 30 min. E., bounded on the north by China, on the west by the Laos country, on the south by Annam, and on the east by the Gulf of Tonkin. The country near the sea is a rich alluvial plain, well watered by numerous rivers, and produces large crops of rice, while sugar, cotton, spices, indigo, sUk, and various other articles are also raised. It possesses valuable mines of silver, lead, antimony, and zinc, and gold and copper are also known to exist. Concessions were granted in 1887 for the working of the coal mines at Kebao and Hongay, and coal of good quality from the last-named is now largely exported. By the Treaty of Hue, dated the 6th June, 1884, the Annamite Government placed Tonkin under a French Protectorate, and its affairs are adminis- tered under the supervision of French Eesidents. It is, in fact, now practically a French Colony. Tonkin is divided into seventeen provinces, namely, Quang-yen, Hai-duong, Bac-ninh, Thai-nguyen, Lang-son, Cao-bang, Tuyenquan, Hong-hoa, Son-tay, Ha-noi, Ninh-binh, Hong-yen, Nam-dinh, Thanh-hoa, Nghe-an, Ha-tinh, and Bo-chinh. Hanoi, the capital, is the chief town of the province of the same name, and appears on old maps as Ke-sho. The population is estimated at from 10,000,000 to 12,000,000. A railway was some years ago constructed from Phu Lang-Thuong to Langson, a distance of 64 miles, but it was little better than a tramway. The gauge of this line is now being widened from 60 centimetres to 1 metre and extended to Hanoi, a distance of 45 kilometres, and a concession has been granted for a further extension from Langson to Lung- chow, in the Chinese province of Kwangsi. The imports of Tonkin in 1897 amounted to HANOI 225 31,540,958 francs, of which 14,732,857 francs were of French origin, and the export to 19,803,948 francs. The quantity of rice exported in 1897 was 2,263,116 picula. HANOI Hanoi, the capital of Tonkin, and now the seat of Government for Indo-China, is situated on the Songkoi, or Eed Kiver, 110 miles from its mouth. The city is built close to the river, here nearly a mile in width, and, owing to the lakes and trees interspersed, presents a rather picturesque appearance. The citadel occupies the highest site, and is surrounded by a brick wall twelve feet high and a moat. It contains the barracks for the troops, arsenals, magazines, etc., and the Eoyal Pagoda stands within its enclosure. The ancient city is situated between the citadel and the river, and its streets present a novel appearance, owing to the singular architecture of the houses. Since the occupation by the French in 1882 great improvements have been effected in the laying out of the town and the formation of roads and streets. The district nearest the river is gradually assuming the appearance of a Franco- Oriental city. Long, wide new streets, planted with trees, and lighted by electricity, have been constructed, of which the Rue Paul Bert is the principal business thoroughfare, containing the chief European shops, hotels, etc. The Mairie, Post Ofi&ce, Treasury, Club, and Band-stand are close to the Eue de Lac. The Cathedral, a large but ugly edifice, with twin towers, is situated in a street at the back of the Eue Jules Ferry, but being very lofty is a conspicuous object from most parts of the city. A fine bronze statue of Paul Bert was erected in the Place facing the Petit Lac, and unveiled on the 14th July, 1890. The Petit Lac is a sheet of water in the middle of the new city, rendered picturesque by the quaint pagodas occupying the small 2 26 INDO-CHINA islands which adorn it. There are fairly good hotels. In the native city the streets are well kept and very clean as compared with those of most Eastern cities. They are all lighted and drained. Some of the houses are very quaint and characteristic. Of the temples, that of the Grand Buddha on the shore of the Grand Lac, is perhaps the most important, as it contains a colossal bronze figure of the saint. A new Bace Course, opened for use in 1890, has been formed just outside the new town. The residences of the Governor-General and Commander of the Troops, the Government OflBces, the Hospital, and some other public buildings are situated on what was formerly " the Concession," near to the Hver bank. The population in 1897 was 102,700, of whom 950 were Europeans, 100,000 Annamites, 1697 Chinese, and 42 Indians. There are several French papers published in the town. Steamers run on the Songkoi as far as Laokai, near the Yunnan frontier, and a considerable transit trade is developing. A railway is now being made from Hanoi to Phulang- thuong, whence a line runs to Langson and the Chinese frontier. A concession has been granted for the extension of the Line to Lungchow, in Kwangsi. HAIPHONG This is the shipping port for Hanoi, Hai-duong, and Namdinh, the commercial centres of Tonkin. It is situated in lat. 20 deg. 51 min. N., and long. 106 deg. 42 min. E. on the river Cua Cam, which is connected by two or more channels or creeks with that great river connecting Yunnan with the Tonkin Gulf, called the Song-koi. The town of Haiphong is about sixteen and a half mUes from the lighthouse. The lighthouse at the entrance of the river, on the island of Hon-Do, is visible at a distance of about six miles. The entrance to the port is obstructed by two bars ; the outer one sand, the inner one mud. Haiphong is accessible, ^'HrfgiT-'*^ ■ Ul *„*i« ^ ^ 1 Wl Ula y^ iiAirnuNO. [I'dge 22C, HAIPHONG 227 however, by vessels drawing from 17 to 18 feet. There is plenty of water in the river. Vessels anchor about a quarter of a mile from the shore in from 40 to 60 feet of water abreast of a creek communicating with the Song-koi. The banks of the river are low and consist of alluvial mud, from which the present town has with great labour and expense been reclaimed. Haiphong proper is situated on both sides of the creek above referred to, and is in the midst of an extensive rice-swamp with low-lying, swampy land all around it for miles, having in the distance the monotony relieved by rugged ranges of low limestone hills ; and beyond these to the northward, at a distance of some sixteen miles, is a range of mountains, the loftiest, known as the Grand Summit, being about 5000 feet high. Most of the native buildings are wretchedly constructed of mud, bamboo, and matting, but a well built European town with broad boulevards, lighted by electricity, has sprung up, and is fast assuming the aspect of a prosperous city. The Hotel du Commerce is a large and handsome structure, its lofty mansard roof dominating every building in the town. There is a church attached to the Eoman Catholic Mission. A small dock and some fine wharves and godowns have been made. A Public Garden of rather limited area, with a band-stand in the centre, has been neatly laid out at the end of the Boulevard Paul Bert. The Cercle du Commerce, which is a well-managed Club, has its domicile in the Boulevard Paul Bert, where is also situated the Cercle Banian, another prosperous Club. The Eace Course is about a mile from the town on the Do Son road. There are several newspapers published in the town. The population of Haiphong in 1897 was 18,480, of whom 900 were Europeans, 5500 Chinese, 12,000 Annamites, 35 Japanese, and 45 Indians. A regular service of river steamers is maintained between Hanoi and Haiphong by the Messageries Fluviales. Haiphong is connected by submarine cable with Saigon and Hongkong. The town has electric light. 228 INDO-CHJNA ANNAM The kingdom of Annam, wHch also includes the ancient kingdom of Tonkin, conquered and annexed by King Gialong of Annam in 1802, is bounded on the east by the Gulf of Tonkin and the China Sea, on the west by Siam, Cambodia, and the Shan States, on the north by the Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Kwangsi, and on the south by Cochiu-China. It is under French protection. Annam proper is a narrow strip of country between the sea and the moimtains, the territory beyond which is occupied by aboriginal tribes who are practically independent. Annam is to Tonkin, in native parlance, as the girdle to the tunic, the latter being a broad and rich territory. Annam proper is a comparatively poor country, and is dependent for part of its rice-supply upon Tonkin. The population of Annam is uncertain, but, including that of Tonkin, it may be roughly estimated at 20,000,000. The King, Thanh-Thai, attained his majority in 1897. The imports of Annam in 1897 amounted to 4,719,349 francs, and the exports to 2,552,919 francs. Hu^, the capital of the kingdom of Annam, is situated on a small, scarcely navigable river named Truong Tien, and called by the French the Hu6 River, which debouches on the coast in about lat. 16 deg. 29 min. N., and long. 107 deg. 38 min. E. Hu6 is a walled city and has been built on lines similar to those of a fortified European town of the seventeenth century. It consists of two distinct parts — the city proper and the suburbs. The former stands in the middle of a square island, separated from the latter on three sides by a river and on the fourth by a canal. It is defended by a fortified enceinte, six kilometres in circumference, PROVINCES DE L' ANN AM 229 constructed by French engineers after the system of Vauban, and having six large gates. Within this enceinte reside all the Government officials. The walls are built of brick and are very lofty. Inside the outer enceinte is the citadel, similarly but less solidly fortified, and having eight instead of six gates. The six offices of the Ministry are in this quarter, as well as the Library, the Mandarins' College, the Courts of Justice, the Observatory, and various arsenals and barracks. The palace of the Council of State, and numerous other edifices, all of an official character, stand within the second enceinte. Behind these buildings is a wall of brick, which traverses the citadel throughout, separating it completely into two parts. This wall, which encloses the royal palaces and harem, has three gates ; that in the centre being in the form of a pagoda, gilt and adorned with elaborate carvings. The mass of the houses and even the public buildings in Hue are, however, very mean and in a bad state of repair. The Eoyal palace, like that of Peking, has yellow tiles; those of the nobles are red. The population of the city and suburbs is estimated at 100,000, of whom about 800 are Chinese. The only Europeans are the French Resident, his staff, and guard, consisting of 300 French soldiers. The mouth of the Hue Kiver is defended by forts, which were taken by the French in August, 1883, when the Hue Government at once capitulated. PROVINCES DE L'ANNAM TOURANE The port of Tourane is situated about forty miles to the south-east of Hu6, the capital of Annam, but on account of the Thuan-an Bar it is accessible by sea for large craft during only six months of the year, from the end of March to the end of September. The land route 230 INDO-CHINA from Hue, about sixty-eight miles in length, passes over the Nuages range of hills and is an easy road for horse and foot traffic. The extensive bay of Tourane is surrounded by hills and affords anchorage to the largest vessels. The Government transports, and the steamers of the Compagnie Nationale de Navigation, and the Messageries Maritimes find an anchorage here at all states of the tide and in all weathers. The Tourane Eiver, which has its source in the mountains of the interior, empties itself into the Bay. It is navigable only for small boats and junks, by which the traffic with the provinces of Quang-nam and Quang- ngai is carried on. The town, which is well built, extends for a length of nearly two miles along the left bank of the river. It possesses many public buildings, including the French Eesidency, a fine MUitary Hospital, spacious and well-ventilated Barracks, the Customs House, the Treasury, the Post Office, and the Munici- pal Offices, also a number of well-appointed business establishments, amongst which may be mentioned the Bank de I'lndo-Chine, the Opium Farm, the Messageries Maritimes offices, the Gassier Hotel, the Courbet Hotel, etc. The Markets, built of brick and stone, are large and contain several hundred stalls. On the right bank of the river also there are a few buildings, which are included in the French concession. A silk filature has been established there. A quarter of an hour's walk from this district is the village of My-kh^, which has given its name to a magnificent beach much frequented by the European population. The trade of Tourane is considerable, and several steamers a month arrive from Hongkong, taking full return cargoes of sugar, rattan, bamboo, areca nuts, silk, cassia, etc. The Messageries Maritimes and the Compagnie Nationale de Navigation have agencies at Tourane, and the vessels of these Com- panies, together with those arriving from Hongkong, give a total of about a dozen entering the port every month. Besides these vessels a large number of large sea-going junks from China, Hainan, and the ports of Annam, QUINHON— COCHIN-CHINA 23 1 Tonkin, and Cochin-China carry on an active and con- siderable trade in the products of the country. Tea, coffee, and the mulberry tree are cultivated on a large scale in the neighbourhood, and there are several plantations owned by Europeans. Less than an hour's journey by boat from the town are the Marble Mountains, an object of interest for travellers, who should not pass through Tourane without paying them a visit. The population of Tourane in 1897 was 4650, of whom 100 were Europeans, 50 Chinese, and 4500 Annamites. QUINHON Quinhon was opened to foreign trade upon the con- clusion of the treaty between France and Annam, signed in March, 1874. It is situated on the coast of Annam in about lat. 13 deg. 54 min. N., and long. 109 deg. 20 min. E. The entrance to the port is obstructed by a bar, which may be crossed, however, by any vessel with a draught not exceeding 16 to 16^ feet. The chief articles of export are salt, silk, crapes, beans, arachide oil and cakes, sugar, etc. The population of the province is one million; that of the port 3000, of whom about 20 are French civilians. The country is well cultivated, and the commercial prospects of the port are improving every year. A considerable trade is carried on, chiefly with Hongkong, Haiphong, Saigon, Singapore, and Bangkok. The trade is at present chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. COCHIN-CHINA Cochin-China is a French Colony. The province of Giadinh, of which Saigon is the chief port, was con- quered by the Franco-Spanish fleet on the 17th of February, 1859, but Lower Cochin-China (comprising the provinces of Giadinh, Bienhoa, and Mytho, and the Islands of Pulo Condor) was not definitely occupied 232 INDO-CHINA until 1862, when it was formally surrendered by treaty ; in 1867 three more provinces were conquered by the French and added to their possessions, viz. Chaudoc, Hatien, and Vinhlong. The actual boundaries of Cochin-China now are : on the North the kingdoms of Annam and Cambodia, on tlie East and South the China Sea, on the West the Gulf of Siam and Cambodia. The Colony of Cochin-China is divided into seven large provinces, comprising in all twenty-one inspec- tions. Besides Saigon, which is the capital of Cochin- China and at the same time of the province of Giadinh, the other chief towns bear the names of their respective provinces, Bienhoa, Mytho, Chaudoc, and Hatien. The country is a vast plain with small hills on the West and some mountains on the East and North ; the three highest are Batlen 884 metres, Baria 493 metres, and the Mai mountains 550 and 600 metres in height. The principal rivers are the two Vaico, the Saigon Eiver, and the Donnai Eiver. The lower parts of Cochin-China are wrinkled with small creeks or arroyos, giving easy and rapid communication to all parts of the country. Of late several canals have been opened. The magnificent river Mekong, which descends from the Thibetan mountains, after running through different territories, crosses Cambodia, enters the lower provinces of Cochin-China, by two branches, and empties itself into the China Sea by five large outlets called respectively Cua Tieu, Cua Balai, Cua Cochien, Cua Dinh-an, and Cua Batac. The principal product of Cochin-China is rice. It is planted in almost every province except some of the northern districts. After this important grain the chief products are sugar-cane, mulberry-trees, pepper, betel- nut, cotton, tobacco, and miiize. China-grass, sesamum, palma-christi, indigo, saffron, gum-lac, sapan wood, and cinchona also exist in pretty large quantities, with several other minor productions. The principal salt-pits are in the province of Baria. COCHIN-CHINA 233 The forests contain large quantities of fine timber, and abound with game of nearly every description, amongst which may be named elephants, rhinoceros, tiger, deer, wild boar, and elands, while amongst the feathered game the peacock, partridge, snipe, woodcock, jungle fowl or wildcock, pheasant, etc., may be mentioned. The rivers and creeks swarm with fish of every de- scription, and alligators abound in some. In the chief towns of each province there is a citadel sufficiently garrisoned, and numerous military posts in the interior maintain and watch over the security of the inhabitants. The Annamites are a race devoted principally to agriculture ; they are not so industrious as the Chinese and are indifferent traders. The Chinese have the largest proportion of the trade in their hands. The whole of the French possessions are now com- prised under the title of Indo-China, and consist of the colony of Cochin-China and the protectorates of Tonkin, Annam, and Cambodia, and are under the control of a Governor-General, who usually resides in Tonkin. The Government of Cochin-China is ad- ministered by a Lieutenant-G-overnor, who is assisted by a Privy Council composed of all the Heads of Departments as official members and several unofficials. The Colonial Council of Cochin-China, some of the members of which are elected by the residents, consists of sixteen members, six of whom are natives. In the various arrondissements, moreover, councils have been introduced composed entirely of natives. The towns of Saigon and Cholon are ruled by Municipal Councils, the members of which bodies are partly French and partly native. The Chamber of Commerce at Saigon is also an official body elected by the merchants and traders ; formerly it was composed of French, foreigners, and Chinese, but in 1896 its constitution was altered, and it is now an exclusively French body. The population of Cochin-China in 1897 was 2,126,935, of whom 1,860,872 were Annamites, 173,231 234 INDO-CHINA Cambodians, 74,210 Chinese, 4490 Europeans (exclusive of the troops) and the rest Indians, Malays, and Mois. The imports of Cochin-China and Cambodia combined amounted in 1897 to 51,922,684 francs, of which 20,825,931 francs were of French origin, and the ex- ports to 94,691,687 francs. The quantity of rice exported in 1897 was 10,555,804 piculs, and in 1898 11,277,770 piculs. The number of vessels of all nations that cleared from Saigon during the year 1898 was 351, of 443,655 tons ; adding the steamers of the Messageries Maritimes, Messageries Fluviales, and the Compagnie Nationale, the total is 541 vessels, and 714,875 tons. The British flag accounts for 156 vessels, of 215,735 tons, or about half of the tonnage employed. SAIGON Saigon, the capital of Cochin-China, is situated on the Saigon river, a branch of the Donnai, in lat. 10 deg. 50 min. N., and long. 104 deg. 22 min. E. It is about 40 miles from Cape St. James and is accessible to the largest vessels. Since its occupation by the French the climate has undergone a very favourable change, owing to different sanitary works in the town, such as drains, the filling up of pools, marshes, etc. The town presents a fine appearance, the roads and thoroughfares being broad and regular. Amongst the public buildings Government House is the most remarkable; several millions of francs have been spent upon its construction and decoration. The other prominent public buildings are the new Palace of the Lieutenant-Governor, the new and handsome Post Ofiice on the Place de la Cathedrale, the Custom House, the "Direction de rint^rieur," the Treasury, the Land Office, Public Works Department, the Schools, and the Supreme Court. The Military Hospital is a fine and hand- some building, as are also the Arsenal, Barracks, and Artillery Pare. There is also a stately Gothic Cathedral CHOLON 235 of large proportions. A fine bronze statue of Gambetta stands in the Boulevard Norodom. Saigon has two public gardens, the "Jardin de la Ville," which is maintained at the expense of the Municipality, and the Botanical Garden. There is good docking accommoda- tion, the Bassin de Radaub being one of the finest docks in the world, capable of receiving the largest men-of-war, and there are two floating lifts. There are two steam rice-mills. The population of Saigon in 1897 was 32,561 (exclusive of the Naval and Military- forces, about 1200 to 1500 men). The French popula- tion numbers 1753 and other Europeans 207. The M.M. steamers call twice a month at Saigon on their homeward and outward trips. Easy communica- tion is afforded with the principal towns of the interior by subsidised mail steamers, and there is a railway to Mytho. All the principal towns of Cochin-China possess telegraphic communication, and a submarine cable unites the colony