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HISTORY

OF THK

BRITISH COLONIES.

R, MONTGOMERY MARTIN, F.S.S.

MBMBKB OF TBB * ASIATIC* AND OF THB ' MBOICAL AND PHTSICAl.* tOGIBTIBS OF BSNOA&,
AVTHOB OF * TAXATION OF THB BBITISH BMPIBB j* OF THB ' POLITICAL,
FIVAKCIAL, AND COMXBRCIAL CONDITION OF THB AN0LO.BA8TBBN
BMPIBB ;' ' IBBLAND AS IT WAS — 18 — AND OUGHT TO BB) '

&C. &C.

IN FIVE VOLUMES.

VOLUME I.

i&econb ^bitiotu

POSSESSIONS IN ASIA.

' Far as the breeze can bear— the billowi foam—
Survey our Empire I*

LONDON:
JAMES COCHRANE AND CO.

11. WATEBI/K) PLACE, 1>AIX MALL.

MDCCCXXXT.

'7-

PRINTID BT W. NICOL, 51, VAU, MALL.

DEDICATION.

[FIRST EDITION.]

TO THE

KING^ MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY,

Sire,

In availing myself of Your Majesty^s gracious
permission to inscribe to the . Sovereign of the greatest
Colonial Empire in the World its first Colonial History, I
would desire to place on record, why that History is not
more worthy the patronage of tjie> Monarch to whom it is
dedicated, or more commensurate with the importance of th^
subject to which it refers. There is no paucity of materials.
Historical, Geographical, Statistic, or Pictorial. One-third
of an active life spent in travelling among, and investigating
the advantages of our transmarine possessions, either as an
officer in Your Majesty's Service, or as a private individual,
anxious to ascertain the vast resources of Britain, has fur-
nished me with the most abundant supply of data necessary
for an extensive National Work ; but. Sire, the little encou-
ragement afforded by Government to literature, even when

IV DEDICATION.

of the most useful description — added to the peculiar era in
which we live, forbids the publication of such a work. Never-
theless, to remedy in some slight degree, an acknowledged
blank in the History of our country, and in the earnest hope
that a period will ere long arrive when the study of causes
which influence the rise and fall of nations, will have its
supremacy vindicated over the local and fleeting considera-
tions which too generally sway the present age, I venture to
lay before your Majesty a brief, but yet lucid and compre^
hensive detail of facts, sufficient for the exercise of the
judgment, on the momentous questions connected with the
Possessions now under the Sovereignty of the British
Crown.

Sire, — ^The transmarine dominions of this insular King*
dom offer — to the Agriculturist measureless fields for pasture
and tillage ; — to the Manufacturer an incalculable extension
of the home market for the disposal of his wares ; — ^to the
Merchant and Mariner, vast marts for profitable traffic in
eveiry product with which Nature has bounteously enriched
the Earth ; — to the Capitalist an almost interminable site for
the profitable investment of his funds ; — ^and to the indus-
trious, skilfiil, and intelligent Emigrant, an area of upwards
two million square miles, where every species of mental in-
genuity and manual labour may be developed and nurtured
into action, with advantage to the whole family of man.
England — SiRE-^has no need to manufacture beet-root sugar
(as France)— her West and East India possessions yield an
inexhaustible profusion of the cane ; — ^grain (whether wheat,
barley, oats, maize or rice,) every where abounds; — ^her

DEDICATION. V

Asiatic, American, Australasian and African possessions con-
tain boundless supplies of timber, corn, coal, iron, copper,
gold, hemp, wax, tar, tallow, &c. ; — ^the finest wools are
grown in her South Asian regions; — cotton, opium, silk,
coffee, cocoa, tobacco, saltpetre, spices, spirits, wines and
fruits, are procurable of every variety and to any extent in
the East and in the West, in the North and in the South of
the Empire : — on the icy coast of Labrador as well as at the
opposite Pole, her adventurous hunters and fishers pursue
their gigantic game almost within sight of their protecting
flag ; and on every soil and under every habitable clime, Bri-
tons desirous of change, or who cannot obtain occupation at
home, may be found implanting or extending the language,
laws and liberties of their Father land. In fine, Sire, on this
wondrous Empire the solar orb never sets, — while the hardy
woodsman and heroic hunter on the St. Lawrence and Ottawa
are shivering beneath a wintry solstice, the peaceful, but no
less meritorious farmer and shepherd on the Kysna* and
Hawke8bury,f are rejoicing over the golden grain and fleece
of the Autumnal Southern clime, and every breeze that blows
from the Arctic to the Antarctic circles is wafting over the
unfathomable ocean myriads —

' Whose march is on the mountain wave,
Whoee home is on the deep.'