with Singapore, Hongkong, Haiphong, etc. The postal organisation of the Colony is very complete and efficient ; correspondence can be sent daily to almost all parts of the country. The Journal Officiel is published twice a week, and there are usually one or two other journals published, but they frequently change their titles, and lead a spasmodic existence. The Gia-dinh-hao is the native issue of the Journal Officiel. CHOLON This town, distant four miles from Saigon, with which it is connected by two steam tramways, is the seat of most of the Chinese trade of the Colony. Cholon may be said to be the granary of Cochin-China, and is the seat of much commercial activity. Most of the rice- mills are located in this place, there being no less than six worked by steam, and there are several large brick- yards. The town, like Saigon, possesses a Municipal 236 INDO-CHINA Council, composed partly of French, partly of Annam- ites, and partly of Chinese. The population in 1897 was 67,712. CAMBODIA Cambodia, formerly called the kingdom of the Khmer, extends from 101 deg. 30 min. to 104 deg. 30 min. longitude E. of Paris, and from 10 deg. 30 min. to 14 deg. latitude. It was reduced to its present propor- tions in 1860 by the annexation of its two richest provinces, Angkor and Battambang, to Siam. Its area is about 62,000 square miles. It is bounded on the south-west by the Gulf of Siam, on the south-east by French Cochin- China, on the north by the French Laos, and on the north-west and west by Angkor and Battam- bang. The noble river Mekong flows through the kingdom, and after passing through French Cochin- China, empties itself, by a number of mouths, into the sea. The Mekong is the grand waterway of Cambodia, and, like the Nile in Egypt, lays the greater part of the country under water annually, greatly increasing its fertility. The soil of Cambodia is rich and productive, and rice, pepper, indigo, cotton, tobacco, sugar, maize, and cardamoms are cultivated. Coffee and spices of all sorts could be grown. Among woods, ebon)-, rose, sapan, pine, iron, and other valuable sorts exist, no less than eighty different kinds of timber being found in the forests. Iron of good quality has been discovered, and it is affirmed that there are gold, silver, and lead mines in the mountains. The fisheries of Cambodia are very productive, and salt fish forms one of the chief articles of export. Cambodia was once an extensive and powerful state, and proofs tliat it possessed a much higher civilisation than that which now prevails in the country are to be found in the architectural remnants of former grandeur. The noble ruins of the ancient city of Angkor are CAMBODIA 237 monuments of a people much superior to the feeble race which now inhabits Cambodia. The Cambodians differ entirely from their neighbours the Annamites, both in features and customs. Polygamy is practised among them. The prevailing religion is Buddhism. The people are apathetic and indolent, and have allowed the trade to fall into the hands of Chinese, of whom there are about 160,000 in the country. The entire population of the kingdom in 1893 was 1,000,000. Slavery, since its abolition by the French Treaty of 1884, has almost entirely disappeared. The Government of Cambodia is a monarchy, under Erench protection. The present king, Somdach Pra Maha Norodom, succeeded his father King Ang Duong in 1860. In June, 1884, Norodom signed a new treaty with France, by which the administration of the country was handed over to French residents. Since the con- vention of 1892 the native functionaries are appointed by the king, under the control of the French Administra- tion, and are paid from the treasury of this kingdom. Pnom-penh, the present capital of Cambodia, and seat of the Government, is situated on the river Me- kong, nearly in the heart of the kingdom. The king's palace is a large building, and the portion devoted to his use is built and furnished in European style. The king's steam workshops, attached to the palace, are superintended by French marine engineers. French functionaries have charge of the treasury, the adminis- tration of justice, customs, and public works aud taxes. Pnom-penh has been considerably improved under the present rule, especially since the year 1889. Many roads have laeen made and numerous sanitary works carried out in the town, such as drainage works, the filling up of pools, marshes, etc. The new Treasury, in the ancient Khmer style of architecture, is a most remarkable building. The other prominent public buildings are the Post Office, Court, Hospital, Personnel and Eegistration Office, Commissariat of Police, new barracks for Marine Infantry, Public Works Office, 238 INDO-CHINA Commercial Museum, Harbour Office, and the Indo- China Bank and Messageries Fluviales agencies. The E^sident Sup6rieur has a handsome residence in the city. The population of Pnom-penh is estimated at 39,000. Though the country generally is entirely un- developed, trade at present is considerably extending. Cambodia has no seaports of any importance, and the import and export trade passes through the port of Saigon. Customs dues have been imposed since July, 1887, with exemptions in favour of French goods and shipping. The tariff is based on the general tariff of France, modified in certain points. The port of Kampot can only be frequented by small native coast- ing vessels from Siam and by Chinese junks. Easy communication is afforded with the principal towns of the interior, Saigon, Angkor, and Battambang, and Stung-treng and Khone, in the Laos, by subsidised mail steamers of the Messageries Fluviales. Telegraphic communication exists between the principal towns of Cambodia, and a land wire passing through Cambodia and Laos connects Cochin-China with Bangkok and Tavoy (Burmah). SIAM SIAM The kingdom of Siam, of which Bangkok is the capital, extends from the latitude of about 23 deg. north to the gulf called after itself. It is bounded on the west by Burmah and the Bay of Bengal, and on the east by the Mekong. Formerly the Lai Mountains were claimed as the eastern boundary, but in 1893 the French pressed the claims of Annam to the territory between the mountains and the river, and the Siamese were compelled to retire. The kingdom proper lies in the valley of the Menam, the country of the true Siamese. The boundaries of Siam on the Bay of Bengal reach from Burmah in a southerly line to the boundary between Perak and Quedah in the Malayan Peninsula in the latitude of 5 deg. south. The island of Junck Salong, containing enormous deposits of tin ore, is in- cluded in the territories of Siam. The boundary line runs nearly east from Perak across the Peninsula in about the same latitude between the provinces of Tringanu and Pahang to the China Sea, thence north to the head of the Gulf of Siam. The kingdom also comprises the greater part of the ancient domain of Lao and the rich and valuable possession of Battambang, once a part of the kingdom of Cambodia. The various dependencies and outskirts are peopled by a variety of races, some sui generis, others illustrating every form and shade of the transition between the original race E 242 SI AM and the Anuamites on the east, and the Malays and Burmese on the south and west. The former capital of Siam was Ayuthia, situated on the Menam Eiver (literally the " Mother of Waters "), about 90 miles from its mouth. In 1767 a series of bloody and desperate combats between the Siamese and the Bur- mese culminated in the capture and destruction of that city by the victorious Burmese general and the con- sequent exodus of the conquered. They moved down the river about 60 mUes, and there founded the present populous and flourishing city of Bangkok. The chief of the Siamese Army rallied the scattered troops, and, building a walled city at Toutaboree, declared himself King under the title P'ya Tak. In 1782 the reins of empire were seized by one of his most distinguished generals, named Yaut Fa, who founded the present dynasty, of which His Majesty the present King [the fortieth reigning monarch in Siam of whom we have any record] is the fifth in regular descent. The revenue of Siam is estimated at about $17,000,000. The finances of the country have recently been undergoing reorgani- sation, for which purpose a European financial adviser was engaged in 1896. At that time the revenue ac- counted for was only about $10,000,000, but the amount has since steadUy increased. A proposal to adopt the gold standard was mooted in 1899. A triennial tax is imposed upon all foreigners unrepresented by a consul, such as Chinese. Siam entered the Universal Postal Union on the 1st July, 1885. The first railway line, from Bangkok to Paknam, was opened by the Bang on the 11th April, 1893. It is a purely passenger Line, having been unable to get any goods traffic worth mentioning, and the dividend averages about four to five per cent. Another railway, a Government line, via Ayuthia to Korat, is in course of construction, and the first section, from Bangkok to Ayuthia, a distance of about fifty miles, was opened by the King and Queen on the 26th Mai'ch, 1897. Another section, to Genghoi, was opened on November 1st, 1897, and a third, to BANGKOK 243 Hinlap, ou April 1st, 1898, and it is expected that the line will reach Korat itself early in 1900. When com- pleted the main line and the connecting lines are expected to cover a distance of over 650 miles. The construction of a line branching off the Korat line near Ayuthia, and intended to open up the country in the direction of Chiengmai, was commenced in June, 1898. A fleet of steam-launches runs from the metropolis in all directions up-country, to the east and west. The army in time of peace is small, and is made up of the following : 1st. The Eoyal Bodyguard, which consists of one squadron of cavalry, two battalions of infantry, and one company of artificers and sappers. This body of troops is recruited from the sons of noble- men descended from the blood royal. 2nd. The Palace Guard, which is composed of two battalions of infantry. 3rd. The Eoyal Elephant Troops. 4th. Eoyal In- fantry, consisting of three battalions of four companies each. To this corps is attached a squadron of cavalry and a brigade of artillery. 5th. The Eoyal Marines, numbering about 3000, who serve on board the Eoyal yachts and gunboats. The native population of Siam, with Laos, Tavoyans, Peguans, etc., excluding those under Consular protec- tion, is variously estimated at from seven to nine millions. The number of Chinese in the kingdom is estimated at about 2,500,000. BANGKOK The city of Bangkok is situated on both sides of the Menam, about twenty-five miles from where this mag- nificent stream empties itself into the Gulf. On the right bank of the river is the city proper, enclosed partly by a wall. The Eoyal palaces and Govern- ment Offices are within the wall, the foreign hon»s, 244 ^//fil/ the Consulates, and the principal rice mills being on the principal or main street of the city. The left bank is principally occupied by the Siamese, Chinese, and Mahomedan residents. The bulk of the business is transacted on the right. Here a road, called New Eoad, formerly known as the Charum Krung, extends from the Palace walls to Bangkolem, and the electric tramway runs along it for a distance of about six miles. Various other new streets and roads have been made recently. A telegraph line connects the Light- house at the Bar beyond the mouth of the river with the business portion of the city. The principal trade of Bangkok, and the foundation on which not only its prosperity but its actual existence mainly rests, is rice. This article is drawn in immense quantities, not only from the innumerable fields which line the fertile valley of the Menam, but from the adjacent rivers which flow into the Gulf from the enormous watershed of the mountain crescent which fringes the northern extremity of the kingdom. The outturn of this grain in favourable years is scarcely to be calcu- lated. It not only furnishes support to the native population of Siam and the Malay Peninsula, but largely contributes to the supply of China, Manila, the Straits, Java, and Sumatra ; a large amount is also sent to Europe, and even to South America. There is also some trade in teak-wood and ivory, with very many other minor articles of native produce which are exported to China and the Straits. The steamers of the Scottish Oriental Steamship Co. keep up regular communication with Hongkong (occasionally leaving and returning via Swatow and the Straits Settlements), besides special boats only running during the rice season ; while other lines of steamers connect the kingdom with the Straits Settlements. The public buildings and institutions include the lloyal Museum, which is situated in the Wang Nah, Bangkok, and consists of two buildings ; that on the left to the approach contains the natural history BANGKOK 245 collections and ethnological exhibits from Japan, China, Java, etc. ; that on the right (formerly a royal building) contains the Siamese ethnological collection. There are also the British Church, a Eoman Catholic Cathedral, two Hospitals, a Nursing Home, occupying the building formerly used by the German Club, a Ladies' Library, and Assumption College, managed by the French Eoman Catholic Mission. St. Louis' Hospital, a large and spacious building, situated near the German Legation, was opened in 1899. The Sisters of Charity are in charge. There is one first- class hotel, the Oriental, and several smaller ones, also a club called the Bangkok United Club. The King's palace and the temples are magnificent and on a large scale; the architecture is of a kind peculiar to the country; and there is much more of novelty and interest to be witnessed by passing travellers in Bangkok than can be found in Chinese cities. The roads have been greatly improved. The tramway was introduced in 1888, and has proved financially suc- cessful. The city throughout its principal streets as well as all hotels and principal shops are lighted with electricity, incandescent lights being universally in use. The population of Bangkok is estimated at 350,000. There are about 700 foreigners in Siam, most of whom are resident in Bangkok. The number of Asiatic British subjects in Siam is estimated at about 30,000. The harbour and island of Koh-si-chang, which lie some 20 miles from the bar, and about 50 miles from Bangkok, are places of importance. The harbour, formed by a strait of sea running between islands, offers a fine anchorage for vessels loading rice and teak during the south-west monsoon, or from April to the end of October. The largest ships can take shelter there. A lighthouse serves to enable vessels to make the entrance. The value of the imports during the year 1898 amounted to $27,361,913, including $7,167,460 specie. 246 SIAM as compared with $24,858,071, including $8,743,763 specie, in 1897, and $21,044,328 in 1896 ; and that of the exports to $36,430,651, including $2,131,300 specie, as compared with $32,032,390, including $1,098,267 specie, in 1897, and $30,362,912 in 1896. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS STBAITS SETTLEMENTS This Colony — now consisting of the island of Singapore, the province of Malacca, the island of Penang, the Bindings further south, Province Wellesley on the mainland, and the Cocos or Keeling Islands, and Christmas Island, the latter two placed under the same Government in 1886 and 1889 respectively — was transferred from the control of the Indian Government to that of the Secretary of State for the Colonies by an Order in Council dated the 1st April, 1867. The seat of Government is the town of Singapore, on the island of the same name. The Government consists of a Governor, aided by an Executive and Legislative Council, the latter body consisting of nine official members and seven unofficial members, of whom two are nominated by the Chambers of Commerce of Singapore and Penang. There are Municipal bodies in each Settlement, the members of which are partly elected by the ratepayers and partly appointed by the Governor. Penang was the first British Settlement on the Malayan Peninsula, having been ceded to the British by the Eajah of Kedah in 1785, and it soon acquired a monopoly of the trade of the Peninsula. Malacca, which had been successively held by the Portuguese and the Dutch, finally passed into the hands of Great Britain by treaty with Holland in 1824, having been previously held by Great Britain from 1795 to 1818. With the establishment of Penang in 1785 most of the 250 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS trade which had formerly centred at Malacca was trans- ferred to the former. In 1819 Singapore was taken possession of by Sir Stamford Eaffles, by virtue of a treaty with the Johore Princes, and it soon took the lead of Penang as a commercial centre. In 1826 Singapore and Malacca were incorporated with Penang under one Government, Penang remaining the seat of Government until 1830, when the administration was transferred to Singapore. The revenue of the Colony for 1898 was $5,071,282, and the expenditure $4,587,367, as against a revenue of $4,320,207 and an expenditure of $5,551,834 in 1897. The total value of the imports in 1898 (ex- clusive of treasure) was $223,003,708, in 1897 $198,349,233, and in 1896 $186,196,932, and the value of the exports in 1898 was $194,140,680, in 1897 $172,661,634, and in 1896 $161,777,519. About two-thirds of the trade belongs to Singapore. The population according to the census of 1891 was 506,984, as compared with 423,384 in 1881, and in 1898 was estimated at 592,587. SINGAPORE The town of Singapore, situated on the southern shore of an island of the same name, in lat. 1 deg. 16 min. N., and long. 103 deg. 43 min. E.,is the seat of government of the Straits Settlements. The island of Singapore is about 26 miles long by 14 wide, containing an area of 206, or, with the ad- jacent islets, 223 square miles, and is separated by a narrow strait, about three-quaiters of a mile wide, from the territory of Johore, which occupies the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula. Originally taken possession of in 1819 by Sir Stamford Eaffles, it was, until 1823, subordinate to our then settlement in Sumatra. In that year it became an appanage of the Indian Government, in which condition it remaineil SINGAPORE 251 until 1867, when it was placed under the Colonial Office in conjunction with Penang and Malacca. The plain upon which the town and suburbs stand is chiefly composed of deep beds of white, bluish, or reddish sand, averaging 90 to 95 per cent, of silica. The rest is aluminous. Eecent shells and sea-mud found in this sand show it to have been formed by a retreating sea. The general composition of the island, which consists of low hUls and ridges, with narrow and swampy flats intervening, is sandstone, with the ex- ception of Bukit Timah, which is of granite formation, containing about 18 per cent, of quartz. Colonel Low (J. I. A., vol. i. p. 84) specifies eight varieties. The soil overlying the granite is rather meagre (the stone being neither very porphyritic nor micaceous, and not very liable to disintegration), but it of course contains a vast quantity of vegetable mould. The sandstone is of various colours, the darker variety rapidly decomposing in situ in yellow clay, though applicable to building when fresh from the quarry. All the sandstones are heavUy impregnated with iron, and an ironstone, known as laterite, is, to the casual observer, the prevailing mineral of the island. This occurs sometimes in veins, but more frequently in large beds on the sides of hills, and is extensively quarried for road-making purposes. It is supposed to contain manganese, and is found from the size of coarse sand to that of masses 15 or 20 feet in diameter. It is of dark clove-brown colour ex- ternally ; internally it is cellular, and varies in density, being often, when freshly dug, soft enough to be cut with a knife, or hard enough to resist the pick. It is not magnetic in the mass, but when pulverised is found to contain grains of magnetic iron. It hardens consider- ably on exposure to the air. A substance somewhat resembling soapstone, with red, white, or greenish streaks, is sometimes found amongst the clays, being rather greasy to the touch, and occasionally of a fibrous texture. The valleys or flats of Singapore have a peaty substratum, varying in thickness from six inches to a 252 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS couple of feet. Below this generally lies a bed of cold clay, and below this a stratum of arenaceous clay. In many districts kaolin is found in large quantities and of excellent quality. The town proper extends for about four miles along the south-eastern shore of the island, spreading inland for a distance varying from half to three-quarters of a mile, though the majority of the residences of the upper class Europeans lie much further back, within a circle with a radius of three and a half miles from the Cathedral. This portion of the Settlement is almost entirely level, the highest hill in the island, indeed, about seven miles from the town, only rising to a height of 500 feet. The country roads are well kept, and, thanks to the luxuriance of tropical vegetation, abound in shade. The town streets, on the other hand, though wide and well metalled, are, as regards archi- tectural matters, drains, and gutters, not