Sire, — ^Although adulation characterizes the present period,
I would not^ave sought the distinguished honour of dedicat-
ing to Your Majesty the following volume, did I not feel
assured that the friends of freedom all over the globe, are

• In the Cape of Good Hope territories.
+ In the New South Wales territories.

Vi DEDICATION^

bound to Your Majesty in ties of deep personal attachment
for the Regal support uniformly afforded to Civil and Reli-'
gious Liberty ; — that heartfelt feelings of respect and grati-
tude are due to a Sovereign whose anxiety for the public
weal has ever predominated over private considerations ; and
whose very limited powers in a Constitutional Monarchy have
been eirercised with even-handed justice. It is the duty —
the imperative obligation of every individual, however humble^
in a free state, to express conscientiously but calmly his
public opinions, for by such means truth is elicited ; hence, it
may be permitted the writer who has now the honour to ad-
dress Your Majesty, to observe, that the construction of
the British Empire at home and abroad, is now in a momen-
tous state of transition, the fruits of which are yet in the womb-
of time — Providence in making us the instruments of ulterior
events having wisely concealed them from human ken ; this
much, however, is evident, that to preserve the integrity of
the British Empire under a general or federal form of go^
vernment, the most prompt attention must be paid to its Co*
lonies, the intrinsic worth of which is neither understood nor
appreciated by the mass of the people. To Your Majesty's
Ministers, and to Parliament, the most remote Colonists now-
look with ardent anxiety, that they may be treated as the
citizens of a Kingdom undivided by any Ocean, — and. Sire,
if Nations will derive lessons from the past, the bulwarks of
England's Maritime Power and Oceanic Supr^acy, would
not be neglected until the danger had arisen of their being
irrecoverably lost. In the hope, therefore, of directing public
attention to the most remote, as well as to the nearest sections
of the British Empire, and in the belief that a fair eif position

DEDICATION. VU

of facts, divested of party feeling or local prejudices, will
receive from Your Majesty's Government, that just consi-
deration, which is all the Colonists require, I have the dis-
tinguished honour and gratification.

Sire,

To subscribe myself.

Your Majesty's dutiful subject,

R. MONTGOMERY MARTIN.

London,
Ui February, 1834.

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INTRODUCTION

TO THE SECOND EDITION

THE FIRST VOliUME

OF THE

HISTORY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES.

A SECOND edition of the first volume of the * History of the
British Colonies' was called for before the fourth volume had
issued from the Press ; in cheerfully complying with the de-
mandy I cannot refrain from otfering a few observations not
entirely irrelevant to the work, but which are far from being
prompted either by motives of vanity or of personal consi-
derations. I should be doing injustice to my own feelings —
and wanting in duty to the Colonies, were I to refrain from
expressing my deep sense of gratitude for the kindness I
have received from their Majesties, and from the several
branches of the Royal Family, — a kindness to which an enlight-
ened pubUc have added the testimony of their approbation.
Though I may not have deserved the high encomiums that
have been passed on my undertaking, — and though I feel
most sensibly my manifold deficiencies, I will not, under the
cloak of an affected humility, deny that in prosecuting to-
wards a completion the present work, I ardently sought to
merit in some degree, however slight, the patronage of my

X INTRODUCTION.

gracious Sovereign, by exerting every effort within my limited
power and circumscribed means to advocate the interests of
the transmarine Possessions of England, and to make the
condition, the wants and the sentiments of upwards of one
hundred million of British subjects known at the seat of go-
vernment. In truth I declare, that I much wish the task had
fellen to the lot of some more favoured individual ; — not that
I shrunk from the difficulty of keeping up the unremit^
ting toil of days — ^weeks — ^months, and I may add, years ;
but because I found how impossible it was to steer clear
of party feelings and selfish interests, without expressing
in strong language opinions on either adverse side ; I fear
that on some occasions I may have used too harsh expres-
sions while advocating the rights of the Colonists, but any
passages liable to the charge have been carefully expunged
in the present edition, and such alterations made as a more
matured judgment, and a calmer tone of thought may have
suggested.

I may be in error as to the mercantile value and political im-
portance of our transmarine possessions,-— if so it is an error
unbiassed by private considerations ; for I possess no interest
territorially or pecuniary in any colony — ^I am not engaged in
commerce — ^I hold no Government office — I have received no
Government aid, nor have I procured the patronage of any
individual or association — ^but looking only to public support
and approbation, I have tasked my understanding in vain to
find out wherein the alleged error lies, — and the reader will
find in my ' Colonial Policy' the arguments put forth against
colonies, fairly met and impartially considered apart from the
abuses to which the best institutions are liable.