much credit to the Settlement. Dirt and obstructions of all sorts distinguish the native portion of the town, while, as compared with nearly every other Eastern city in European hands, the buildings of the business quarters are somewhat shabby and mediocre. Government House, the Government Offices, Police Barracks, Magis- trates' Courts, Post Office, Library and Museum, Town Hall, the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank, and the Chartered Bank, however, are fine buildings, while the Settlement possesses a handsome Club, which com- pares favourably with any in the East. A fine bronze statue of Sir Stamford Baffles stands on the Esplanade, facing the sea. Singapore possesses a handsome though small Protestant Cathedral, called St. Andrew's Cathedral, built in 1861 ; it is in the Gothic style, with a tower and spire 204 feet high. There is a neat Presby- terian Church, St. Gregory's (Armenian) Church, in Hill Street, and several mission chapels. The Eoman Catholics have a roomy Cathedral dedicated to the Good Shepherd, at the corner of Brass Bassa Eoad and SINGAPORE 253 Victoria Street, the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Queen Street, the Church of St. Joseph in Victoria Street, and other smaller churches in the outskirts. There is also a neat Jewish Synagogue in Waterloo Street. The principal schools are those of the Eaffles Institute, the Christian Brothers, and the Anglo- Chinese School. The Eaffles Girls' School and the Convent also provide for the education of girls of the Protestant and Eoman Catholic persuasions. The Singapore Club has a good building in a central position. There are Eecreation, Sporting, Eowing, Shooting, Cricketj Lawn Tennis, Art, and Eeading Clubs, and the Celestial (Chinese) Eeasoning Associa- tion. There is a Country Club with a well-built bungalow situated some three miles out of town, at which dances and amateur theatricals are frequently given. The German community have a similar insti- tution. The Eaffles Library and Museum, moved in October, 1887, into the new building erected for them, are creditable and well-kept institutions, the Museum having made very fair progress since its inception. The Library contains over 16,000 volumes, chiefly of standard modern literature, and includes the valuable philological collection of the late Mr. Logan. There are several good hotels, of which the Eaffles is the best. The Press is represented by the Straits Times and Singapore Free Press (daily), with weekly issues of both, and the Government Gazette. There are also two Chinese daily papers called the Lat Pau and Sing Pau, two Malay papers, the Jawi Peranakhan and the Bintang Timor, and one or two papers in Tamil. Singapore is well off for docks. The Tanjong Pagar Company's premises lie about a mile to the westward of the town, a fine wharf affording berthage for a large number of vessels at one time, with sufficient water alongside for vessels of the heaviest draught, and pro- tected by a breakwater from the swell from the roads and from the strength of the tides. There are com- modious godowns erected on the wharf for the storage 254 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS of goods. Coal sheds, capable of storing 5U,0U0 tons, adjoin the godowns, while handcarts on rails essentially aid the labour of unloading vessels. The usual ac- companiments are also to be found — two graving docks, the Victoria Dock, 450 feet long and 65 feet broad at entrance, and the Albert Dock, 485 feet long and 60 feet broad at entrance — a machine shop, boiler, and mast- ing shears, etc. The New Harbour Dock Company's premises, situated about three miles further West, in- clude two docks of 375 and 444 feet in length respec- tively, with sheds, workshops, etc., as at Tanjong Pagar. There is also a Patent Slip at Tanjong Khoo, which is 429 feet long and 76 feet broad over piers. The trade of Singapore in 1897 amounted (exclusive of treasure) to $170,733,470 imports and $141,209,338 exports, against in 1897 $153,151,049 imports and $127,914,626 exports, and in 1896 $137,220,000 im- ports and $114,631,000 exports. The population of Singapore Island, according to the census taken in 1891, was 184,544, of whom 121,908 were Chinese and 35,992 Malays, an increase of 45,336 on the census of 1881. There were 5254 Europeans and Americans, including 1160 military. The total Eurasian population is given as 3589. The Indians total 16,035, of whom 12,503 are Tamils, 3452 Bengalis, 26 Burmese, and 54 Parsees. Other nationalities total 1776, the Arabs leading with 806, the Japanese number 287, the Siamese 211, the Jews 190, the Sinhalese 159, and the Armenians 68. The population of the town of Singapore is about 97,000. The climate of Singapore is remarkable for its salubrity, and the island has been described by medical writers as the " paradise of children," infantile diseases seldom being at all malignant. Despite its proximity to the equator, under normal circumstances a daily rainfall tempers the heat so thoroughly that many sleep beneath blankets. Droughts, however, have been ex- perienced of from one to six months. The climate of the island is thus described by Mr. Thomson in the SINGAPORE 255 " Journal of the Indian Archipelago," his remarks still holding good : — " Singapore, though within 80 miles of the equator, has an abundance of moisture, either deposited by the dews or gentle, refreshing showers, which keep its atmosphere cool, prevent the parching effects of the sun, and promote continual verdure. It never experiences furious gales. If more than ordinary heat has accumulated moisture and electricity a squall generally sets in, followed by a heavy shower of rain, such squalls seldom exceeding one or two hours in duration. According as the monsoon blows, you will have the squalls coming from that direction. But the most severe and numerous are from the west, called ' Sumatras,' and these occur most frequently between 1 and 5 o'clock in the morning. The north-east monsoon blows from November to March ; after which the wind veers round to the south-east and gradually sets in the south-west, at which point it continues to September. The north- east blows more steadily than the south-west monsoon. The temperature is by one or two degrees cooler in the first than in the last. The average fall of rain is found, from the observation of a series of years, to be 92'697 inches ; and the average number of days in the year in which rain falls is found to be 180, thus dividing the year almost equally between wet and dry ; the rain not being continuous, but pretty equally distributed through the year, January, however, being the month irt which the greatest quantity falls. The mean temperature of Singapore is 81°'247, the lowest being 79°'55 and the highest 82°'31, so that the range is not more than 2°-76. It would appear from this that the temperature of the island is by 9°'90 lower than that of many other localities in the same latitude. Comparing the tempe- rature now stated with that which was ascertained twenty years earlier, and in the infancy of the Settle- ment, it would appear that it had increased by 2°'48 — a fact ascribed, no doubt, to the increase of buildings, and to the country having been cleared of forest for three miles inland from the town, the site of the observations. 256 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS The general character of the climate as to temperature is that the heat is great and continuous, but never excessive, and that there is little distinction of seasons, summer and winter differing from each other only by one or two degrees of the thermometer. Thunder- showers are of frequent occurrence, but the thunder is by no means so severe as I have experienced it in Java, and seldom destructive to life or property. " The botany of this place possesses several interest- ing considerations. Being a connection-link between the Indian and Australian forms, we have types of both, and many genera of either region. We observe the Indian forms in the natural families Palmae, Scitamineae, Aroidese, Artocarpeae, EuphorbiaceaB, Apocyneae, Gutti- ferse, Convolvulacese, Leguminosae, all numerous. The natural famUies Casuarinse, Myrtaceae, particularly Melaleuca and Proteaceae, connect us with Australia. The plants, which usually spring up when the primeval forest has been cut down, and where the bane of all the rest of the vegetable kingdom — the Andropogon caricosum, or Lalang grass — has not taken possession, belong to the following genera: — Melastoma, Myrtus, Morinda, Solanum, Eubus, Eottlera, Clerodendrum, Commersonia, Ficus, and Passiflora. The forest con- tains an immense number of species of timber trees, most of them of great height and growth. About two hundred have been collected, and of these about half a dozen afford good timber for house and boat-building. The teak is not of the number. The forest also produces the two species which yield the useful gutta-percha, and a fig which affords an elastic gum. But for use these articles, as well as timber, are not obtained from Singapore itself, but from the wider and more accessible forests of the neighbouring continent." The zoology of Singapore is that of the neighbouring continent, to the exclusion of some of the larger animals — as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the tapir, and the ox. The largest feline animal indigenous to the island is a small leopard, called by the Malays harimau-daan, that SINGAPORE 257 is, " the branch " or climbing tiger. But the tiger, an animal unknown to the island in the earlier years of the British Settlement, made its first appearance five or six years later. It seems to have crossed over from the continent, attracted no doubt by the sound of human voices and the lowing of animals. It multiplied greatly, and was supposed to destroy yearly from two to three hundred persons, proving the greatest bane of the Settlement. Large rewards have always been offered for the destruction of tigers ($50 per head), and a good number were captured by pitfalls, but all attempts at their extermination were for many years unsuccessful. The spread of population, however, had its natural result ; and although specimens are occasionally met with which have swum the narrow strait between the island and Johore, there are not probably more than half a dozen now existing in the jungle. Of the natural family of Mustelidae there are two in Singapore — the musang of the Malays {Faradoxurus musanga) and the binturung (Ictides ater), of the size of a badger. Otters are occasionally seen along the coasts, but are rare. The wild hog is numerous, and there are five species of deer, the usual ones of the peninsula and Sumatra, from the rusa, of the size of a heifer, to the pelandok, which is hardly as large as a rabbit. Among mammals, one species of bat is often to be seen, the same which is so frequent in almost all parts of the Archipelago, the kalong (Pteropus javanictos). This is about the size of a raven, and a troop of them in flight has very much the look of a flock of crows, and by a stranger may be easily mistaken for one. Among reptiles, crocodiles are common in the salt-water creeks and along the shores of the island, but, having an abundant supply of fish, are not troublesome to man. The Iguana lizard, the bewak of the Malays, is not infrequent, and the noisy house-lizard or tokay, the take of the Malays, so common in Penang and so much more so in Siam, is also found in Singapore. The esculent turtle is very abundant along the shores of Singapore and the 25§ STRAITS SETTLEMENTS neighbouring islands, and its use as food being restricted to the European and Chinese population, it is the cheapest animal food in the market, one of the largest, weighing several hundredweight, selling for $2 or $3. Of snakes, forty-four species have been found to exist, of which fourteen are more or less venomous. The well-known cobra (Naja tripvdians) possesses the pecu- liar property of ejecting venom from its mouth. The Malays say there is no cure for its bite. Those killed have measured from 4A to 5^ feet in length. The reptile, being slow and sluggish, is easily overtaken and killed. When attacked, it erects the body and 'dilates the skin on either side of the head, uttering a noise like that of an irritated cat. If attacked, it throws, to the distance of from 6 to 8 feet, a venomous fluid of a most poisonous quality, even should it only enter the eye or touch the mucous membrane or any open sore. The hamadryad (Ophiophagtis daps) exists, but is fortunately not common. The bimgarus is the only other venomous snake of large size ; but pythons of considerable length — up to 22 feet — are frequently captured. Fish and crustaceans axe in great plenty, and some 200 species will be found named in the published lists. About half a dozen of these are excellent for the table, fully equal to the best fish of our own coasts. Among the best is the white pomfret of Europeans, the bawalputeh of the Malays, of richer flavour than our soles, though less luscious than the turbot, and the ikan merah, resembling the sam-lai of China. Singapore offers but few points of salient interest to visitors, the Botanical Gardens at Tauglin, the Water- works in Thomson Koad, and the Baffles Library and Museum being its only show places. A railway across the island has long been proposed, and was sanctioned by a vote of the Legislative Council in 1899. This line of fourteen miles may be the first section of a great Malay Peninsula and India Kailway, passing through and opening up the countries of Johore, Malacca, the Native Malay States, some Siamese territory and MALACCA 259 Burma, on to Calcutta. The distance from Singapore to Calcutta is just over 2000 miles. MALACCA The settlement of Malacca excites more interest from a historical point of view than either of its sister towns, but has so completely fallen to the rear commercially since the establishment of Penang and Singapore as to merit but brief notice in this compilation. It is now seldom visited by foreigners except for purposes of relaxation. Originally settled by the Portuguese in 1511, it retained its importance as the one foreign entrepot in the East until the founding of Penang, when its fortunes as a port rapidly declined. The settlement, however, has made considerable progress in agriculture since the formation of new roads. At the present moment it is the least European of all British Settle- ments in the East, though the facts that it has given its name to the peninsula and that it was the cradle of Anglo-Chinese study attest its former importance. Its area is embraced by boundaries some 42 mUes in length, with a breadth of from 8 to 25 miles. It is governed by a Eesident Councillor in subordination to Singapore. The geological formation of the territory of Malacca consists chiefly of granite rocks, overlaid in several places by the red cellular clay iron-stone called by geologists laterite. Many of the low plains are alluvial, the soil composed of decayed vegetable mould inter- laced with sand. The metalUc ores are iron, gold, and tin. The surface generally is undulating, consisting of low round ridges and narrow valleys, the only moun- tain of considerable elevation being the Ledang of the Malays, and the Ophir of the Portuguese, 4400 feet above the level of the sea, or less than one-half the height of the principal mountains of the volcanic islands of Java — Bali and Lomboc — or those of the partially volcanic neighbouring island of Sumatra. 26o STRAITS SETTLEMENTS The mineral products of Malacca were at one time looked upon as offering valuable prospects. Gold to the extent of 1500 ounces yearly was obtained in 1857-8, but the yield decreased to such an extent that it is no longer worked. Tin, about the same period, assumed considerable importance. The first mines were opened in 1793, but no great enterprise was displayed until 1848, when some 5000 cwt. was the annual pro- duct. This increased until 1858, and a large number of Chinese were employed in the industry. The superior yield of the Native States, however, combined with the exhaustion of the surface washings, resulted in mining enterprise in Malacca being virtually abandoned, although both gold and tin probably still exist in workable quantities. The climate of Malacca as to temperature is such as might be expected in a country not much more than 100 miles from the equator, lying along the sea shore — hot and moist. The thermometer in the shade ranges from 72° to 80° Fahrenheit, seldom being so low as the first of these, and not often higher than the last. The range of the barometer is only from 29'8 to 30"3 inches. Notwithstanding constant heat, much moisture, and many swamps, the town at least is remarkable for its salubrity, and, with the exception of the early period of its occupation by the Portuguese, has always enjoyed this reputation. Malacca ofifers numerous attractions to the orni- thologist and entomologist, but it is less rich in mammals than many other tropical districts. Nine species of quadrumana, the tiger, black leopard, wild cat, several species of viverra (such as the musang and binturong), the elephant, one-horned rhinoceros, tapir, six species of deer, and two of the wild ox comprise a nearly complete list. Fair sport can be obtained by those fond of shooting, from tiger to quail. It is note- worthy that the existence of the tapir was unknown until 1816, although European intercourse dates back to some three centuries before. Tigers in the early JOIInliK (s. <■ p. 205). [I'arje 2C0. PENANG 261 days of Portuguese occupation were so plentiful that the want of inhabitants was seriously attributed to this cause. As with the birds and insects, so with the reptiles. The snakes, lizards, and crocodiles are, as a rule, those of the peninsula generally, the birds alone presenting a rather larger variety than those of other districts. Nor does the vegetation present any ex- clusive features, being that of the surrounding states. The coast line is poor in shells, and the absence of limestone accounts for the few species of land shells found within the district. Beyond its interest to the sportsman or naturalist, Malacca possesses no attractions except to those who like to visit scenes famous in the annals of discovery for the bloody fights they have witnessed between the natives and the European nations who contended for their possession. Its population in 1891 amounted to 92,170 as compared with 93,579 in 1881, showing a decrease of 1409. The population of the town is 16,503. The trade in 1898, exclusive of treasure, amounted to $1,916,252 for imports and $2,173,157 for exports as compared with $2,064,007 and $2,415,702 respectively in 1897. PENANG Penang, or Prince of Wales' Island, as it was formerly called, is situated on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula in 5 deg. north latitude. With the Bindings and a strip of land on the opposite coast known as Province Wellesley, from which it is separated by a strait varying from 2 to 10 miles in width, it constitutes the second in importance of the three governments known as the " Straits Settlements." The island con- tains an area of about 107 square miles, being 15 miles long and 9 broad at its widest portions, while Province Wellesley extends for a distance of 45 miles along the coast, and has an average width of 8 miles, containing 262 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 270 square miles, and about 200 more for the Bindings. The chief town of Penang is George Town, but the name of the island (which signifies " Betel-nut island ") has become so identified with the town that the specific designation haa almost dropped out of use. Penang was ceded to the famous Captain Light for the East India Company in the year 1786 for an annual payment of $10,000 to the Eajah of Kedah, a step which was followed 13 years later by the cession of Province WeUesley. In the year 1805 Penang was elevated to the rank of a presidency, its rising fortunes even then bidding fair to eclipse those of Malacca, while Singapore was as yet unknown as a settlement. In 1826 Singapore and Malacca were incorporated with Penang, and the three were designated by the title they still retain. But as the fortunes of Singa- pore brightened, those of Penang declined, until the former quite overshadowed her older sister, and in 1837 the principal seat of government was transferred to Singapore. The settlement of Penang is governed by a Eesident Councillor, and has two unofficial representatives in the Legislative Council, which sits at Singapore. An important department of its trade lies in the business transacted with the Dutch settlements in Sumatra. Penang will always remain of a certain importance, although it is not likely to again assume the position in the commercial world it formerly held. It is a con- venient coaling and man-of-war station, and is of yet greater necessity as the virtual seat of government for Province Wellesley, which must always be an im- portant centre of British influence. The Tanjong Pagar Dock Co. have rented the graving dock at Prye Eiver in Province Wellesley, 250 feet in length and 50 feet broad at entrance ; also a slip for vesseb 100 feet long. George Town is built on a plain, at the back of which rises the hill which, as Penangites declare, renders life on the island more enjoyable than in any other part of the Colony. PENANG 263 The formation