In reference to the observation of lighter matters being

INTRODUCTION, XI

mixed up with graver details — ^herein lay one of my chief diflS-
culties ; a dry statistical work^ or abstract history of bygone
events^ woidd have obtained few perusers at the present day,
and the main object I had in view — ^namely to stimulate the
curiosity — and attract the minds of the British public towards
the Colonies would have been defeated ; I chose, therefore,
to incur rather the charge of frivolity than lose the opportu-
nity of doing good — ^I preferred gilding the pill when I could
even thus minister to the welfare of my country.

Ere I close this introduction, let me again entreat public
attention to the state of Hindostan, not only for the sake of
the Hindoos, but also as regards the prosperity of Britain. It
is suicidal for England to persevere in her present commercial
policy towards India ; by our past measures we have beg-
gared the best customer that our merchants, manufacturers
and traders had ever presented to them ; for example, esti-
mating the sum of money drawn from British India for the
last 30 years at £3,000,000 per annum, it amounts at 12 per
cent, (the Indian rate of interest) compound interest, to
4*723,997,971 Sterling; or if we calculate it at £2,000,000
per annum for 50 years — the abstraction of capital from Hin-
dostan amounts to the almost incredible sum of eight thousand
four hundred million pounds Sterling ! (£8,400,000,000).*

No country, however rich in territory, fertile in resources,
or industrious and numerous in population, could withstand
the desolating influence of such a constant and accelerating
drain on its circulating medium and wealth ; — we see its results

* Strictly speaking, the actual withdrawal of capital in the 50 years is
X 100^000,000; but had that vast sum beeu left in ludia, it would have
•fructified' in the pockets of the Hindoos, and produced as great, if not
a greater result than tliat mentioned in the text.

Xll INTRODUCTION,

in the mercantile failures which have taken place in Calcutta
alone within two or three years, amounting to £15,000,000
Sterling !

Why, the merchant princes of Venice or of the Medici,
were pedlars to these Anglo-Indian Houses, who have never-
theless, with the vast property attached to them, been ruth-
lessly annihilated, amidst the sorrowing tears of parents,
widows and orphans, who, by no fault of their own, have
been suddenly hurled from comparative aiRuence into biting
poverty — thrust forth on the charity of the world.

Oh ! that Englishmen would look more to their immense
possessions in Hindostan than they have yet done ; there is
nothing there repulsive to meet the eye, — the lust of conquest
has not desokited provinces, — nor the thirst of wealth plun-
dered kingdoms, — British taxes have not been expended in
adding dominion or vain glory to our diadem, but the hallow-
ed blessings of peace have followed the track of our footsteps
until in less than half a century an hundred million of brave,
intelligent, and comparatively civilized human beings are coik
gregated within the pale of this extraordinary Empire : Is it
not impious to spurn the manifold blessings attendant on an
event which almost realizes the wildest dream that an ambi-
tious imagination could form ? On the one hand, we behold a
small island in the Atlantic admirably adapted for commerce,
and possessing a hardy, industrious and skilful manufacturing
population ; — on the other, a vast territory, situate in a dis-
tant hemisphere, — with a soil exuberantly fertile — a varied,
and not ungenial clime — abounding in all the tropical pro-
ducts which the wants or luxuries of the Hyperborean can
require, — and teeming with myriads upon myriads of indus-
trious, patient and emulative human beings, whose love of

INTRODUCTION. Xlll

agriculture and trade is unsurpassed by any other nation.
It would appear as if nature herself had linked together the
Northern Isle and Eastern Continent imder the one Crown
for the wisest purposes, namely, that by the interchange of
commodities indigenous to each, the peaceful influence of com-
merce might become the handmaid of civilization — ^and thus
contribute towards the extension of the humanizing influence
of Christianity through the varied and numerous kingdoms
of the Asiatic Hemisphere. Let us hope that a new era is
dawning for England and for India; the latter offers to the
former an incalculable domestic market for the disposal of her
cottons, woollens, hardware, pottery, &c., and presents in re-
turn all the raw products which the most varied manufactur-
ing skill can require : but so long as the Island continues to
beggar the Continent by draining the latter of her circulating
medium, — forcing on her steam-wrought manufactures, and
refusing by means of prohibitory duties the simplest produc-
tions of her soil, so long as such policy be pursued the union
of the Northern Island and Eastern Continent is disastrous
for both ; — ^it is somewhat like the vulture preying on the liver
of Prometheus, with this exception, that though the appetite
of the one may grow by what it feeds upon, the power of the
other is becoming yearly less and less capab]||p of furnishing
the pabula of life.

Let me be excused for putting these views more £EimiUarly
before the public, — ^there are upwards of one hundred mil-
UON OP British subjects in India — (to say nothing of an^
other hundred mUlian of tributary, aUied, and protected Hin-
doos) ; if we dealt out commercial justice to these people,
their condition would be materially elevated — that is, if we
took from thence our raw cotton — our tobacco — our sugars—

XIV INTRODUCTION.

coffee, &c. &c,, they would be enabled in return to do that
which their poverty now alone prevents — namely to purchase,
largely our Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, Staffordshire, and
Birmingham wares. For instance*, if those 100,000,000 of
British subjects only took each a turban or a gown-piece
yearly, averaging for the rich and poor at so low as 10 yards,
and at 6d, per yard, the amount of exports in cotton goods
alone from England to India would be £25,000,000 sterling!
(For what our trade now is, see Chap. VI. on Commerce.) On
the other hand,' let us examine the article sugar, which the
continent offers to the island so abundantly, but which the
latter has heretofore, and still, virtually prohibits. The con-
sumption of sugar and sweets may be estimated at present,
among 26,000,000 inhabitants in the United Kingdom, at
4,000,000 cwt. or 448,000,000 lbs. weight, which would give
to each mouth 17 lbs. of sugar per annum, or 5 oz. per week,
a quantity which the youngest infant would consume. Now,
granting that the West Indies can continue to supply this
4,000,000 cwt. of sugar, which is, however, problematical,
there can be no doubt that it is possible to extend that
quantity ; so that any reduction of duty on the import of
sugar into England would go to benefit the West India
planter, and i$fit the British consumer, if the former wiere
still to retain a monopoly of the home market : but if the
source of supply (which heretofore has wilfully or neglect-
fully been forgotten) be extended, and the British posses-
sions in the East placed on a fair footing with those in the
West, the consumers in this country would derive not merely
the advantage of a reduction of import duties, but also (what
is of far greater value) the diminution of cost price, which
an extended competition is sure to produce. In such case,

INTRODUCTION. XV

there would be a vast augmentation in the consumption of
sugar: it is an article of general utility — grateful to the
young and the old, adapted to almost every article of nou-
rishment, and well suited for fattening animals as well as
men. It is by no means, therefore, hypothetical to assume
that, on an equalization and diminution of the duties on East
and West India sugars, the consumption consequent on re-
duced price would be extended from five ounces per head
per week in the United Kingdom, to at at least 15 ounces per
week ; and admitting that the West Indies continued to sup-
ply one-third the quantity (five ounces), and which they could
not extend, the possessions in the East Indies would readily
furnish the remaining two-thirds, or 896,000,000 lbs., which,
at a cost price of 2c{. per lb., would open up a new com-
merce for Hindostan of seven and a half million sterling
(£7,466,666. sterling). In a financial point of view, this ar-
rangement wo old be decidedly beneficial to the Chancellor of
the Exchequer, who would receive on 12,000,000 cwts. of
sugar, at I2s. per cwt. (which would be a duty high enough),
upwards of seven million sterling per annum (£7,200,000.),
while he does not now receive £5,000,000. ; and suppose the
duty levied at 15*. per cwt., he would receive £9,000,000.
p^ annum. With reference to the advantages that com-
merce would derive from such a change> we would have an
extended exportation of British manufactures to India, which
would be repaid in sugars, cotton, tobacco, silk, coffee, &c.

Referring the enquiring reader to my Second Volume,
Chapter XVI, for fuller details as regards the mode in
which the West Indies would be affected, and how this act
of justice and expediency should be met ; — and in the hope
that the Courts of Directors and Proprietors of the Honour-

XVI INTRODUCTION.

able East India Company will strenuously and unremittingly
pursue their laudable endeavours to obtain an equitable com-
mercial reciprocity for Hindostan^ instead of the one-sided
system of (so called)^ free trade^ which is still in operation^
I conclude with cordially thanking a generous Public and
an impartial Press for the encouragement afforded me to-
wards the prosecution of labours, the grand aim of which
is, the happiness and perpetuity of the British Empire.

It will be perceived that, in the present edition (the second), 100 pages
of new matter have been added above the number given in the former
edition ; and, in order to do thb, as well as to add several valuable manu-
script documents furnished by the E. I. House, Board of Control, Custom
House, Colonial Office, &c., a portion of what appeared in the first edition
is necessarily omitted ; viz. the chapter on China, the incomplete censuB
of India, and other documents given in the Appendix, which were before
printed rather to shew our lamentable ignorance of Indian statistics, and
to excite attention to the subject, than as being themselves of value. A
complete chapter has been given on the Hindoos, their character, institu-
tions, customs, &c. ; valuable additions have been made to the commercial,
religious, and educational portions of the volume ; and the returns of
the subsidized^ protected, and tributary chiefs of India are now, for the
first time, printed. A new general map, together with one of lower Bengal,
has been added, and no pains spared to render the work deserving of public
approbation.

*•* The Reader wiU occasionally perceive a discrepancy in the ortho-
graphy of some Oriental proper names, but that is an evil not to be avoided^
as the vowels are supplied arbitrarily by the ear of the European.

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
[Second Edition.]