of Penang is granitic, being covered in many places with a sharp sand or stiff clay, the produce of the decomposition of the granite. Above this again comes a coat of vegetable mould of greater or less thickness. With the exception of a plain about three miles in depth, upon which stands the town and environs, the whole of the island consists of hills with narrow valleys. No minerals of commercial value are found in Penang. The influence of the regular monsoon is more dis- tinctly felt at Penang than in the most easterly part of the Straits of Malacca, owing to the wideness of the latter to the west and vicinity to the Bay of Bengal. During the north-easterly monsoon, from November to March inclusive, clear settled weather prevails, and in the south-westerly, from April to October, the rains take place. But neither rain nor drought is of long continuance. The average heat of the year at the level of the sea is 80°, and at the height of 2500 feet, the highest inhabited point, 70°, the annual range being about 20°; Where there is free ventilation the climate is equal in salubrity to that of any other tropical one, but in a few close valleys wanting this advantage the malaria is deemed poisonous, and such localities, few in number, are not inhabited by Europeans. Of mammals the principal species are monkeys, loris, wild pig, and two species of viverrida — the musang and binturong. The ornithology calls for no special remarks. The island is a happy hunting-ground for the entomologist, numerous fine species of lepi- doptera frequenting the hills. The botany of Penang is perhaps better known than that of any part of the peninsula, and, for the area involved, is particularly rich. Palms, bamboos, banana and other fruit-trees, and nutmegs clothe the hillsides, while ferns are also plentiful. The high land permits the cultivation of many flowers and other plants which will not thrive in the flat, level lands of Singapore or Malacca. As evinced by its name, the chief product of Penang 264 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS is the betel-nut, which, with all kinds of fruit and nutmegs, is the only indigenous article of trade. Nut- megs were at one time a most important branch of industry, but the blight, which simultaneously affected the whole peninsula, destroyed it. Their cultivation has, however, now been resumed, and Penang nutmegs stand high in the market. There is no agriculture properly so called. Pepper was at one period of its early history produced to the extent of three and a half million pounds annually ; but the competition of other places, notably of Netherlands India, proved fatal, and it is now only cultivated in small patches, and is not classed as an article of export trade. The Perak-Penang Eailway is now in course of con- struction. The terminus for Penang is at Prai, which will be connected with the town by a ferry service. The line will be 317 mOes in length and will connect Penang with Port Dickson, and may subsequently be extended to connect with Burmah on the North and Siam on the East. The town possesses few attractions, and the public buildings are mediocre, with the exception of the Government Offices, a fine new block erected in 1889 near the jetty. St. George's Church is an unpretending edifice of 80 years' standing, centrally situated. There is also a Eoman Catholic Church and several mission chapels. The census of 1891 gave the total population of Penang and Province Wellesley as 235,618 as com- pared with 190,597 in 1881. The population of Penang island was 123,886, that of George Town 85,000, and of Province Wellesley 108,117. The value of the imports (excluding treasure) in 1898 was 5^(59,175,573 as against $50,650,792 in 1897, and that of exports $55,655,773 as against $48,703,837 in 1897. JO MORE 265 JOHOEE This state occupies the southern portion of the Malayan Peninsula, and has an area of about 9000 square miles. The state is ruled by a Sultan, who is independent, but under the protection of the British Government so far as external policy is concerned. The present Sultan, Ibrahim, was born in 1873, and succeeded his father, the late Sultan Abubakar, in 1895, being crowned on the 2nd November of that year. The country has made great progress in material prosperity, and its orderly condition has attracted a good deal of European capital, invested in planting enterprises. The capital is the town of Johore Bharu, or new Johore, as distinguished from Johore Lama, or old Johore, the former seat of the sultans of Johore, which was situated a few miles up the wide estuary of the Johore river. The new town is a flourishing little place on the nearest point of the mainland to Singapore island, and lying about 14 miles to the north-east of Singapore city, in 1° 26' N. It contains some 20,000 inhabitants, mostly Chinese. Amongst the Govern- ment buildings are the Istana, court and police stations, barracks, gaol, hospital, market, railway station and a mosque. A steam saw-mill, owned by Chinese, does a good business. A plentiful supply of water, by means of pipes from a stream in the hills about 12 J miles distant, has been provided since March, 1890". Good roads are being made, and, to meet the require- ments of the Padang district, a light railway was com- pleted during 1890 as far as Parit Jawa, a distance of eight miles. The population of the state is remarkable for con- taining a larger number of Chinese than of Malays. The exact figures have not been ascertained, but probably come to 200,000, viz. Malays 35,000, Chinese 266 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS 150,000, and Javanese 15,000. More than half are found within 15 miles of the Singapore Straits. The Chinese are chiefly found as cultivators of gambler and pepper, and are spread over about this range of country in the extreme southern end of the peninsula, nearest to Singapore. European pioneers have, in the last few years, made some experiments in planting, on a large scale, sago, tobacco, coffee, tea, and cocoa. These have been grown in five different districts — Batu Pahat, Pulau Kokob, Panti, Johore Bharu, and Pengerang ; but it is uncertain how many of them can be considered established industries. At the present time the principal exports of Johore are the carefully cultivated gambler, pepper, and sago, and the natural products of timber, rattans, and damar. For almost all such produce Singapore is the port of shipment. The only mineral in which the country is really rich is iron. It is nowhere worked, but is found sdmost everywhere. Deposits of tin are known in several places, and gold in one or two spots. A little tin is worked at Seluang, but no considerable mining is actually carried on, unless the islands of the Carimons be included. Though now politically separated from Johore these islands are geologically part of it, and were formerly a dependency of the kingdom. Coaches and steam-launches run daily to Singapore, whence letters and passengers find easy access to all other ports. A telegraph line has been erected between Johore Bharu and Singapore, and a railway has been proposed, and will probably be constructed across the latter island before a very long period has elapsed, the scheme having received the sanction of the Straits Legislative Council in 1899. PAHANG 267 FEDERATED MALAY STATES The Protected States comprise four Eesidences, namely, Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang. These have been federated, the federation taking effect from the 1st July, 1896, and the administration is presided over by a British Officer styled the Eesident- General. Each State has its own Eesident and the native rulers retain their titles and dignity. The head offices are at Kwala Lumpur, Selangor. PAHANG The state of Pahang lies between Tringganu and Johore, and extends along the eastern side of the peninsula from 2 deg. 40 min. to 4 deg. 35 min. N"., its coast line being about 130 miles in length. The area of the state is estimated at 10,000 square miles, and its principal river, which di'ains a large extent of country, is known by the same name. The river Pahang is, however, owing to its shallowness, navigable for small craft only. The country is sparsely populated, there being, according to the census of 1891, 57,462 inhabitants, of whom about 50,527 are Malays. The capital of the state is Pekan, a town situated a few miles from the mouth of the river Pahang, where is also the seat of Government. The state is under British protection, and in August, 1888, the Sultan, acting under the advice of the Sultan of Johore, applied for a British Eesident to assist in the administration of the country, which request was acceded to in October of that year. The predominant rock is slate, but granite, sandstone, limestone, quartz, and schist abound, while traces of volcanic action at some remote age are shown by the presence of basalt, trachyte, etc. As regards its 268 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS mineralogy, the state has always possessed a high reputation for its product of gold and tin. Though during recent periods these have heen but little sought, the wonderful old gold workings discovered by Messrs. Knaggs and Gower show that, wild, desolate, and abandoned as the greater portion of the state now appears to be, it must, at some very remote time, have been well known and populated. " At the present day," says Mr. Skinner, " the principal gold mines are in the valley of the Pahang, at Lipis, Jelei, Semantan, and Luet ; gold is also found as far south as the Bera. There is also a mine of galena on the Kwantam at Sungei Lembing; and tin is found throughout the country, both in the neighbourhood of the gold mines above mentioned, and in places like the river Triang and the river Bentang, where gold is not worked." The Pahang Corporation has opened tin mines at Sungei Lembing and Jeram Batang, another mine at Kabang having also been commenced. These mines are situated at the Kuantan district. The gold-bearing, districts, Punjom and Kaub, have, however, attracted far more attention from European capitalists. The principal gold-workings of the peninsula lie almost entirely along a not very wide Kne drawn from Mounts Ophir and Segama (the southern limit of the auriferous chain), through the very heart of the peninsula to the Kalian Mas or gold-diggings of Patani and Selepin in the north. The best tin workings of Pahang lie near the Selangor hills on the river Bentong and near the gold workings at Jelei and Talom. Pahang tin is said to be the only tin on the east coast which can rival that of Perak and Selangor in whiteness and pliancy. The revenue in 1898 amounted to §224,856, and the expenditure, inclusive of $71,770 for the loan service, to $372,719, the excess of expenditure over revenue being accounted for by the cost of constructing roads and other works for the development of the state. The imports in 1898 amounted to $1,147,054, and the exports to $1,550,34'.!. THE NEGRI SEMBILAN 269 THE NEGRI SEMBILAN This is a group of seven states — Johol, Tambin, Sri Menanti, Jempol, Eembau, Sungei UjoDg, and Jelebu, tbe two latter having been confederated with the original group of five in 1895. They occupy together some 3000 square miles of the interior of the peninsula, bounded on the north and east by Pahang, on the west by Malacca, and on the south by Johore. The five states originally known as the Negri Sembilan were brought under British protection by Sir Frederick Weld in 1883, and by an agreement with the respective chiefs, signed on the 13th July, 1889, they were con- federated as one Eesidency. They are governed by the native chiefs or penghulus, assisted by the British Eesident and Magistrates under him. Under the later scheme of confederation, brought into force in 1895, by which Sungei Ujong and Jelebu were brought in, there are five districts, viz. Seremban, the Coast, Jelebu, Kuala Pilah, and Tampin. Seremban is the head office, where the Eesident and heads of departments reside. Heads of departments are for the whole state and thus a double staff is saved, as had two states remained alone it would have been necessary, as the Negri Sembilan developed, to make further appoint- ments of European officers. The political affinity of the States is undoubted, and the same tribal and customary laws exist in both, together with the system of the election of the chiefs. Sungei Ujong and Jelebu have together an area of about 1200 square nules, and a range of hills in the north attain a height of about 3800 feet, the slopes of which have been pronounced by Ceylon planters as most suitable for the cultivation of coffee, cocoa, etc. On the lower ground, nearer the coast, tapioca is successfully cultivated. Tin mining is carried on to a considerable extent. The river Linggi is the only con- siderable stream in the state, and was formerly 270 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS navigable for upwards of 40 miles from its mouth. The principal town of Sungei Ujong is Seramban. The port of Sungei Ujong was opened on the 1st September, 1884, at Pengkalan Kompas on the Linggi river, at a distance of about seven miles from the mouth of the river, and a well-laid-out town has sprung up. Port Dickson (district and port) lies south-west of Seremban, and promises to become of some importance. The harbour has from eleven to fifteen fathoms of water and is well sheltered. A railway connecting it with Seremban was opened in July, 1891. The line has greatly facilitated trade. There is a first-class road from Pengkalan Kompas to the Eesidency at Seremban, and thence on to Pantai, a distance altogether of about 31 miles, Pantai being 8 miles from the seat of Govern- ment and leading to the coffee estates on Bukit Berem- bun, which are in a flourishing state. To these, a distance of 13 miles, a cart road has been constructed. A cart road from Seremban to Setul, 9 miles distant, and extending to Bernang, 6 miles further on the Selangor border, has been made, and has opened up an extensive and rich tin-mining district, which is being rapidly taken up by the Chinese, who are the real wealth- producers of the country, as elsewhere in the native states. Communication with Malacca is kept up by subsidised steam-launches, and a cart road from the state to Lubok China in Malacca (five miles) was com- pleted in 1885. The revenue in 1898 was $701,334 and the expenditure $730,000; in 1897 the revenue was $572,546 and the expenditure !^G07,313. The trade returns show a total value of $5,365,000, exports constituting three-fifths of that sum. SELANGOR This protected native state, containing an area of about 3000 square miles, lies on the western coast of the Malay I'eninsula, and is bounded by the protected native states of Perak on the north and Sungie Ujong SELANGOR 27 1 on the south, extending inland to the mountains in the centre of the peninsula, which divide it from Pahang and Jelebu. The Government consists of the Sultan, advised by the British Eesident, and assisted by the State Council. The State is divided into the following six Districts : — 1. — Kwala Lumpiir, the central district where the Eesidency and principal Government Offices are situ- ated, and which also contains the richest tin mines that have yet been developed. 2. — Klang, the principal port, situated about 14 miles from the mouth of the Klang Eiver. 3. — Kwala Langat, an agricultural district, in which the Sultan resides. 4. — Kwala Selangor, con- taining the most important fisheries in the State. 5. — Ulu Langat, an inland mining district on the borders of Sungie Ujong. 6. — l/ho Selangor, a district adjoining Perak, containing much valuable mining land, as yet comparatively undeveloped. Each district is under the charge of a European District Officer, from whom the Native Penghulus (in charge of the mukims into which each District is sub- divided) receive instructions. The Police Force consists of a superintendent, two European inspectors, and 650 native non-commissioned officers and men, including 227 Sikhs. The population of Selangor in 1884, when the first census was taken, was 46,568. According to the census taken in April, 1891, the total population of the State amounted to 81,592 persons, of whom 50,844 were Chinese, 23,750 Malays, 3592 Indians, 1224 Sakeis (aboriginal tribes), 357 Europeans and Eurasians, and the remainder Arabs, Singhalese, Bataks, etc. In 1894 the population was estimated at 150,000. The principal industry of the State, and from which it derives the largest portion of its revenue, is alluvial tin mining, on which a duty is charged. In addition to its mineral resources the State, how- ever, possesses large tracts of land well adapted for agri- cultural purposes, and the recent removal of restrictions 2 72 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS on the free importation of Indian coolies into the Protected Native States renders it possible for European planters to obtain cheap labour and to open estates on a large scale. Small plantations of coffee, cocoa, and pepper have already been successfully commenced, and rice, sugar, and other products of the peninsula under native cultivation are doing well in various parts of the State, and to encourage pioneer planters, large grants of land have recently been made, on special terms, for the planting of sago, pepper, and gambler. The principal exports are tin, hides, garmwood, tapioca, canes, rattans, and gutta-percha. The principal imports are opium, salt, salt-fish, rice, oil, tobacco, and tea. At the commencement of the year 1885, all duties were abolished, with the exception of those on tin, opium, and spirits. There is frequent and regular communication, by means of coasting steamers, between the Straits Settle- ments and Selangor, and from Kwala Lumpor a system of cart- and bridle-roads extends to the boundaries of Perak, Sungie Ujong, and Pahang. A line of metre- gauge railway, to connect Kwala Lumpor and Klang (a distance of 22 miles), was formally opened by Sir^ F. Weld on the 15th September, 1886, and an extension to Kwala Kubu was opened on the 6th October, 1894, and a branch line from Kwala Lumpor to Sungei Besi on the 28th February, 1895. Eighty-three nules of line were open for traffic at the end of 1898. In connection with the railway a line of telegraph has been erected and extended to Malacca via Sungie Ujong, where it is connected with the cables of the E. E., A. & C. Telegraph Co. There is £ilso inland telegraphic communication between the principal towns. The revenue in 1898 amounted to $3,862,439 and the expenditure to $4,470,843; in 1897 the revenue was $3,688,390 and the expenditure $3,507,845. Public Works account for $1,267,000 of the expenditure. The total value of the imports and exports amounted to $26,825,000. PERAK 273 PERAK Perak is on the west coast of the MiUayan Peninsula, and lies between Kedah, or Queda, on the north, and Selangor on the south. The coast line is about 90 miles in extent ; the greatest length of the state, in a north and south direction, is 120 miles, and the breadth, in an east and west direction, 90 miles. It is estimated to contain 7959 squai-e miles or 5,087,597 acres ; that is to say, it is about the size of "Wales and Monmouth joined together. It has been estimated that there are on the moiintain ranges of the state 1,451,770 acres above 1000 feet elevation available for cinchona, coilee, tea, etc., and that between 1000 feet and the plains there are 588,422 acres suited to lower cultivations, such as Liberian coffee, tea, cacao, cardamoms, etc. The state is well watered by numerous streams and rivers, of which the river Perak is the most important. This river runs nearly south until it turns sharply to the westward and falls into the Straits of Malacca. It is navigable for about 40 miles from its mouth by steamers of 300 to 400 tons burden, and for another 125 miles by cargo boats. The upper part of the river is rocky and abounds in rapids, and consequently, except for small boats and rafts, is impracticable. The Kinta, Eatang Padaug, and the Plus are the three large tributaries of the Perak river, and all are navigable by cai-go boats. These rivers rise in the main mountain range and flow west and south until they fall into the parent stream. The climate of Perak is good, the temperature in the low country averaging from 60° Fahr. in the night to 90° Fahr. in the heat of the day. The average mean is about 70° Fahr. in the night and 87° Fahr. in the day. The nights are uniformly cool. At 3000 feet the average is 63° Fahr. at night to 73° Fahr. in the day. The rain- fall varies considerably, Taiping, the capital, registering occasionally as much as 200 inches, but the average T 274 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS elsewhere is about 90 inches. There is no true rainy season, but the wettest months are September, October, November, and December, and the driest are February, March, June, and July. The state is under British protection and the govern- ment is carried on under the Sultan, aided and advised by the Eesident, and a Council consisting of the Resi- dent and Assistant Eesident and several native chiefs. A Military Police Force of over 1000 men, mainly Sikhs and Pathans, is maintained. The seat of government and the British Eesidency is at Taiping in the Province of Larut, which is also the chief town and centre of the Mining industry. Kwala Kangsa is situated on the right bank of the Perak river, about