Chaptbr L — Rise and process of the British power in Asia i Conquest
and formation of the Territories under the Presidencies of Bengal, Agra,
Madras, and Bombay ; and an account of the stipendiary Princes ; of the
subsidized and protected States, and of the tributary or feudatory
Chiefs, &c. - - - - --p. 1

CuAPTEB n. — Physical Aspect ; Geology, Climate, and Natural Produc-
tions ; embracing the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms, of the
Bengal, Madras, and Bombay Territories - - p. 67

Ghaptkr IIL — ^Population of British India ^ their numerical Amount
under the Bengal, Madras, and Bombay Presidencies ; Character, Bra-
very, Languages, Appearance, Costumes, Dwellings, Food and Drink,
Literature, Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music, Domestic Arts,
and Social Improvement, &c. - - - - p. 165

Chapter IV. — GoFernment (English and Indian) of Bengal, Agra, Madras,
and Bombay; Judicial, Police, Military, Marine, Medical and Ecclesias-
tical Establishments ; Patronage of the East India Company, &c. p. 257

Chaptib V. — ^The Financial and Monetary System of British India ; Pro-
duce for several years of the Opium, Salt, and Land Revenue ; different
SjKtems of Land Revenue, and aggregate Taxation ; Expenditure and
Debt of the three Presidencies, with the surplus, or deficit Revenue of
each since 1814 ; the Bank of Bengal ; Indian Debt ; Proportion held by
Europeans and Natives, &c. ... .p. 333

Chapter VI. — Commerce, Maritime and Internal of Bengal, Madras, and
Bombay ; Trade with Great Britiun, Continental Europe, and America,
China, Eastern Islands, &c. ; Staples of India, and suggestions for their
improvement and developement - - - p. 367

Chapter YII. — The Press ; Education and Religion, including the Hindoo,
Mnsselman, Parsee, Syrians, Jews ; Roman Catholics, and Established
Church, &c. : Slavery ; Crime in India and in England ; Social Aspect
and General Improvement of British India - . - p. 405

CONTENTS.

Chaptir Vin.— GeyloD, its Area, Physical Aspect, Climate and Kataral
Productions ; early History ; European Conquest and British Settlement ;
Population, Male and Female, White, F^ee, Black, and Slaves, in each
District ; Classification ; Boodhist Religion ; Civil Oovemment ; Judi-
cial Establishments ; Military Force, Revenue and Expenditure ; Govern-
ment and Missionary Schools ; Internal and Marine Commerce ; Sailing
Directions ; Social and Political Aspect, in a Military and Nautical View,
and advantages to Great Britun, &c. - - ' - p. 506

Chapter DC— Steam Navigation with India ; Plroposed Plan of Post Office
Steam Packets, via Madeira, St. Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Isle of
France, Ceylon, &c. ; Advantages and Disadvantages of the Red Sea and
Cape of Good Hope Route balanced ; computation of the Expense of
Twelve Steam Packets, &c. ... - p. 673

Chapter X.— -Penang, Malacca, and Singapore; their Locality, Area,
Physk»l Aspect, History, Population, Revenue, and Expenditure ; Go-
vernment, Commerce, Social Condition, and Political and General
Advantages, &c. - - - - p. 681

Chapter XI.— British Possessions in Asia in a Christian, Political and
Commercial point of view . . p. 60/

Appendix.— -Tables of the Allied, Tributary, and Protected Chiefs of
Hindostan ...... p. 616

Importations and Exportations of Bullion - - p. 630

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Political Map op India to face the Title

Map of Lower Bengal page 1

MAPofCETLON 606

Map of the Countries between Bengal and China . 681

' *- • »«•

HISTORY'

or THB

BRITISH COLONIES.

POSSESSIONS IN ASIA.

CHAPTER I.

RISB AND PROGRESS OF TBS BRITISB POWER IN ASIA — CONQUEST AND
FORMATION OF THE TERRITORIES UNDER THE PRESIDENCIES OF BBNQAL»
HADRAS AND BOMBAY — ^AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE STIPENDIARY PRINCES,
OF THE SUBSIDIZED AND PROTECTED STATES, AND OF THB TRIBUTARY
OR FEUDATORY CHIEFS, &C.

Thb British Empire on the continent of Asia is without a
parallel in the history of the World : a generation has scarcely
passed away* since a few English merchants skirted the coasts
of the far famed peninsula of Hindostan, as humble suppliants
to establish mercantile residencies on its fertile and wealthy
shores^ amidst myriads of brave and comparatively civilized
men : while within the brief space of half a century^ an active
and intelligent population of 100^000,000 souls, and a domi-
nion of upwards of one million square milesf of the richest por-

* The Devmny or Stewardship of Bengal and Bahar was finally ceded to
the East India Company in 1765.

f The total British territory under the immediate Government of the
Eaat India Company, Is 614,190 square miles (i. e. ten time*, the size of
England !) and the extent in square miles of British territory in India» and
of territories protected by Great Britain, is 1,128,800}.— [Par/rVun^n/drfy
Retunu, 1831 ] For details, see pp. 50 51.

S THE EARLIEST EUROPEAN ACCOUNT OF HIN0OSTAN.

tion of the earth, has been restored from unheard of anarchy
and bloodshed, to comparative order, peace and prosperity.

The earliest authentic European accoimt of Hindostan is
derived from Alexander's army which the Macedonian Chief
pushed across the different rivers of die Punjaub vdthout
however reaching the Ganges ; at this period a considerable
portion of India was subject to the Persian monarchy. Sub-
sequently the Hindoos became tributaries to the all-peryading
sway of the disciples of Mahomet, and finally subjects of the
victorious Moslems, who, headed by Timur or Tamerlane^
extended their conquests from the Irtish and Volga to the
Persian Ghilf, and from the Ganges to the Archipelago. A
century after the death of Tamerlane, the Portuguese ap-
peared on the coasts of India, having effected a passage to
the eastward by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, and thus
completely changed the European, route of commerce vdth
the Eastern Hemisphere, which had previously been carried
on by the Red Sea and Egjrpt, or by the Black Sea and Con-
stantinople. The example of the Portuguese was followed
by the Dutch, French, and English. Within less than a
century after the death of Timur, or Tamerlane, the Portu-
guese under Vasco De Gama arrived in India, and found the
west coast of Coromandel divided between two great sove-
reigns — the King of Cambay and the Zamorin ; by aiding
the petty princes who were dependent on the latter, the Por-
tuguese soon acquired a paramount influence on the Malabar
shore, and at the commencement of the 16th century secured
themselves in, and fortified Goa, which they made the capital
of their settlements and commerce in the Eastern seas, ex-
tending over the East coast of Afirica, the coasts of Arabia
and Persia, the two peninsulas of India, Ceylon, the Mol-
Juccas — ^^their trade even stretching to China and Japan. At
this period they levied tribute on 150 native Princes, and
claimed and exercised a power to sweep from the Indian seas
every European vessel that sailed without their permission.
Of this mighty dominion scarcely a vestige now exists. The
annexation of Portugal to the Crown of Spain, and the war

INCORPORATION OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY. 8

waged against the Hollanders, led to the Dutch^ who had
heretofore been content with the carrying trade between
Lisbon and the N. of Europe, proceeding to India ; and at
the commencement of the 17th century they became formida-
ble rivals of the Portuguese, stripping them first of Malacca
and Ceylon, then driving them from various settlements on
the Malabar coast, and finally usurping their place on the
shores of Coromandel. The enterprizing spirit of the English
was not long behind in establishing a trade in the Eastern
Hemisphere, and they were followed by the French, who
became the most powerful rivals of the former after the
dominion and trade of the Portuguese and Dutch had de-
clined.

Although it is not within the province of this work to enter
into details of the conquests of the Colonial possessions of
Britain, it is impossible to avoid bestowing a few pages in
explanation of the mode by which our acquisitions on the
continent of Asia were obtained, and for the better under-
standing of the subject, it will be necessary to consider the
Presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay separately,
(Agra Presidency is only a Lieutenancy of Bengal) as re-
gards their subjugation to the prowess of England, making
brevity, as far as it is consistent with perspicuity, the leading
feature of a work in which uHliiy may well be deemed of
more consequence than omateness of style or elaborateness
of diction. The first Charter for the incorporation of the
East India Company, was granted by Queen Elizabeth on the
last day df the sixteenth century, and was one of exclusive
trade in the Indian seas for fifteen years with promise of re-
newal. In 1635, Charles L being in want of money, granted
a license to Sir William Courten and others, to trade where
the existing East India Company had no settlements, but such
collision ensued, that a comprombe was effected the year
preceding the Commonwealth. In 1653 the East India trade
was thrown open by Cromwell for four years, and history in-
forms us it was found expedient to reinstate the Company in
their entire privileges in 1657, Cromwell and his Council bemg

4 BENGAL — ^ANCIENT HISTORY AND CONQUEST.

convinced of the national advantages resulting from the incor-
poration of the East India Company. The subscribed capital
of the Company then amounted to £739,782« Charles II.
granted a new Charter with ample privileges in 1661. In
1665 the Company commenced a trade with China^ and
among the orders to their factor at Bantam in 1667, was
"100 lb. weight of the best tay he could gett.'' As the terri-
torial conquests and acquisitions of the East India Company
had now commenced, it will be necessary to detail briefly the
history of passing events, merely premising that the East
India Company's Charter was confirmed by Charles II. in
1677, again in 1683, and subsequently by James II. In
1686 a new Company was formed by dint of shameful bribery
and corruption, the Duke of Leeds was impeached, and the
project fell to the ground. Government being in want of
£^,000,000, the avaricious n^inisters established a rival joint
stock company in 1698 ; the rivalship was productive of seri-
ous injury to both Compames and to the nation at large, and
under Lord Godolphin*s arbitration an union took place in
1702, since which period, as will be seen by the following
history, the principal conquests in India have been made.