due east of the port of Teluk Kertang, from which a good road leads to it, crossing the western range of mountains at Bukit Berapit ; the distance is 23 imles. There is also here a rising village ; and as extensive tin deposits are known to exist in the neighbourhood, and are worked by 2000 Chinese at Lalak, it is probable that the very central position of Kwala Kangsa will cause it soon to become a place of some commercial importance. The residence of H.H. the Sultan is at Bukit Chandon, on the opposite bank of the river, which is about 200 yards in width. A magnificent palace has been built for him by Govern- ment and fitted with English furniture. The surround- ing scenery is very beautiful, groves of cocoanuts and fruit trees indicating the villages of the Malay population. The most important provinces of Perak are Larut and Kinta, which have tin deposits of great richness. Larut is most advantageously situated in respect of commercial intercourse with the British port of Penang, which is about 60 miles off. British officers (Magis- trates and Collectors) and detachments of Police are stationed in other important districts. A large num- ber of important public buildings have been constructed in the various district headquarters, but the principeil PERAK 275 buildings are erected at Taiping, the capital of the state. Of these the following may be mentioned : — The prison (with permanent wards on the separate system), hospitals with accommodation for 1000 patients, barracks for the Malay States Guides, markets, police stations, court house, treasury, post and other Government offices. A permanent library and museum has been built. Water- works supply the town of Taiping, the gaol, hospitals, and other buildings with excellent water in ample quantity. Communication with other ports is kept up daily by small steamers between Penang and Larut, and every few days to all ports north of Bernam river. A steamer runs to Teluk Anson from Penang daily. There is also frequent communication by steamers running between Penang and Singapore. The Bindings, including the island of Pangkor and the district of Binding on the mainland, which is British territory, come under the administration of the Straits Government. In the interior of Perak, except in mining districts, the population is almost entirely Malay, the exceptions being a few Chinese shopkeepers and the Government establishments, police, etc., but tribes of Sakeis and Semangs, the supposed aborigines of the country, inhabit the distant hills. At Larut, and at the chief mining settlements in the interior, Kinta, Batang Padang, etc., the Chinese form a large part of the population, and according to the census of 1891 numbered 94,000, the Malays numbering 96,000, Euro- peans 366, Eurasians 289, Tamils 13,000, and Aborigines 5700. The total population of the state was 214,254, The country is rapicUy increasing in importance. On the 1st June, 1885, a railway, 8^ miles in length, con- necting Thaipeng with Port Weld, was formally opened to traffic. The line was extended to Kamunting in May, 1890, and to Ulu Sapetang in June, 1892. The Kinta valley railway, starting from Teluk Anson, runs through Batang Padang to Batu Gajah and Ipoh, and thence to Chemor. The first portion between Teluk 276 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS Anson and Batang Padang was opened by Sir Cecil Smith in May, 1893, and the last portion, between Tanjong Eambutan and Chemor, was opened in No- vember, 1896. On 28th June, 1899, the Bukit Merat- jam section of the Perak-Penang railway was opened. This line is to extend over 317 miles of country and connect Penang with Port Dickson ; one half of the line is now open. The terminus will be at Prai, which will be connected with Penang by a ferry. It is under- stood that this extension of the Federated Malay States Eailway will be further carried forward so as to connect Province Wellesley and the States with Burma on the north and Siam on the east. There are about 500 miles of telegraph and telephone wires in use. The coimtry is well suited for coffee, and there are two plantations owned by Europeans doing well, besides smaller ones owned by natives. Chinese tea of good quality is grown on the higher mountain ranges, and pepper flourishes at lower levels. The Government are encouraging planting, and with the facilities of transit offered by the new railways and roads, it is expected that planting will become a very important industry in the state. The chief drawback at present is the cost of imported labour. The only duties levied on exports are a royalty of $11 per bhara (400 lbs.) on tin, and a royalty of one- tenth on timber, ataps, and other jungle produce. The total value of the imports and exports amounted in 1898 to $27,461,374, in 1897 to $24,518,379, and in 1896 to $23,003,602. Tin is the principal export. The revenue in 1898 was $4,575,842, in 1897 $3,837,558, and in 1896 $3,960,871, and the expenditure in 1898 $5,560,530, in 1897 $4,178,238, and in 1896 $3,989,376. Eailways alone accounted for $2,555,000 of the ex- penditure in 1898, against $1,412,000 in 1897. [.See page 322. [Page 27G. NETHEKLANDS INDIA NETHEELANDS INDIA Situation, Area, Population. The Dutcli possessions in Asia are situated in the Indian Archipelago, between 6 deg. N. and 11 deg. S. lat. and 95 deg. 40 sec, and about 141 deg. E. long. They comprise Sumatra with adjacent islands, the archipelago of Bintang or Eiouw, the archipelago of Lingga, the Karimon, Tambelan, Anambas, and Natoena islands, the Islands Banka and Billiton, Java and Madoera, the southern part of Borneo, Celebes, and all the other islands eastward of Borneo and Java to 141 deg. E. longitude, with the exception of the eastern part of Timor (Timor-Deli). Java and Madoera extend over 2388'4, the other islands together over 32,397'5 geo- graphical square mUes. With regard to the legal position, the population is divided into Europeans, with those who are considered equal to them (half-castes, Armenians, Japanese), and natives, with those who are considered equal to them (Chinese, Klings, Arabs, etc.). On the 31st December, 1896, the total number of Europeans and of those who are considered to be equal to them was 63,833, not including 17,532 in the Army and 2447 in the Navy. They are of different nationalities. On the 31st December, 1895, there were 11,278 Dutchmen, born in Europe, 1192 Germans, 292 Belgians, 318 Englishmen, 300 Prenchmen, 184 Swiss, a few from different countries in Europe, America, etc., and 48,999 descendants of Europeans and half-castes born in 28o NETHERLANDS INDIA Netherlands India. The number of Chinese in Nether- lands India on the 31st December, 1896, was 484,398, of whom 261,080 were in Java and Madoera. The natives on the same date numbered 25,791,953 in Java and Madoera, and the total number of natives on all the other islands together was then calculated at 5,924,001. The number of Arabs was 25,278, of whom 17,045 were in Java and Madoera, and that of other foreign Orientals (Moors, Bengalese, Klings, Malays, and African negroes) 12,143, of whom 3238 were in Java and Madoera. The increase of the population from 1871 to 1897 was for the Europeans 80 per cent,, Chinese 87 per cent., and Arabs 99 per cent. A great part of the Europeans are employed in or retired from the Government service ; next in number are the planters, traders and industrials. The Arabs, Chinese, and other Orientals are almost all tradesmen, but it must be mentioned that some Chinese are in possession of or employed on plantations in Java, and that upwards of 48,000 Chinese are working as labourers on the tobacco estates on the East Coast of Sumatra, and that thousands of Chinese labourers are employed under European superintendence in the exploitation of the tin mines of Banka and Billiton. The natives are cultivating the soil ; in the large places they also are mechanics, but the practice of the handicrafts is for the greater part in the hands of Chinese. History, Government. When the Dutch in the last years of the sixteenth century established themselves in the Archipelago they found there the Portuguese. In order to be strong against other Eui-opean rivals the Dutch East Indian Company was established in 1602 by charter of the General States of the United Netherlands, granting a monopoly for the trade in all the countries east of the Cape of Good Hope to the Strait of Magellan, and the right to make treaties with Indian princes, to make NETHERLANDS INDIA 28 1 war, build fortifications, and give commissions to civil and military officers, etc. The East Indian Company- was nearly independent and disposed of large capital. The first proceedings were commercial, but soon the Company extended its power and conquered territory in Java and the Moluccos. The first "loge" was established at Bantam, then at Jakatra, where the first Governor-General, J. P. Coen, made a fortress which he called Batavia (1619). After a long period of great prosperity the Company fell into decay, the difficulties increased under a heavy burden of debts, and in 1800 the States-General cancelled the charter and took the administration of the possessions into their own hands. At the same time the British, during the war with France and the Netherlands, conquered the greater part of the Dutch colonies. In 1802, by the treaty of peace concluded at Amiens, the colonies, with the exception of Ceylon, were restored to the Batavian Kepublic, as the Netherlands were then called, but during the war with England that was soon afterwards declared the Dutch again lost all their possessions. After the fall of Napoleon, in 1816, the greater part of the colonies were restored to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and by the London treaty of 17th March, 1824, Malacca and the establishments on the continent of India were exchanged for Bencoolen. Netherlands India is now governed in the name of the Queen of the Netherlands by a Governor-General, who is obliged to ask in some cases the advice of the Council of India, consisting of a vice-President, four members, and a secretary. He is Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, and is seconded by a Lieutenant- General, Commandant of the Army and Chief of the War Department, and a Vice- Admiral or Eear- Admiral, Commandant of the Navy and Chief of the Marine Department, and further by the five Directors of the Departments of the Home Government, Finance, Justice, Education, Public Worship and Industry, and Public Works. 284 NETHERLANDS INDIA Tobacco Nutmegs Gambler Kapok ... Copra ... Kilogrammea. Gnildere. ... 37,574,528 „ 37,443,073 1,771,124 „ 2,479,573 7,248,435 », 1,812,108 2,409,659 „ 602,415 ... 23,715,196 », 2,608,671 3,984,679 j» 239,081 1,091,383 » 2,657,205 3,350,427 » 1,005,128 3,696,070 » 591,371 6,257,588 »» 2,503,035 Indigo Ohinchona Gom dammar Gom kopal Diamonds are found in Borneo, gold in Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, and Timor, platinum in Borneo, silver in small quantities in Borneo and Sumatra, copper in Timor and Borneo, iron in Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo, tin of excellent quality and in large quantities in Banka, Billiton, and the Carimon islands, and of inferior quality in some other islands, lead in Sumatra and Borneo, zinc in small quantities in Sumatra, coal in Borneo and Sumatra (production in 1897 was 14,847 and 142,850 tons), in Java and in Batjan, jodium and naphtha in Java, saltpetre in Java, marble in Java and especially in Sumatra. Salt is produced in Madoera of excellent quality, and also in the other islands, by evaporation of the sea water. Kerosine oil is found in abundance in Java and Sumatra, and gives enormous profits. The possession of the soil by the natives is strongly protected by law. As a general rule the ground cannot be sold to foreigners, not even to Dutchmen, nor to their descendants who are born in India. The Govern- ment is authorised to dispose of uncultivated grounds, and grant parts of them for a certain period to foreigners (erfpacht). On the 31st December, 1895, the stock of cattle in Java and Madoera consisted of 2,643,223 buffaloes, 2,572,231 other horned cattle, and 485,567 horses (ponies). NETHERLANDS INDIA 285 Eevenue, Finances. The revenue of the colony is derived from different taxes, viz. export and import duties, excise, ground tax, licences, poll tax, succession duties and stamp duties, the rent of farms (opium, gambling-houses, pawn- brokers' shops, etc., etc.), monopolies (opium, salt), tin mines, forests, railways, mining, and agricultural con- cessions, the cultivation of coffee, and sundry petty articles. In former years the cultivation of coffee was the principal source of revenue, but of late years there has been a constant decrease. In the residencies in Java (except Batavia, Bantom, Tirawing, Djopara, Eambang, Soerakarta and Djogjokarta), where the ground is suitable for the cultivation of coffee, a certain number of natives are obliged to plant every year a number of coffee trees, to take care of the plantations, to dry the fruit, and to deliver it into the Government godowns. They are therefore free of ground tax and receive a remuneration which is fixed by Government. In nearly all the residencies of Java and Madoera, in Sumatra (except Acheen and dependencies), in Banka, BiUiton, and Borneo, private persons are not allowed to make nor to import salt. Fine table-salt, salt for medicinal use, and salt wanted for packing preserves, can be imported on payment of a duty. The large bulk of the salt that is wanted for the Government monopoly is made in Madoera, where the people are obliged to deliver the salt into the Government godowns ^t the fixed rate of ten guilders per kojan (1853 kilogrammes). Concerning opium the Government intends to take the management of the monopoly into its own hands and to sell the drug on the system of a " regie " to the population without the intermediation of farmers. Since 1st September, 1894, the "regie" has, as a trial, been introduced in Madoera, Lombok, and in four residencies of Java. In these residencies the sale of 286 NETHERLANDS INDIA opium otherwise than by " regie " is prohibited. The Resident grants to certain persons a permit to open certain houses where the opium can be sold and smoked. It is forbidden to keep a stock of opium not derived from the " r^gie " and the monopoly of the Government is strongly protected by penalties. The revenue of the opium monopoly is calculated for 1899 at 19,152,000 guilders, of which 3,988,000 are from the " regie." The tin mines of Banka are exclusively worked by Government; the management of the exploration, the melting of the ore, and the transport of the tin to the godowns being in the hands of Chinese mining corpo- rations (kongsi's) or of private contractors and their labourers. A private company holds a concession for the tin mines in Billiton, and pays a duty for the farming of the mines. The quantity exported in 1897 was 13,586,365 kilogrammes, valued at 10,869,091 guilders. The monetary system of Netherlands India consists of gold coins of the value of ten guilders, silver coins of two guilders and a half, of one guilder, and of half a guilder (these coins are the same as those in the Netherlands) ; besides silver coins of f.0-25 and f.OlO, bearing Malay and Javanese inscriptions, and copper coins of f 0-01 (one cent), of f.0025 and f.0005. The issue of Bank notes is a monopoly of the Java Bank. These Bank notes are of the value of f.lOOO, f.500, f.300, f.200, f.lOO, f.50, f.25, f.lO, and f.5, and payable to bearer on demand. The head ofl&ce of the Java Bank is at Batavia, and there are agencies at Cheribon, Semarang, Soerabaia, Soerakarta, Djogjokarta, Padang, and Macasser. Aemy and Navy. The Army of Netherlands India numbers 1421 officers and 41,157 non-commissioned officers and men. It is separate from and independent of the Netherlands Army. The Commandant is appointed by the Queen. Besides the Army there are different armed troops, viz. : NETHERLANDS INDIA 287 ffi. The "Schuttery," being guards residing in some of the larger places designed to co-operate with the Army in maintaining the peace. These guards number about 3000 men, mostly Europeans, and a few natives and foreign orientals. The of&cers get a commission from the Governor-General. &. The Legion of the Native Prince Mangkoe Negoro, consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, numbering about 850 men. c. Barisan, being native infantry of Madoera, 1400 men, designed to maintain the peace in the island. In case of war in other islands they also participate in the campaigns. d. Dragoon Guards of the Soesoehoenan of Soerakarta and the Sultan of Djogjokarta. e. Police soldiers. The Netherlands Navy in these Colonies numbers 238 of&cers and 2232 European and 1001 native non- commissioned of&cers and sailors, and consists of 25 men-of-war. There is, besides, the Colonial Navy, consisting of 29 smaller ships with 113 Europeans and 715 natives, employed for transport duty and for maintaining the peace in the waters of the Archipelago. Public Woeship, Education. The Protestant clergymen are appointed by the Queen ; they are 41 in number. The Eoman Catholic priests are appointed by the Pope and recognised by or in the name of the Queen. The Jews have no priests and are so few that in no place have they a synagogue. The Government does not interfere with Mahommedan worship, but pilgrims to Mecca require to take out passports and are obliged to prove that they have suf&cient money to pay for the voyage and to support their families during their absence. Chinese religion is as free as all other kinds of public worship. The Educational Department sustains a great many schools for Europeans and natives. At Batavia, 288 NETHERLANDS INDIA Semarang, and Soerabaia are schools for higher educa- tion ; Soerabaia has also a school for telegraph operators, mechanical engineers, etc. There are, further, 121 Government schools and 19 private schools in Java and 37 Government schools and one private school in the other islands, having on the 31st December, 1897, 17,640 pupils, among whom were 1232 native children. Five colleges are devoted to the instruction of native schoolmasters, while 501 Government vernacular schools and 642 private vernacular schools give instruction to upwards of 123,222 pupils. The greater number of these private schools are managed by missionaries. In Batavia and Samarang are private schools for mechanical engineers and handicraft. In a great many places private persons can be admitted into the military hospitals, while in the large towns general hospitals are maintained for poor natives and Chinese, and other hospitals for infectious diseases. Asylums for the insane are maintained at Buitenzorg, Soerabaia, and Semarang. Trade, Navigation. Eiouw, Macasser, Menado, Kema, Ternate, Amboina, Kajeli, Banda and Koepang are free ports. The other ports are open either for general trade or only for native coasting navigation. Entrepots, where goods can be stored and sold, and from whence they can be exported without payment of import or export duties, are established at Batavia, Cheribon, Semarang, Soera- baia, Padang, Siboga, Baros and Singkel. The value of imports in 1897 was in JavB and Madoera 117,498,408 In the other islands ... ... ... ... , . , 64'207'l40 Total 181,705,548 The value of exports in 1897 was from Java and Madoera 142,197,962 And from the other islands 68,216 316 Total 210,414,278 NETHERLANDS INDIA 289 The mercantile marine of Netherlands India consisted, in December, 1897, of 2090 ships, of which 8 were steamers, with a tonnage of 249,065 cubic metres. In 1897 there arrived from abroad — Cubic metres. 8,887 steamers tonnage 4,179,710 206 European sailing vessels ... „ 373,215 1,632 native sailing vessels ... „ 135,088 Total 5,725 vessels with a tonnage of 4,688,013 and in the same year departed — Cubic metres. 