BENGAL PRESIDENCY— ITS CONQUEST AND FORMATION.

The British territories under the Presidency of Bengal
are divided into the Lower, or permanently settled, and the
Upper, or western provinces. Lower Bengal is situate to-
wards the eastern part of Hindostan between the* Slst and
S7. N. lat., being three hundred and fifty miles long, with an
average breadth of three hundred miles: the distinct lan-
guage and peculiar written character of its people is the chief
test of its boundaries and antiquity. Hamilton says, that at
the time of the war of the Mahabarat, Bengal formed part of
the M agadha or Bahar, and that it was dismembered before
the Mahomedan invasion of Hindostan. In 1S03 A.D. Cuttub
ud Dheen, then on the Mahomedan throne of Delhi, sent an
army and conquered Bengal, and until 1340 this granary of

FIRST ENGLISH FACTORIES IN BENGAL. 5

Hindostan was ruled by viceroys or soubahs^ with power
delegated from Delhi ; but in this year Fakher ud Deen re-
Tolted and erected Bengal into an independent kingdom,
governed by Mussulman kings. Thus it continued, and in a
terrible state of anarchy, until re-conquered by the Emperor
Acbar's army in 1576, and re-erected into a soubah or vice*
royalty of Delhi. From 1576 to 1632, seventeen viceroys
held sway in Bengal, collecting the revenues of the country,
adininistering justice, and remitting to the Imperial Treasury
the balance of the taxes left after defraying the expenses
of the Government. When the power of the Mahomedan
Princes at Delhi was on the wane, the English appeared in
Bengal as traders, subsequently as Soubah, or, as it was
termed, Dewan (steward) of Bengal for the Mogul Emperor,
and finally as rulers not merely of Bengal, but of Delhi itself
and the whole peninsula of Hindostan ! ' The mode in which
the British acquired territorial supremacy was as follows : —
The Moslems had held sway in Lower Bengal for four centu-
ries, when in 1632, A.D. the Mogul Emperor, Shah Jehan,
granted permission to the Enghsh to trade and establish a fac-
tory at Piply,* a sea-port in Orissa, the principal resort of
European merchants, there being no other port to which they
were then admitted.

In 1656, owing to the skill of an English doctor (Boughton)
the East India Company received the Mogul's or Emperor
of Delhi's sanction to locate themselves on the right bank of
the river Hooghly (one of the branches of the Ganges, lat.
S2.5if. N., long. 88.28. E.), along the banks of which river
the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danes had previously
erected factories within ten miles of each other, viz. at
Hooghly, Chinsurah, Chandernagore, and Serampore. The
£ast India Company subsequently formed factories at Cos-
simbuzar on the same river (lat. 24.10. N., long. 88.15. E.),
and at Patna on the Ganges (lat. 25.37. N., long. 85.15. E.).
In 1681 the Bengal factories, still merely trading concernsj

• Dutrict of Midaapoor, 28 miles E.NJB. from Balasore, Lat. 21.42. N. .
long. 87.20* £• Now almost washed away, and scarcely to be discovered.

6 FIRST ENGLISH FACTORIES TS BENGAL*

were formed into a separate government from those of Madras^
under the control of which latter named fiu*tory they had
previously been« The exactions of the Mahomedan officers
from Delhi continued to be so great and uncontrollable, that
in 1686 the English chief at Hooghly came to a rupture w^
the Moslem commander at the same place ; a battle followed
between the British fiictory and the Nabob's troops, in which
the latter were defeated with considerable loss, a Moslem
battery destroyed, and eleven guns ispiked. Although Capt*
Nicholson, vdth an armed fleet of 10 merchant vessels, op-
portunely arrived, the Company's factors quitted Hooghly on
the SOth December, 1686, as they considered it indefensible^
and feared meeting the same fate as dieir European prede-
cessors had done.* The factors fixed their residence at
Chuttanutty village (now Calcutta), on the left bank of the
Hooghly, S6 miles nearer to the sea, from which it is distant
100 miles. Here the East India Company carried on th^
trade until 1686, when the rebellion of Soubah Sing against
the Mogul at Delhi took place ; and the Dutch, French, and
English at Chinsurah, Chandahagore, and Chuttanutty (Cal-
cutta), requested and received permission to erect defences
around their factories ; being the first time that the Maho-
medans in Bengal had permitted Europeans to fortify their
residencies.