3,786 steamers tonnage 4,004,735 197 European sailing vessels 361,105 1,518 native sailing vessels 129,457 5,501 4,495.297 Import duties are imposed in Java and Madoera, the West coast of Sumatra, Acheen (excepted the Isle of Way), Bencoolen, Lampongs, Palembang, Banka, Billi- ton and S.E. Borneo, but not in the islands of the Eiouw residency, in the Government of Celebes and in the Eesidencies Amboina, Ternate and Timor. The import duty is fixed ad valorem or according to the weight or the dimensions, most of the goods being separately mentioned in the tariff. Most of the metals, machinery, raw materials, as lime and wood, horses and cattle, and articles of art and science are free of import duty. Export duty is only paid on a few articles according to value or quantity, for instance, hides 2 per cent., birds' nests 6 per cent, of the value, coffee f.l, tin f.3-50, indigo f.lO for 100 kilogrammes. Transit cargo is free. An excise is charged on liquors of 5 per cent^ on alcohol, on kerosine oil (f2-50 per hectoliter), on matches f.0-7 per gross and on tobacco. Commercial intercourse is much advanced by the Steam Navigation Company, " Koninklyke Paketvaart Maatschappij," possessing 31 steamers plying across the whole Archipelago. These steamers have splendid accommodation for saloon passengers. U 290 NETHERLANDS INDIA Public Works. There are now 1731 kilometres of railway in Java and 312*5 kilometres in Sumatra; and 667"5 kilo- metres of tramway in Java. The telegraphs extend over 6,833'88 kilometres, the telegraph cables over 1,672'53, together 8,506*41 kilometres. The net receipts of the Post and Telegraph services amounted to f.475,561,51 ; the number of stations was 344 for Java and Madoera and 93 for the other islands. BATAVIA Batavia, the residence of the Government of Nether- lands India, is situated in 106 deg. 48 min. E. long, and 6 deg. 7 min. S. lat. The old city is built in the ancient Dutch style and was till the beginning of this century surrounded by fortifications, which have since been demolished. It has always been unhealthy, but in 1699 the unfavourable conditions were greatly increased by an eruption of Mount Salak, masses of mud and sand being washed up by the river Tjiliwong, so that drainage became very difficult. On account of this unhealthy condition only very few Europeans remain day and night in the old city. The fine large houses are employed for offices and godowns, and in the afternoon, when business is finished, most of the Europeans retire to the new town, which is situated south of the old city and built in modern style. Broad roads and spacious squares and nice bungalows sur- rounded by gardens form there a healthy place. It was Marshall Daendels who in the first years of this century began to build the new town with the con- struction of barracks and the palace that was designed to be the residence of the Governor-General, but has never been used as such. It is now utilised for Government offices. It contains the large assembly B ATA VIA 291 room for the Governor- General and the Council for India, which room contains the portraits of all the Governors-General of Netherlands India. The palace is situated on the west side of the Waterloo Square, where are to be seen a monument of the battle of Waterloo, another monument to General Michiels, and a bronze statue of Jan Pieterszoon Coen, which was unveiled when the 250 years' existence of Batavia was celebrated. On the right and left of the palace are the Supreme Court and the Military Club Concordia. At a short distance from the Waterlooplein is another and larger square, the Koningsplein, each side of which is nearly one mile long. The square is surrounded by elegant, comfortable houses, the residences of the higher officials and wealthy merchants. There is also a fine church, Willemskerk, near the railway station, and the museum of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences. The old city and the new are connected by two railways, one tramway, and wide roads for carriages. Different Banks and Banking Corporations have agencies at Batavia, viz. — The Netherlands Trading Society (Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij), with a capital of f.35,783,000 and a reserve capital of f.2,536,444-12, gave a dividend of 6 per cent, in 1897. The Netherlands Indian Mercantile Bank (Nederlandsch Indische Handelsbank), with a capital of f.7,200,000 and a reserve capital of f 1,373,528-70, promotes trade, industry, and agriculture in Netherlands India, advances money to agricultural estates and for the trade in produce. The Colonial Bank, capital f.10,000,000, also supplies capital to estates and promotes agricultural enterprise. The Netherlands Indian Escompto Com- pany, with a capital of f.3,000,000 and a reserve capital of f.167,000, does general banking business, advances money on shares, etc. There are also agencies of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and of the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China. The port of Tandjong Priok is in communication with Batavia by railway and by a canal. The outer 292 NETHERLANDS INDIA harbour is formed by two piers 1850 metres long ; the entrance is 125 metres wide, and the depth is 8 metres. The inner harbour has a quay 1100 metres long and 175 metres wide ; the water has a depth of 7"50 metres. There is extensive accommodation for coaling, and in the docks and workshops all kinds of repairs to vessels can be made. The expenses for the construction of the harbour and annexed works amounted to 26^ millions of guilders. The harbour was visited in 1890 by 647 steamers and .53 sailing ships „ „ 1892 „ 805 „ „ 55 „ 1894 „ 812 „ „ 177 The population of Batavia consisted on the 31st December, 1896, of 9423 Europeans, 26,433 Chinese, 2828 Arabs, 132 other foreign Orientals, and 76,751 natives ; total, 115,567. BUITENZORG The usual residence of the Governor-General is at Buitenzorg, at a distance of a little more than one hour by railway from Batavia. The population of Buitenzorg numbers about 25,000, of whom 1500 are Europeans. The botanical gardens near the palace of the Governor- General were made in 1817, and are well known not only for their beautiful arrangement, but especially for the great services rendered to science and agri- culture under the management of the eminent directors Teysmann, Dr. Scheffer, and Prof. Dr. Treub. All experiments for the introduction of exotic plants into Netherlands India are made here, with the result that many useful plants from foreign countries are reared and flourish in Java as in their native soiL SOERABAIA 293 SOERABAIA Soerabaia, situated 112 deg. 44 iiiin. E. longitude and 7 deg. 14 min. S. latitude, has 142,980 inhabitants, of whom 6988 are Europeans. The voyage from Batavia to Soerabaia can be done in two days by the railway, which extends to Panaroekan. The old city is not like that of Batavia, deserted during the night, but is the most busy part of the place. The fortifications that were built at enormous expense are now partially de- molished. The roadstead is very safe and protected by tlie island of Madoera, and trade is in a flourishing condition, the godowns near the Oedjoeng being in direct communication by rail with the large railway that extends all over the island to Semai-ang and Batavia. Government workshops and private manu- factories do very much to increase the welfare of the industrious population, among whom are a great many Dutchmen employed by the ai'tiUery establishments. Between the Kali Mas and the floating dock are the naval establishments for the construction and repairing of ships and vessels, machinery, boilers, etc., etc. A great many Europeans are still residing in the old city, though the outer part is preferred and has the reputation of being healthier, while the houses are not built close to each other but are separated by gardens. The suburb Simpang is especially well known. Here is situated the house of the Resident and the well-known large hospital. Along the Genteng Eoad, which forms the communication with Soerabaia, several fine houses are built in European style and surrounded by shady gardens. 294 NETHERLANDS INDIA SEMAEANG Semarang is situated in 110 deg. 25 min. E. longi- tude and 6 deg. 58 min. S. latitude. The population is 84,266, of whom 3355 are Europeans. The old city is small, with narrow streets and lanes. On the west side of the river are the residence of the Eegent, the Mosque, the Hospital, the Court of Justice, and different Govern- ment offices. The railway from Semarang to Djogjokarta is ex- tended to the new harbour canal, so that travellers arriving in the roadstead can continue the journey to the interior without delay at Semarang. The roads of Semarang do not afford the same accommodation as the harbour of Tandjong Priok, but the view of the city and surroundings is very fine. PADANG Padang, the capital of the West Coast of Sumatra, is situated 100 deg. 20 min. E. longitude and 58 min. S. latitude. The population is 35,158, of whom 1640 are Europeans. The abundant vegetation, the extensive cocoanut plantations, and pleasant lanes give the im- pression of a large park or an immense native village, in which a few European bungalows are built. The bungalows are constructed of wood and bamboo, the floor is raised some feet above the groimd, and the roofs are covered with tapa leaves. The mountain scenery in the background and the large plan on which the place is designed, make Padang one of the most pleasant towns of Netherlands India, though the public buildings and private residences do not have a grand appearance. Padang is one of the most healthy coast places, land and sea winds contributing very much to lower the temperature. MACASSER 295 To the south of Padang is the Emma Haven, a sea- port that is in communication by rail with Padang and with the Ombilien coal-fields, and where steamers can always anchor in perfect safety. Excellent arrange- ments have been made for coaling so that annually 200,000 tons of coal can be shipped. MACASSER Macasser, the capital of Celebes and dependencies, is situated 119 deg. 24 min. E. longitude and 5 deg. 8 min. S. latitude. The population numbers 17,200, of whom 836 are Europeans. As a free port and principal centre of the trade in the Eastern part of the Archipelago the place has great importance. The fort Rotterdam com- mands the roadstead and the northern and southern entrances. The place is nicely built, a fine lane with tamarind trees forming the thoroughfare of the principal part, where the Government House and other public buildings are situated, and leading on both sides to large squares covered with grass, the Konings Plein and Prins Hendrik Plein. The busy part of the place is Passar Street, where houses with colonnades give the impression of a town of southern Europe. Near the European Settlement the natives have made their vil- lages. The surrounding country is low and marshy, and covered with rice-fields and kampongs. The mountains, with the Peak of Bonthain in the distance, afford a fine view, especially in the evening when they are not covered by the fogs that rise from the plains. THE EAST COAST OF SUMATRA This part of the East Coast of the Island of Sumatra is situated between the Government of Acheen and its Dependencies in the North, the Straits of Malacca in the East, Indragiri (a part of the Eesidency of Kionwo 296 NETHERLANDS INDIA and its dependencies) in the South, and the independent Giijoo, Alas, Batak and Malay States of the centre of Sumatra in the West. It includes a great number of semi-independent States, each of which is ruled by a native Prince or Chief who, according to his rank and dependency, is styled. Sultan, Yang di Pertuan, Kedju- ruan, Eajah, Datu, etc. The country is administered by a Eesident, two Assistant- Eesidents, 14 Controleurs, and 4 Assistant-Controleurs. Justice is dispensed by the Landraad of Medan and Bindjei, Tandjung Balei and Bengkalis, the Eesidency court at Medan, the Magistrates and by native courts or Karapattan. Lead- ing cases are tried at Batavia. The staple industry of the country is Agriculture and Mining, and this being dependent upon imported labour (Chinese and Javanese), the labour question is carefully guarded by a special coolie ordinance. AU coolies are indentured under advances. The employer must house his people pro- perly, provide them with medical attendance and food when sick, and monthly payments are compulsory. Land tenure : land is leased from the ruling prince or chief of the district for a certain amount of years, so much per bahu or per acre being paid down, and f.l per bahu or per acre per annum being paid as annual quittance. The supremacy of the Dutch Government is based upon political treaties with each of the Princes, in whose hands is left the jurisdiction over their own subjects, except so far as relates in the infliction of the death penalty and the disposal of land or landed property. Land contracts with Europeans, while made between the ruling prince and the concessionaire, are subject to the approval of the Resident. Mining con- tracts require the approval of the Governor- General of the Netherlands-Indies. In all the states the Dutch Government has bought the right to collect the customs duties and the ordinary revenues. Land revenue, col- lected by Government officials, is at the disposal of the native rulers and bis chiefs. The principal state on the THE EAST COAST OF SUMATRA 297 East Coast of Sumatra, both from the rank of its ruler and historically, is Siak. The best known of the states, however, is Deli, where tobacco planting was first intro- duced, and by which name the whole of the East Coast is sometimes designated. Deli, Langkat, Serdang, Assa- han, and other tobacco-growing districts, are celebrated throughout the world for their fine silky tobacco-leaf, which is specially fitted for the outside wrappers of cigars, being at once light in weight and elastic and strong in texture. The leading tobacco company is the Deli Maatschappij, which for 25 years has paid a dividend averaging 75 per cent, per annum. The minor agricultural products are Liberian coffee, cocoa-nuts and pepper. Jungle produce, formerly exported consider- ably, is getting scarcer, by reason of the jungle being felled for the purpose of planting tobacco. The pro- duction of paddy, though considerable, falls short of the demand by many thousand bags, which are mostly imported from the Straits Settlements. Of all the different states Asahan only is in a position to export a large quantity of paddy to the Straits Settlements. Kerosine oil is exported from Langkat to the Straits Settlements, British India, Hongkong, Siam, China, and Java. This article is of importance for that dis- trict, and is still more promising for the future. Almost all necessaries of life have to be imported, and a brisk trade between Java, the Straits Settlements, and the East Coast is the consequence. Medan (Deli), the residence of the highest civil and military ofi&cials, is a pleasant little town, laid out in a modern style, the streets fitted up with electric light. A splendid architectural Government House is being built for the Eesident in the new quarter of Polonia. In the town two banking corporations — the Neder- landsche Handel Maatschappij and the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China — have their branches. There are two very good hotels, two clubs, a Eace-club, numerous houses of business, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Malay, Bombay and Kling shops, etc. 298 NETHERLANDS INDIA The port of Belawan Deli, on the Belawan Eiver, is in communication with Medan by railway. Other important ports are those of Pangkalan Brandan, Tand- jong Poera, Tandjong Balei, Bengkalis, Bagan Api Api and Siak. The population of this Eesidency amounted in 1897 to 1829 Europeans, 85,106 Chinese, 6996 Arabs and other Orientals, and 234,628 natives. THE PHILIPPINES THE PHILIPPINES The Philippines, discovered by the Portuguese Fer- nando de Magalhaens (Magellan), are a rich and beautiful group of islands, situate between lat. 5 and 22 deg. K, and long. 117 and 127 deg. E., and form a Spanish colony. They are surrounded on the north and west by the China Sea, on the east by the Pacific, and on the south by the Celebes Sea. The islands are over a thousand in number, and contain an area of 52,647 English square miles, with a population, in 1876, of 6,173,632 souls. At the end of 1883 the population, including the army and navy, was estimated at 7,636,632. The principal islands are divided into twenty-six provinces, thirteen of which are on the Isle of Luzon, four on the Isle of Negros, three on Panay, and three on the Isle of Mindanao. The islands were formally annexed to the Crown of Spain in 1565, The first Governor was Don Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. The early history of the Philippines is a record of continual trouble. Conflicts between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities led to internal contentions, while both Portugal and the Netherlands coveted these rich possessions and harassed the Spaniards. In 1606 the Dutch blockaded the ports with five ships, which were, however, destroyed by the Spanish fleet. Attacks were also made at different points by powerful Chinese piratical fleets. The most celebrated of these was the invasion by Li Ma Hon, who with 2000 men landed at 302 THE PHILIPPINES Manila in 1572, but was defeated and driven out by the Spaniards and natives, under the leadership of Juan de Salcedo. In 1762 the capital was taken by the English, the private property of the inhabitants being saved from plunder on the condition of the payment of a ransom of £1,000,000 sterling, half of which was paid in money and the other half in bills upon the Spanish Treasury, In the mean time, however, peace had been concluded, and the islands were restored to Spain, payment of the balance of the indemnity not being insisted upon. After the discovery of the islands, ecclesiastics flocked to them in large numbers, and undisturbed by the attacks on Spanish authority, the work of converting the natives was carried on with great vigour. The religious orders in a short time acquired great power and became in effect the dominant authority. The clergy before the recent capture of Manila by the Americans (since when many have left) numbered about two thousand, and most of the natives brought under subjection profess the Eoman Catholic religion. In the Philippines there has been little of that cruelty to the aboriginal population which so often characterises the process of colonisation, and the natives appeared in general contented and well conducted, the priests exercising the almost unbounded influence they pos- sessed with great effect in the preservation of order. There was, however, an undercurrent of seditious feel- ing, and after attempts made to throw off the Spanish yoke in 1822, 1841, 1842, 1872, and 1896, the Insurgents' opportunity came in 1898, when, upon the outbreak of hostilities between the United States and Spain, they offered to co-operate with the former. The offer was accepted, with the result that while Americans took and held the city of Manila the Insurgejits over- threw Spanish authority throughout the remainder of the island of Luzon and established a Government of their own with General Aguinaldo as Dictator. By the Hispano-American treaty of peace the whole of the Philippine Archipelago was ceded to the United States, THE PHILIPPINES 303 but this arrangement was not acquiesced in by the Insurgents, who claimed independence, and the United States are now engaged in a war of subjugation. In the inaccessible mountainous parts of the islands there are still tribes of aboriginal savages, but their number is comparatively small. In the last census returns the number of natives not subject to the civil government and paying no tribute was given as 602,853, while the number of natives paying tribute was returned as 5,501,356. There is a considerable number of mestizos or half-castes, some of whom are the children of European fathers by native mothers, and some the children of Chinese fathers. The public revenue prior to the subversion of Spanish rule was about $15,000,000, of which the larger part was raised from direct taxes. Customs, monopolies, and lotteries. The chief articles of produce are sugar, hemp, tobacco, and coffee. The foreign trade is confined to the ports of Manila, Iloilo, Cebu, and Zamboanga. The climate of the Philippines varies little from that of other places in the same latitude. The range of the thermometer during the year is from a little over sixty degrees to about ninety. The year may be divided into three seasons — the first, cold and dry, commences in November ; the second, warm but still dry, commences in March, the greatest heat being experienced from April to the end of May, and the third, which is ex- cessively wet, continues from June to the middle of November. During the rainy season inundations of rivers are frequent and travelling in the interior almost impossible. Long-continued droughts, however, some- times occur, when the ground becomes parched and the crops are utterly destroyed. Husbandry also suffers from the ravages of locusts, which will sometimes almost entirely denude a whole province of herbage. The principal part of the group comes within the range of the typhoons, and terrific storms are of frequent occurrence. The islands are also the centre of great 304 THE PHILIPPINES volcanic action. " The destructive ravages and changes produced by earthquakes," says Sir John Bowring, writing in 1859, "are nowhere more remarkable than in the I'hilippines. They have overturned mountains, they have filled up valleys, they have desolated extensive plains; they have opened passages from the sea into the interior, and from the lake into the sea. There are many traditional stories of these territorial revolutions, but of late disasters the records are trustworthy. That of 1796 was sadly calamitous. In 1824 many churches in Manila were destroyed, together with the principal bridge, the barracks, great numbers of private houses ; and a chasm opened of nearly four miles in length. The inhabitants all fled into the fields, and six vessels in the port were wrecked. The number of victims was never ascertained. In 1828, during another earthquake, the vibration of the lamps was found to describe an arc of four and a haK feet ; the huge corner stones of the principal gate of the city were dSsplaced ; the great bells were set ringing. It lasted between two and three minutes, rent the walls of several churches and other buildings, but was not accompanied by subterranean noises, as is usually the case." In 1832, 1852, 1863, 1869, and 1880 there were terrible shocks of earthquake and, in 1891, in the Province of Pangasinan shocks were continually repeated during a month, shaking down buildings, crushing their inmates, and creating a panic among the inhabitants. The local storms that come in the months of May and June, the period of the greatest heat, are at times very severe. On the 29th May, 1873, there was one of sufficient force to destroy within the walls of Manila alone forty-one dwellings. Typhoons also sweep over the islands in great fury, and the one of the 20th October, 1882, left thousands without shelter, the wind in its fury tearing down many of the native huts as well as more solid structures in brick and stone ; floods were caused by the heavy rain, and great loss of life and property resulted. THE PHILIPPINES 305 The Philippine Archipelago is divided into three great groups of islands called Luzon, Visayas or Bisayas, and Mindanao. Luzon includes the provinces of Manila, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Zambales, Bataan, New Ecija, Pangasinan, North Ilocos, Abra, Union, Nev? Viscaya, Cagayan, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Albay, North and South Camarines, Sorsogon, and the districts of Principe, Lepanto, Bontoc, Benguet, Morong, and Infanta, and the adjacent islands Babuyanes and Batanes on the North, Polillo, Alhabat, Catanduanes, and Marianas on the East, Mindoro, Burias, Masbate and Marinduque on the South, and Calamianes, Para- guay, and Balabac on the East. The second group, the Bisayas or Visayas, is made up of Cebu, Bohol, Samar, Leyte, and the island of Negros with its districts Capiz, Eomblon, Iloilo, and Conception, and of the adjacent islands Sibuyan, Banton, Tablas, Luciara, Maestro de Campo, Bantayan, Dauis, and Camote to the North and N.E., and of the island of Fuego or Siquijor to the South. The third group, or sea of Mindanao, is divided into the districts of Zamboanga, Misamis, Suriago, New Guipuzgoa, Davao Bislig, and Basilan, with the adjacent islands Camiguin, Caburao, Duiagat Asgno, Oyarzal, and Vivero to the N.E. ; Siluanga and General on the East; Buentua, Tengquil, Balanguingi, and Sulu with all the islands that make up the group of that name in the S.E. Altogether there are estimated to be 1200 islands in the Philippine Archipelago. Its wealth of timber is incalculable, yielding resins, gums, masticli- pastes, dye-products, fine-grained ornamental woods, also heavy timber suitable for building purposes. There are also mines in abundance in Mencayan and Lepanto. In Lupac and Agbas copper is found, and copper and iron pyrites in Suyne. In Paracale and North Cama- rines there are veins of gold worked by the natives. In the rivers of Sapan, Casiguran, and New Ecija there are found gold pyrites of good quality, and in Mambulao and Camarines there are some gold mines in operation. There are many hot springs of iron and sulphur waters, X 3o6 THE PHILIPPINES all of excellent medicinal properties. The famous " Holy Waters " of Tuii and Sibu are visited every year in large numbers by the islanders seeking relief from their sufferings. The endemic complaints of the country are swamp fever, diarrhoea, beri-beri, and a few others. Incurable leprosy is very limited among the natives. The mortality is low, considering the number of inhabitants. Dr. Augustin de la Cavada, a Spanish historian, says of the natives that they are of a mild, submissive, and respectful disposition, predisposed to religious observ- ances, extremely superstitious, and very hospitable. Those of Batangas, Cagayan, and Southern Ilocos are better workers and more industrious than those of the other Provinces. During their youth they work with energy and a certain intellectual vigour, but on reaching a more advanced age they lose a large part of their disposition for work and lapse into an indolence that is one of their greatest defects. The women are averse to idleness and have a spirit of enterprise, and they often engage in various trades with success. They are economical and sacrifice themselves with delight for the sake of those for whom they feel any affection. The rivers and streams of the Philippines are countless and traverse the islands in all directions, the natural result of mountain peaks and ranges that extend over a large area. The most noteworthy volcanoes are Buheyan in Mindanao, Taal in Batangas, and Bulusan and Mayon in Albay. The last is in continual eruption and at times creates terror in the surrounding country on account of the quantity of boiling water, ashes, and lava it throws out. In 1872 an eruption of this volcano destroyed entirely the villages of Malinao, Camalig, Guinobatan, Ligao, Polangui, and Albay. The principal articles of export from the Philippines are sugar, hemp, tobacco, and cigars. In 1898 the export of sugar was 2,843,116 piculs, as against 3,233,483 piculs in 1897 ; that of hemp 1,585,212 piculs as against MANILA 307 1,804,576 piculs in 1897, that of leaf tobacco 145,055 quarters, as against 309,585 quarters in 1897 ; and that of cigars 129,840 thousands as against 169,465 thousands in 1897. MANILA Manila, the capital of the Philippines, is situated on the western side of the island of Luzon, at the mouth of the river Pasig, which empties itself into the Bay of Manila, and the city is now held by the forces of the United States. War having been declared between the United States and Spain, the fleet of the former on the 1st May, 1898, sailed into Manila Bay and totally destroyed the Spanish fleet, practically with no loss to the attacking side. Thereafter the city was blockaded until the 13th August, when, a Military force having arrived, the Americans took possession after an almost unresisted assault. The city was founded in 1571. In 1645 it was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, in which upwards of three hundred lives were lost. In 1863 a great part of the city was again destroyed from the same cause, and in July, 1880, another terrible upheaval made wreck of a great portion of it. The inhabitants are naturally in constant fear of these visitations. The dwelling-houses are built with especial reference to safety under such circumstances, and, although large, possess few pretensions to architectural beauty. The city is practically divided into two parts, the official or waUed city being built on the left bank of the Pasig river, while the commercial city is situated on the island of Binondo, which forms the right bank of the same river. The Escolta, the main business street, traverses this suburb, and in it most of the European stores and bazaars are to be found. The Eozario, another broad thoroughfare in Binondo, is occupied chiefly by Chinese shops, and is a busy quarter. San 3o8 The PHILIPPINES Miguel is the aristocratic suburb, being the seat of the residences of the wealthy merchants and other residents. Around the walls and the edge of the bay is a fashion- able drive lined with almond trees, where the well-to-do inhabitants walk, drive, and meet their friends. The architecture of Manila is not imposing, successive earthquakes having wrought much damage, and the city has an old-world aspect, tempered by its tropical surroundings. The streets present the greatest anima- tion in the evening, when the cigar factories are closed and the carriages of the upper classes are out for the customary promenade. There are several ancient churches which are worthy of notice. The Cathedral, founded originally in 1578, has been several times destroyed by earthquakes and did not escape in 1863. It has been since rebuilt, but again sustained considerable damage in 1880, when the tower was so much shat- tered that it had to be pulled down. There are several theatres, but none worthy of the place. The opera is well supported in Manila. A statue of Charles IV. stands in the centre of the Palacio Square, and one of Isabella II. opposite to the Variedades Theatre. The Observatory, admirably managed by the Jesuit Fathers, is well worthy of a visit. There is a good English Club. Of the hotels the Hotel de Oriente is the principal. The city and its suburbs contain a population of 300,000 and are the seat of a considerable and yearly increasing commerce. The principal articles of export are hemp, sugar, tobacco, cigars, coffee, and indigo, while of the imports cotton goods form the chief item. The anchorage is distant some three miles from the shore. The river presents a scene of great anima- tion, being crowded with native craft interspersed with vessels of foreign build. The hot season commences in March and continues until July. The rains commence in August and continue to December, during which time the roads and streets get into a very bad condition. The maximum annual rainfall recorded is 114 inches and the minimum 84 inches. The maximum of the JIAN-JLA. THE JiHCULTA. [I'lige 308. MANILA 309 thermometer is about 92 ; a cool sea breeze sets in at night, reducing the heat to an endurable temperature for sleeping. According to the census of 1883 there were residing in Manila 250 foreigners of European origin, 4189 European Spaniards, 15,157 Chinese, 46,066 Chinese mestizos (or half-breeds), 3849 Spanish mestizos, and 160,896 pure natives. In 1880 special dues were imposed on the trade of the port for the construction of a new harbour, namely, 2 per cent, on imports, 1 per cent, on exports, tonnage dues, and a tax on fishing boats. Up to the time of the American occupation a large sum had been collected, but comparatively little progress had been made with the works. Tramways run in the principal streets of the city, and a railway to Dagupan was opened to traffic through- out its entire length, 123 miles, on the 23rd November, 1892. There is also a steam road to Malabon; and electric lights have been laid in the public squares and walks, in the business houses, and in the principal streets. There are a marine arsenal and a patent slip at Cavite, on the opposite side of the Bay, The city and its suburbs receive their drinking water by pipes leading from Santalan, on the river Pasig. The water is carried to fountains, distributed in con- venient places through the streets, whence the inhab- itants may draw for their domestic needs. The telephone system extends throughout the city and out as far as Malabon. Manila possesses many educational and charitable institutions, among others the Eoyal and Pontifical University of St. Thomas, which is managed and maintained by the Dominican Fathers. In this there are schools of theology and church law, juris- prudence, notarial law, medicine, and pharmacy. The College of St. Thomas, which belongs to the University, maintains forty free scholarships for Spanish boys, who may pursue both primary and advanced studies. The College of San Juan de Letran, also under the Domi- nicans, devotes itself to the education of natives, and 310 THE PHILIPPINES this college, as well as the other, is provided with an abundance of select scientific materials and with good physical and chemical outfits and exhibits and museums ot natural history and fine arts. The College of San Jose (St. Joseph) gives instruction in medicine and pharmacy. The Orphan Asylum of Cambobong, founded by the Ladies' Union at Manila in 1882, is in charge of the Augustinians and imparts elementary and advanced instruction and qualifies boys for clerical situations both in public and business offices. The Mandaloya Orphanage, likewise under the care of the Augustinians and of the sisters of that order, gives to its inmates elementary instruction and teaches them household duties and other accomplishments suited to their sex. The St. Joseph's Home, founded in 1810, gives shelter to poor and demented children. The Hospital of San Juan de Dios, founded by the Brotherhood of Miseri- cordia in 1595, cares for whatever invalids present themselves. It has six physicians, one pharmaceutist, one lady superior, twenty-two sisters, two chaplains, one head nurse, eight resident medical students, and the number of other qualified assistants that the service requires. The Hospital of San Lazaro, founded in 1578 by the Franciscan order, is for the care of leprous patients. The Manila Monte de Piedad and Savings Bank, organised in 1880, is designed, first, to receive pledges of furniture, jewellery, and household articles, against which it lends money at the rate of six per cent, per annum, and, secondly, to receive savings deposits, on which it pays four per cent, per annum. It has several branches. There are three banks in Manila, the Banco EspaEol Filipino, the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China, and the Hong- kong and Shanghai Bank, the last of which has also a branch in Iloilo. There are numerous social societies, among which are the Spanish Casino, the Musical Society of the Philippines and of Saint Cecilina, the Manila and Nagatayan Club with a branch in San Gabriel, the German Union Casino, the Mariquina Gun ILOILO 3 1 1 Club, the Gun Club of San Juan del Monte, the Manila Jockey Club, the Manila Lawn Tennis Club, and the Cycle Club of Manila. The city is at present under military Government. ILOILO This port, which is the chief town of the populous province of the same name in the island of Panay, is situated in lat. 10 deg. 48 min. W., near the south- eastern extremity of the island, close to the sea, on the border of the narrow channel formed by the opposite island of Guimaras. The town is built principally on low marshy ground, partly fronting the sea and partly along the left bank of a creek, or inlet, which runs towards Jaro, and after describing a semicircle again meets the sea near Iloilo. Although the principal seaport and seat of the government of the province, Iloilo is much smaller than many towns in its vicinity. The harbour is well protected, and the anchorage good, the island of Guimaras forming a sheltered passage. The depth of water on the bar at the entrance to the creek or river Iloilo is about five fathoms at low water, but at a short distance within it decreases to fifteen feet and then deepens again. At spring tides the whole town is covered with water, but notwithstanding this, it is a very healthy place. The high ground of Guimaras forms a kind of funnel with the Panay shore, and the result is that a calm is of rare occurrence, there being almost always a breeze of some kind. The N.E. breeze blows very strongly. It is much cooler in Iloilo than in Manila. The better class of houses in Iloilo are built on strong wooden posts, two or three feet in diameter, that reach to the roof, stone walls to the first floor, with wooden windows above and an iron roof. The poorer class of dwellings are flimsy structures of nipa, built on four stout posts. The means of com- munication with the interior are still very inadequate, and retard the development of the port, 312 THE PHILIPPINES The principal manufacture in Iloilo for local con- sumption and export to Manila is that of pina, a cloth very finely made from the fibre of the pineapple leaf. Another cloth called jusi is woven from siJi, and is made in white and colours. The country round Iloilo is very fertile and is extensively cultivated. The annual crop of sugar is estimated at about a million piculs. Tobacco is also largely cultivated. Eice is grown on a considerable scale, but locusts are very plentiful in the island, and often do great damage to the cane and paddy. Typhoons frequently work great havoc. Earthquakes, however, seldom occur. Iloilo is about 250 miles distant from Manila. The principal traders are Chinese mestizos, who are very numerous in the port. The island of Negros is extremely fertile and con- tributes three-fourths of the sugar shipped from Iloilo, the quality of which is excellent. On the 23rd December, 1898, the Spanish Governor- General resident in Iloilo resigned, giving over the care of the town to the Mayor or Alcalde of Iloilo, preparing with his troops and Government ofi&cials, naval, military, and civil, to evacuate the place, which on the 25th December was accomplished. On the 26th December, 1898, the town of Iloilo, which for over a month had been entirely surrounded on the land side by Eevolutionary forces, was delivered over to them by the Spanish Alcalde, and the Philippine Eepublic flag was hoisted on all the public buildings. On the 28th December, 1898, the United States forces, composed of the U.S.S. BcUtimorc and three transports with 3800 troops, under the command of Brigadier- General Miller, arrived in front of Iloilo, but did not land, as the Revolutionary forces declined to give up the town unless under orders from Aguinaldo, their chief. Affairs in Luzon having come to an open rupture between the United States and the Revolutionary forces, the General commanding the United States expedition advised the foreign Consulates that hostilities would [/'»;/<3 n\2. CEBU 313 commence after 5 a.m. on the 12th February, and on the morning of the 11th February, about 8.45 a.m., the first shot was fired. The Eevolutionary forces set fire to the city, leaving it almost in ruins, and retired outside the city limits. Iloilo was immediately occupied by the Americans. Business during 1899 has been curtailed to about one-third of its usual volume, due to the rigorous blockage of all ports now in Insurgent hands, and the outlook for 1900 looks far from promising. CEBU This is the capital of the island of Cebu, and ranks next to Iloilo among the ports of the Philippines. It was at one time the seat of the administration of revenue for the whole of the Bisayas, but this was removed to Manila in 1849. Cebu is a well-built town and possesses fine roads, but the people are devoid of commercial enterprise. The trade of Cebu consists principally of hemp and sugar. The neighbouring islands of Leyte, Mindanao, and Camiguin possess extensive hemp plantations, a large proportion of the produce of which finds its way to Cebu for shipment. There are some very valuable and extensive coal deposits in the island of Cebu, but the mines have not as yet been worked with any enterprise. BORNEO BOENEO After Australia this island is the largest in the world. It extends from about 7 deg. N. to 4 deg. S. latitude, and from 109 deg. to 118 deg. E. longitude. Its length is about 750 miles, its greatest breadth 600 miles, and its average breadth is estimated at 350 miles. Its vast interior consists of almost impenetrable forests, which teem with animal life, but are sparsely populated by man. The soil is fertile, and in some parts near the coast the land is marshy. It was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526, and they as well as the Spaniards, Dutch, and English formed settlements on different parts of the coast, but none of these were long main- tained. The Dutch claim sovereignty over the greater part of the south and west of the island, along the coast of which they maintain establishments ; the territories of the British North Borneo Company, the Sultan of Brunei, and the Eajah of Sarawak extend over and along the north and north-eastern coast. The native states are insignificant and in a backward condition. The total population of Borneo is roughly estimated at 3,000,000. The productions are many and varied, and the mineral resources believed to be great. The Chinese, who have been settled in most Bornean towns for genera- tions, conduct all the trading operations. The country generally is in an undeveloped condition. The natives are of the Malayan type, and are, as a rule, indolent and wanting in enterprise. A British Protectorate exists over Brunei, Sarawak, and the territory of the British North Borneo Company. 3 I 8 BORNEO SAKAWAK. The territory of Sarawak comprises an area of about 40,000 square miles, with a population of about 500,000, composed of various races. It is situated on the north- west coast of the island of Borneo, is intersected by many rivers navigable for a considerable distance inland, and commands about 400 miles of coast line. The sovereignty of the district from Tanjong Datu to the entrance of the Samaharan river was obtained from the Sultan of Brunei in the year 1842 by Sir James Brooke, who became well known as Eajah Brooke of Sarawak. In 1861 a second cession was obtained, from the Sultan of Brunei, of all the rivers and land from the Samarahan river to Kadurong Point; in 1882 a third cession was obtained of one hundred miles of coast line and aU the country and rivers that lie between Kadurong Point and the Baram river, in- cluding about three miles of coast on the north-east side of the latter ; and iu 1885 another cession was obtained of the Trusan river, situated on the north of the mouth of the Brunei river. In 1888 a British Protectorate was established, and in 1890 the Eajah took possession of Limbang, which was approved of by H.M. Government in August, 1891. The present Eajah, H.H. Sir Charles Johnson Brooke, g.c.m.g., is a nephew of Sir James Brooke, and was born 3rd June, 1829, succeeded 1868, married 1869 to Margaret de Windt. His heir— the Eajah Mudah — Charles Vyner Brooke, was born 26th September, 1874. The country produces diamonds, gold, silver, anti- mony, quicksilver, coal, gutta-percha, india-rubber, canes, rattans, camphor, beeswax, birds' nests, sago, pepper, and gambler. The principal towns are : Kuch- ing, the capital of Sarawak, situated on the Sarawak river, about 23 miles from its mouth, in latitude 1 deg. 32 min. N., longitude 110 deg. 38 min. E. (approximate). BRITISH NORTH BORNEO 319 Claude Town, the principal town and fort on the Baram river, is about 60 miles inland. Bintulu, situate at the mouth of the Bintulu river, is famous for its sago. Muka, a few miles up the river of that name, is also noted for its sago and bilian timber, Oya, which lies about \\ miles up the Oya river, and Matu, about 5 miles up the Matu river, are both noted for their sago. Sibu is situated about 60 miles, Kanowit about 100 miles, -and Kapit about 160 miles up the Eejang river. Eejang village, at the mouth of Eejang river, is noted for its Bilian (iron-wood) works. Kabong is situated at the mouth of the Kalaka river. Saribas lies about 80 miles up the river of the same name, which has a tidal wave or bore. Simang-gang is about 60 miles up the Batang Lupar river, which also has a bore. Simunjan is situated about 18 miles up the Sadong river, where the Government work a coal mine. Trusan is about 18 miles up the Trusan river, and Limbang about 10 miles up the Limbang river, the latter river being noted for its sago. There is a military force which is armed, equipped and drilled after the English model, the interior economy in barracks of the English Army being closely followed. The fort at Kuching is well armed with modern Armstrong B.L. guns, and provision is made for submarine mines. The force is recruited from Sepoys, Malays, and Dyaks. Harbour, buoy, and light dues : — Three cents per ton, payable on arrival, and chargeable to all vessels of 5 tons and upwards. BRITISH NORTH BORNEO This territory, formerly known as Sabah, situated at the northern end of the island of Borneo, has a coast line of about 500 miles. The population is supposed to number about 120,000, which includes about 10,000 Chinese. The chief geographical feature in the territory is the mountain of Kina Balu, about 13,698 feet high. 320 BORNEO The principal river on the West coast is the Padas ; on the East there are the Kinabatangan, Labuk, Sibuku, Sugut, Segama, and many others. The best harbours are those of Gaya on the West coast, Kudat on the North, and Sandakan on the East. The climate is particularly pleasant for the tropics ; the days are rarely very hot, while a blanket is often required at night; and very little inconvenience is experienced from insect pests, such as mosquitoes and the like. Hurricanes, earthquakes, and other natural disturbances are unknown. The seas are teeming with fish, and the prospects of an export trade in dried and salted fish are encouraging. Trade with Hongkong, especially in timber, is well established, and steamers for Hongkong and Singapore, whence the majority of the trade supplies are obtained, are frequent. Amongst the zoological productions of North Borneo are to be noted elephants, rhinoceros, deer of three kinds, wild cattle, pigs, bears, etc. There are pythons of 20 feet and upwards in length ; but other snakes, particularly poisonous varieties, are very rare. Of game birds there are a few — argus, fire back, and Bulwer pheasants, three sorts of partridges, many pigeons and doves, snipe, and quail. Sandakan has a magnificent harbour and is the chief place of trade. The imports include cloth, rice, hard- ware, manufactured goods of all kinds, opium, Chinese tobacco, Chinese coarse crockery, matches, biscuits, oil, sugar, etc. The chief exports are tobacco, timber, cutch and rattans, gutta-percha, india-rubber, birds' nests, seed pearls, trepang, sharks' fins, camphor, cutch, tortoiseshell, dried cuttle-fish, beeswax, and other natural products, which are brought in from the interior, the neighbouring Sulu Archipelago, etc. The imports for the whole colony for 1898 amounted to $2,419,097, as compared with $1,887,498 in 1897 and $1,882,189 in 1896; and the exports to $2,881,851, as compared with $2,942,293 in 1897 and $2,420,234 in 1896. The revenue in 1898 (exclusive of $2214, land sales) was BRITISH NORTH BORNEO 32 I $503,307, and in 1897 $436,063, and the ordinary- expenditure was $387,261 and in 1897 $341,125, extra- ordinary expenditure on capital account in 1898 being £324,533. Tobacco-planting promises to become a great and profitable industry, and the tobacco already raised obtains a ready sale at very high prices. Coffee- planting is being taken up, and gambier, cotton, Manila hemp, and sugar are receiving attention from Europeans, as well as from natives and Chinese. Cutch is ex- tracted from mangrove barli and is being exported in increasing quantities. The population of the town of Sandakan, the capital of the territory, was 7132 in 1891, of whom 131 were Europeans and 3627 Chinese. On the west coast a short line of railway is being con- structed, running inland from Brunei Bay to open up the interior of the country, and it is intended ultimately to carry it across the island to St. Lucia Bay. Sandakan became connected telegraphically with Labuan on the 7th May, 1897, and was thus placed in communication with Europe, etc. The territory of British North Borneo was acquired from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu by cession for a small annual payment in 1879-80, and the British North Borneo Company was incorporated by Eoyal Charter on the 1st November, 1881. The area of the territory is 31,106 square miles, and the population is estimated at about 150,000, of whom about 200 are European. In May, 1888, a British Protectorate was established. The following of&cers have administered the Government of the Territory since its acquisition by the Company :— 1881-1887, W. H. Treacher; 1887- 1888, W. M. Crocker (acting); 1888-1891, C. V. Creagh, c.m.g. ; 1891-1892, L. P. Beaufort (acting) ; 1892, C. V. Creagh, c.m.g. ; 1895, L. P. Beaufort ; 1900, Mr. Hugh Clifford. 32 2 BORNEO LABUAN This, the smallest British Colony in Asia, was ceded to Great Britain by the Sultan of Brunei in 1846, and taken possession of in 1848. It is situated on the north-west coast of Borneo in latitude 5 deg. 16 min. N., and longitude 115 deg. 15 min. E. It has an area of 30^ square miles, and is about six miles from the Borneo coast. Although Labuan possesses a fine port, has extensive coal deposits, and by situation seemed likely to become a depot for the trade of the north coast of Borneo, it has only partially fulfilled the expecta- tions formed of it. The produce of Brunei finds a market in Labuan, but the volume of the trade is small. There are three sago manufactories on the island, where the raw material is converted into flour, for export chiefly to Singapore. The Government is now ad- ministered by the British North Borneo Company, having been handed over to it by the Imperial Govern- ment in 1889. The population in 1890 was 5853, of whom 25 were Europeans and 17 Eurasians, the re- mainder being chiefly Chinese and Malays. The Chinese, who number over a thousand, are the chief traders, and most of the industries of the island are in their hands. There are over thirty Europeans now, including Government Officials, the staff of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company, the Coal Point mines and traders. The New Central Borneo Company are lessees of the Coal Mines in the isltmd, and are de- veloping a considerable trade in the coal, which is largely supplied to H.M.'s ships. The revenue is chiefly derived from the farming out of licences to sell tobacco, spirits, opium, and fish. INDEX The main rtfei'ence to any pa^-ticular place is shown by the number of page being in darker type. PAGE Aberdeen 198 Abra 305 Aoheen 289 Agbas 305 Ajikawa river . . .30 Alas 296 Albay 305, 306 Alhabat 305 Amboina 288 AUERIOA : Philippine Islands . . 30 Amot 92, 162 Anambas islands . . 279 Angkor ... . . 236 Anhwei 63, 131 Annam . . . 164,221,228 ANPDfQ .... 36, 39 Asakusa temple .... 22 Assahan 297 Ayuthia 242 Babuyanes 305 Bagan Api Api .... 298 Balabao 305 Balanguingi 305 Bali 283 Bamboo Town .... 160 Banda 288 Bangkok . . . . 243 Bangkolem 244 Banka 284, 289 Bantam 281 Bantayan .... 305 Banton 305 Baram river Baros . Bataaa Batak. Batanes . Batanga's Batang Lnpar r Batang Padang Batavia . . Batjan Battambang . Batu Gajah . Batu Pabat . Belawan Deli Belcher Bay . Belcher Point Bencoolen Bengkalis Benguet . Bentang river Bernam river Bernang . Betel Nut Island Bhamo Bienhoa . Billiton . . Binondo . Bintang . . Bintula . Bisilan . Bluff Hills . Bohol . . . Bonthain Peak Bontoo BOBNEO . . PAGE . 318 . 288 . 305 . 296 . 305 . 306 319 . 273 . 290 . 284 . 236 . 275 . 266 . 298 . 198 . 207 . 289 . 298 305 . 268 275 . 270 . 262 117, 174 . 231 284, 289 . 307 . 279 . 319 . 305 . 25 . 305 . 295 . 305 279, 317 324 INDEX BoMrrington , . . , British Nortb Bobneo Broughton Bay . Brunei Bay . Buentua . . BnlTENZORG . Bukit Berapit . Bukit BerembuD Bukit Ghandon . Bukit Meratjam Bulaoan , Burgevine, American Burias .... Gaburao . Cagayan . Calamianes Camalig . Gamaiines Caubodia Gamiguin Oamote . Canton . Gape Evelyn Capiz . Garimons Islands Gasiguran Gatanduanes . Cavite . . Cebu . Celebes Chandoo . Changchau . Ghang-chow-fu Changsha Changteh. . Ghao-To . . Gharil Ohefoo . . Ghekiang. Ghemor . Ohemdlfo Ohenglin . Cheng Wang Oheribon . Cheung Ghau Ghien-tang river Ghihli . . Chikhom . . Kow PAGE 193 319 49 321 305 292 275 270 274 276 305 97 805 . 305 :J05, 806 . 805 . 306 . 305 221, 236 305, 313 . 805 63, 156 . 177 . 87 . 805 266, 284 . 305 . 305 . 309 . 313 279 232 63 153 137 137 164 216 84 63 275 46,48 1S8 80 288 20.'i , 143 63, 70 166 Dagupan . . Dauis . Davao Bislig. Deep Bay Deep-water Bay Defence Greek DeU . . . Deshima . Dindings, The Djogjokarta . Donnai river . Dragon river Duiagat Asgfio East cliff . . Eastern Siberia East India Co. East Point . Emma Haven China Government and Bevenne, 60 ; Population, 62 ; Army and Navy, 64; Trade 65. Chin -chew . . Chinese Kowloon Ching Chow . . Chingtao . Chingtu . Ohinkianq . Chinnampo . Chin Shih Huang Cholon . . Christmas Island Chuenpee Chu-kiang river ChuUa . . Chung-chong Chungking . Chusan Island Claude Town Cochin China CoBos Islands Colowan . Conception . COBEA . . Cua Cam river 215 . lei . 164 . 87 63 29, 117, 128 . 52 . 164 235 . 249 . 180 . 156 43,52 43 141 . 145 . 319 221, 231 . 249 217 305 43 . 226 . 309 305 . 305 . 161 190 92 . 297 33 249 . . . 294 . . . 232 . . l.">2 . 305 . . 81 . . 3 145, 149, 156 . . 198 . . . 295 Federated Malay States Feng-tai . , . 267 76 INDEX 325 PAGB Fly Point ... 207 Foki 38 Fohkien 63 FoocHOW .... 63, 92, 149 Fooniang 161 Formosa 11, 35 Fbance : Kwaiigchauwan,166; Ton- kin, 221; Hanoi, 225; Haiphong, 226; Annam, 228 ; Hue, 228 ; Tou- rane, 229 ; Quinhon, 231 ; Cochin-Cliina,231 ; Saigon, 231 ; Cholon, 235 ; Cambodia, 236. Fuego . . . Fuh-ohaw-fu Fuho Bapids. Fuji-san peak . Fukagawa Fuk Tsun Heung FUNING-PU . FtJSAN . . . 305 149 165 25 21,23 203 148 46,51 Gajoo 296 Gap Rook 191 Gaya 320 Generallsland .... 305 Genghoi 242 Gensan 49 George Town .... 262 Gebmaki Kiaochau 87 Giadinh 231 Great Britain : Wei-hai-wei, 86 ; Kowloon, 160; Hongkong, 178; Singapore, 250 ; Ma- lacca, 259 ; Penan g, 261; Federated Malay States, 267 ; Pahang, 267; Negri Sembilan, 269 ; Selangor, 270 ; Perak, 273 ; British North Borneo, 319 ; Labuan, 322. Great Cloud Mountain . . 164 Green Island .... 205 Guimaras 311 Guinobatan 306 Hai-duong 226 Hai Kwan Tze Arsenal . 75 Haimun Island .... 152 Hainan Island . Haining . . . . Haiphong . . . Haiso Sha Ferry Hakodate . . Hakone Mountains Ham-Kiung . Hangchow . Hankow , . 168 . 143 222, 226 . 94 11,28 . 24 . 43 63, 143 76, 92, 134 Hanoi 224, 225 Han river . . 43, 46, 134, 154 Hanyang . . .44, 46, 135 Hatien 232 Heang-shan Island . . . 216 Hinlap 243 Hiroshima 11 HoiHOW . .... 168 HoKOW 162, 172 Hokkaido-cho .... 11 Holland: Batavia, 290 ; Buitenzorg, 292; Soerabaia, 293; Semarang, 294 ; Pa- dang, 294 ; Macaseer, 295 ; Sumatra East Coast, 295. Honan 63 Hon-Do Island .... 226 Hongay 222, 224 Hongkew . . .93, 110, 116 Hongkong 177 History and Government, 178 ; Finance, 189 ; In- stitutions, 196; Indus- tries, 198 ; Population, Defences, etc., 206 ; Climate, 207; Trade, 210. Honjo 21, 23 Honsbiu 15, 25 Hsiao Sha Ferry ... 94 Hfibei 38 Hufe 228 Hunan . 63 Hungham 207 Hupeh 6.3,134 Hwae river 74 Hwang-po river .... 89 Y 3 326 INDEX Hwasang Htoqo PAGE 131 30 lOHANO 140 Idzumi.nada river ... 31 Ikushunbetsu . . .29 Iloido 305,311 Inchiun 48 Indo-Gbina .... 221 Indragiri 295 Infanta 305 Inland Sea 31 Ipoh 275 Iseza Kicho 26 Jakatra 281 Japan 9 Government, 9 ; Revenue, 11 ; Army and Navy, 13; Population, Trade and Industry, 15. Jaro 311 Jelebu 269 Jelei 268 Jempol 269 Jekchuan .... 45, 48 Jeram Batang .... 268 Jinsen 48 Johol 269 JOHOBE ... 265 Johore river 265 Junck Salong .... 241 Kabang 268 Kabong 319 Kadurong Point . . 318 Kaifung 63 Kajeli 288 Eakupang 94 Ealaka river 319 Kalian Mas 268 Eamunting 275 Kanagawa 25 Kang-wea ... 43 Kanowit 319 Eansuh 63 Kao Ohang-Miao . . 99, 117 Eao-ping river .... 170 Kapit 819 Karimon Islands . 279 Kashgar 117 Kawas .... PAQB . 174 Eebao .... 222,224 Keeling Islands . . . 249 Kellet's Island . . . 205 Kelumg .... 36, 37, 38 Kema . 288 Keng Tung . . 173 Elennedytown . . 198 Ke-sho .... . 224 Keweiang . . 133 Kiang Ning Pu . . . 129 Kiang Peh-ting . 142 Eiangsi . . . . 63 Kiangsu .... 6 3, 28, 126 KlAOOHAn . . . 87 Kilian Mas . . 293 Kimpai Pass . . . 151 Kinabatangan river . 320 Kinchow . . . . 76 King-hsien . . . . 131 Kin Ling . . . . 129 Kinmun Island . . 153 Kinta river . . 273 Kin-t6-chSn . . . . 133 KiTIEIANG . . . . 133 Kiukong .... 39 Kiung-kei . . . 43,46 Kinng-sang . . . 43,51 Kinsbiu .... 15,35 Kiang .... . 271 Kobe 30 Koepang .... . 288 Koh-si-chang Island . 245 Kongkun . . . . 162 Korat .... . 243 Kowloon .... . 160 Kowlonn Bay . . . 180 Kuangbsin , . 164 Kublai Khan . . . 148 Kuching .... . 319 Kudat .... . 320 Kulangsu Island . . 153 Kuliang .... . 150 Knmamoto . . . 34 KungPak . . . . 161 Kunlung Ferry . 174 KUNSAN .... 63,54 Kwala Kangaa . 274 Kwala Kubu . 272 Kwala Langat . . 271 Kwala Lumpur . . 271 INDEX 327 PAGE Kwala Pilah. . . .269 Kwala Selangor. . . . 271 Kwangohau Bay . . 166 KWANGOHAUWAN . 166 Kwangsi 63 Kwangtung . . . 63 Kweichau 63 Kweiyang 63 Kwelin 63 Kyoto 9, 10 Labuan 322 Labuk river 320 Laguna 305 Lai Mountains .... 241 Lalak 274 Lamma 205 Lampacao Island . . 215 Lampongs .... 289 Lanchow . . . 63 Langkat 297 Langeon 224 Lantao ... . . 205 Laokay 117,171 Laos 221 Lappa 161 Larnt 274 Lepanto 305 Leyte 305,313 Liang-kia-yuan .... 79 Lianpo 215 Liao river 82 Liao-tung,Gulfof ... 82 Peninsula . . 83 Liau Tung, Gulf of . . 76 Lienchau 167 Ligao 306 Lilian 216 Limbang 219 Ling'gi river 269 Iiintin 161 Lipis 268 Liukungtao Island ... 86 I/xx;hoo Islands ... 10 Losing Island .... 151 Lotus Hills 81 Lubok China .... 270 Luciara 303 Luet 268 Lu Han Railway . . .135 LuiKong 39 PACK LtiNGCHOW .... 170, 224 Lupac 305 Luzon Island .... 301 Ly-ee-mun Pass 191, 201, 202, 207 Macao . . ... 215 Macasbeb 295 Madoera 284 Maestro de Campo . . 305 Malabon 309 Malacca 259 Malay States ... 196 Malow-chow 161 Mambulao 305 Mamoi Arsenal .... 151 Manchuria ...... 63 Manohurian Railway . 83 Man-hao ... . . 171 Manila 307 Mapu 48 Marble Mountains . . . 231 Marianas 305 Marinduque 305 Masbate 305 Ma Wan 205 Medau 296 Megasaki 34 Mekong river .... 232 Menado 288 Menam Valley .... 241 Mencayan ... . 305 Meng Lein 174 MfiNQTSZ 171 Milanao 306 Minato river .... 31 Mindanao .... 306, 313 island ... 301 Mindoro 305 Min-ngan Pass . . . 150 Miu river 149 MirsBay 161 Misamis 305 Miyagi 11 Mogi 33 Moji 34 MoKPo 62 Mongolia 63 Morong 305 Mororan . . ... 29 Moung Hou 173 Mount Elgin ... 203 328 INDEX Mount Ophir Salak Seeama Sylna Unzen PACK 268 290 268 36 34 95 319 Muddy Flat, Battle of . Muka Myk-W 230 Mytho 231 Nagasaki .... 1 1, 33 Nagoya II Namdinh 226 Kamoa Island .... 154 Kamtao 92 Nanchang 63 Nanhsi river .... 172 Nanking . . 63, 92, 117, 129 Nan-ling 131 Nanning 168 Nantai 150 Natoeaa Islands . . . 279 Negri Sehbilan ... 269 Negros Island . 301, 305, 312 Netheblands India . . 279 Area, Population, 279 ; History and GoTem- ment, 280 ; Climate, 282 ; Products, 283 : Bevenne, 285; Trade, 288. Newchwang . . 76, 80, 82 New Eclja New Guipuzgou New Viscaya NganMn . . NiCOLAJEWSK Ning-kuoh-fu NiNGPO . . . Joss house Noire river . • North Camarines North Ham-kiung North llocos . North point . Oedjoeng Okawa nver Okinawa . . . One Tree island Osaka . . . 305 305 305 63 5 131 92, 146 92,98 223 305 54 305 207 293 21 10 205 10, 11, 29 I PASS Otaru 29 Ow-kiang river .... 147 I Oya 319 I Oyarzal 305 I Padano 29ft Padas river 320 Pahang 267 Pakhoi 167 Pampanga 305 Pauaroekan 293 Panay Island .... 301 Pangaainan 305 Pangkalan Brandan . . 298 Pangkor Island .... 275 Fantai 270 Panti 266 Pao-ting-fu 76 Pappenberg .... 33 Paracale 305 Paraquay 305 Pasig river 307 Patani 268 Pearl river 156 PechUi, Gulf of . . 77, 79, 86 Pe Chi river 152 Pei-ho river . . . . 71,78 Pei-Tai-Ho 79 Pekan 267 Peking 63, 71 Pelambang 289 Penang 261 Pengerang 266 Pengkalan Eompas . . 270 Pebak 273 Petit Lao 225 Peton 38 Pettab HUl 81 Philiffines 301 Phu-Lang-Thnong . ... 224 Ping-an 43 PingChau 205 Pingohiao 109 PiNG-TANO 63 Plus river 273 Pnom-penh 237 Pokfolum 201 Polangui 306 Polillo 305 Pootung . . . .94,112 Port Abthtr ... 82, 8S INDEX 329 PAGE Port Dickson . . . 264, 270 Port May 3 Port Weld 275 Portugal : Macao 215 Possession Point . . . 177 Prai 276 PrayaWall 184 Prince of Wales island . 261 Principe . .... 305 Pbovinoes de L'Annam . 229 Province Wellesley . 249, 261 Prye river 262 Pulan Kobob .... 266 Pulo Condor islands . 231 Punjom 268 Pusan . .... 51 Quang-nam 230 Quang-ngai . ... 230 Quemoy island .... 153 QUINHON 231 Eaub 268 Bed river .... 172, 225 Bejang river . . 319 Bembau 269 Biouw .... 279, 288 Bocky Point 81 Bomblon 305 Bose island 48 BusaiA : Vladivostock, 3; Nioola- jewsk, 5 ; Port Arthur, 83 ; Talienwan, 83. Sabah : river. Saigon . . Sainam . St. John's Island St. Lucia Bay Saiwan SaMe river . Samaharan . Samar Samsah Basin Samshui . . Sam Shui Po Samun San-choan . 319 . 319 232, 234 . 162 . 215 . 321 . 202 . 48 . 318 . 305 . 148 . 162 . 203 . 161 . 215 PAGE Sandakan 320 San-Ho-Pa . ... 154 San Miguel 307 Santalan 309 Santd 148 Sapan 305 Sapporo 29 Sarawak ... . 318 Saribas 319 Segama river 320 Selangoh 270 Selepin 268 Seluang . . . . 266 Semantan .... 268 Semarang 294 Seoul 43,46 Serdang 297 Seremban 269 Settsu 29 Setul 270 Shamchuu 204 Shameen 158 Shakqhai 88 History, 92 ; Government, 99 ; Finances, 103 ; Population, 105; Cli- mate, 107; Industries, 116 ; Trade, 121. Shanbaikwan .... 76 Shankiwan 198 Shansi .... 63 Shantung 63 Shasi ... ... 139 Shayuchung ... . 161 Shek. 202 Shensi 63 Sheung Tsun .... 204 Shiba 23 Shikoku 15 Shing-king 82 Shui Hing Gorge ... 163 Siak 297 SiAM 241 Siang river 137 Siang-tan 137 Siberia, Eastern . . 3 Siboga 288 Sibu 306,319 Sibuku river 320 Sibuyan 305 Sicawei . ... 93, 96 33° Sigan . . . Si-kiang river Biluauga . Simang-gang SinipaDg , . SimuDJan SlNGAPOHE . Singkel . Siquijor . BOERABAIA . So-Kimpo Song Chin . . Songkoi river Song-ma river . . SOOCHOW .... creek . Sorsogon .... Southern Ilocos . . South Ham-EiuDg . Sri Menanti . Stanley .... Stonecutter's island. Straits Settlements Sugut river Sulphur Channel Sulu . . . Sumatra, East Sumida river Sunday island Sung-obi river Sungei Besi . Sungei Lemblng Sungei Ujong Suriago . Suyne SWATOW . . Szechuen . SZEMAO . INDEX Coast Tablas . TaiLu Lake . Tai Kok Tsui Tainan . . Taipa . . . Taipeh . Taiping . Taipobu . Tai River Taishan . Taiwan . . Talyuen . . PAGE 63 162 . 305 . 319 . 293 . 319 260 . 288 . 305 282,293 . 199 . 54 . 225 . 223 97, 126 89, 109 . 305 306 49 269 201 . 205 . 249 . 320 207 305 OF 295 21,23 140 170 272 268 269 305 305 164 63 178 92. 305 126 199 37,39 217 37 273 204 81 161 36 68 Takow Taku . Talienwan Bay Talom Tamao Tambelan islands Tambin . Tampin . . Tamsui . Tandjong Balei . Datu . Pagar Poera . Prick . Tanjong Bambntan Tanjong Bboo . Tarlac . . . Tatung inlet. Tayabaa . Tekoham . Teluk Anson. Teluk Eertang . Tengquil . Temate . Thaipeng Thnanan . Tientsin . . . Timor. . . . Tjiliwong Tokyo . . . Tong-Koo . . Tongnai . Tong Shan . . Tonkin . TOURAME . Toutaboree . Trans-Siberian Bail way Triang river . Tringganu . Truong Tien river . Trusan Ts'angWu . . . . Tsim-taa Tsui Tsinan Tsing I Tsugaru Straits . . . Tuli Tumen river .... Tungku Tangting Lake . 136, PAOE 36,89 77,78 . 83 . 82 . 268 . 215 . 279 . 269 . 269 37,88 . 298 . 318 . 254 . 298 . 291 . 276 . 254 . 305 . 52 . 305 . 37 . 275 . 274 . 305 '. 288 . 275 . 222 74,79 . 279 . 290 10,21 . 181 51 . 76 221,224 222,289 . 242 82,83 . 268 . 267 . 228 . 319 . 164 203, 207 . 63 . 205 . 28 . 306 49,54 . 79 142, 164 INDEX 331 PAGE Tung-TsiGate .... 131 Tytam Tuk 202 Tz'ohu-lin 79 Ulu Langat . . . 271 Ulu Sapetang .... 275 Ulu Selangor . . . .271 Union 305 United States: Philippines, 301; Ma- nila, 307; Iloilo, 311; Oebu, 313. Uyeno ... . 23 Vaioo river Victoria . Victory Bay Vinhlong Visayas . Vivero Vladivostook Waglan Island Wanchai . Wei-hai-wei WSnohow West river . Whampoa Whang-hai . Whang-poo River Wong Chune Chow Wong-nai Ohung WONSAN . . . Woosung river . Wuchang 232 191 83 232 305 305 3 . 190 193 12, 86 . 147 . 162 160 . 43 94 . 205 189, 201 . 49 89 63, 134 WUOHOW-FD WUHU PAGE 162, 211 . 181 Yang-king-pang river . 94, Yangtsze river . Yangtsze Valley : Shanghai, 88; Soochow, 126; Chin-Kiang, 128; Nanking, 129; Wuhu, 131; Kewkiang, 138; Hankow, 134 ; Noc- how, 136; Shasi, 139; lohang, 140 ; Chung- king, 141 ; Hangchow, 143; Ningpo, 145. Yau-ma Ti . Yedo, Gulf of Yentai . Yezo . Yinq-tz 92 109 YOCHOW . Yokohama . , Bay of Y6-mak . Yong-Dang river Yueh .... Yuen river . YUBNSAN . Yung river . Yun Ho river Yunnan . . Zambales. Zamboanga 203 25 84 10,29 82 136 25 2.5 216 53 1G4 137 49 145 74 63 305 303 THE END PUINXED BY WILLIAM 0LOWE8 AND UONS, LIMITED, 8TAUF0RD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.