In 1700 Azun Ushaun, Viceroy of Bengal, and grandson of
Aurungzebe, being in want of treasure to dispute the succes*
sion to the Mogul throne, accepted from the East India Com-
pany a large sum of money for the township on which their
factory at Chuttanutty stood, together with the adjacent lands

* The Portuguese and Moguls having quairenedy the latter invested
Hooghly with a large army, besieged it for nearly four months* and then
carried the town by assault. Thousands were put to the sword, notwith*
standing their previous offer of submission i one vessel contidning two
thousand Portuguese was blown up by the Commander, lest it should fall
into the hands of their foes, and out of 64 large ships, 67 grabs and SCO
sloops which were anchored off Hooghly, only one grab and two sloops
were saved from the wrath of the Moslems.

MEDICAL AID IN BARLY INDIA DIPLOMACY. ' 7

of Calcutta and Govindpoor. In 1704 the whole stock of the
Company in Bengal was removed to Calcutta or Fort William
(so called out of compliment to the King), the garrison of
which consisted of 129 soldiers (only 66 of whom were Euro-
peans)! And a gunner and his crew of ahout five and twenty
men ; and in 1707 Fort William was dignified with the title
of a Presidency, forming the foundation of that wonderful
empire which ere long was destined to spread its authority
from the Oanges to the Indus — ^from Cape Comorin to the
Himalaya!*

For nearly half a century the British at Calcutta pursued
a peaceful and profitable commercci until in 1756 the fero-
cious moslem Surajee ud Dowlah invested and captured the
East India CcMupany's factory of Fort William, placed Mr.
Holwel and his 146 companions in a dungeon (the * Black
Hole') only 18 feet square; and in less than 24 hours not
more than 24 Englishmen (and prisoners) remained s>f the
British Presidency in Bengal; — an inauspicious prelude to
the ftiture.

* It has before been mmarked how the English were indebted in 1665
to the skill of an Enffluh doctor for permusion to settle at Piply; in
1713 oar country was again indebted to its medical skill for further pri-
vileges; Mr. Hamilton, a surgeon in the East India Company's service,
having accompanied an embassy to Delhi soliciting certain privileges, a
powerful opposition was met in the mogul court, and the embassy were
OB the point of returning unsuccessful, when it so happened that the Em-
ptmr (Feiokshers) was seised with a dangerous illness which baffled the
skill of the nadre physicians : Mr. Hamilton's advice was solicited, given,
and successful; on being desired to name his reward, he nobly cast aside
private advantages, and implored a grant of the objects of the mission,
which were gratefully conceded* Hamilton's remains rest without a stone to
mark their interment in the burial ground at Calcutta, his patriotbm and
his services nnremembered ; and although the natives of India have been
apre linked to England in ties of personal affection by means of the skill
of QW surgeons and physicians than by any other class of the East India
Company's servants, they are the worst paid and most ill requited officers
in the East : their lives are spent in doing good, and old age brings with
it fittle to solace but the remembrance of the past : it is to be hoped that
a Profession combining in its exercise science, extensive knowledge and
christian charity will soon meet its deserts.

8 REFLECTIONS ON THE DESTRUCTION OF THE ENGLISH FACTORY.

But one of those epochs which mark the decline or adTance
of a nation had now spread its iniuence over Britain, who
found it necessary to combat for existence, as well as pre-
eminencey in Europe and in Asia with her Gallic neighbour,
who so often has disputed the palm of superiority with her
insular compeer ; and fortunately for the latter, as regarded
the progress of England in the east, there then started into
busy life one 6f those extraordinary personages who, over-
coming all impediments, seem destined to succeed in what-
ever undertaking they commence. And here let the author
be permitted to observe, that It does not &11 within his pro-
vince in a work like the present to analyze motives or criti*
cise the means by which the British possessions have been
acquired in any part of the globe. Unfortunately the annals
of man from the easliest ages shew that when the desire and
the power to seize on the property or rights of others are
combined, occasions are soon found for the purpose ; yet it
may afford some consolation to think that Britain more than
any other great nation has been less guilty of wars, of aggres^
sion ; — ^her acquisitions in India as well as other places origi-
nating principally in the all imperious necessity of self-pre-
servation.

It may be said ^ the English were now forcibly expelled
from Bengal by the natives, and they had no right to return,*
— such in fact has been die argument used from the days of
Burke to the present period; but the assertion is neither just,
nor founded ou the right of nations which is merely in a more
extended sense the principles by which an individual of the
social compact is governed ; granting for argument sake that
the English had been driven from Bengal by the * natives i
in the first place, the former were entitled to compensation
for the loss of their factory which they had been legally pais
mitted to purchase, and unless restitution were made, the suf-
ferers had a moral right to obtain it by force, as also to ponjsh
the murderers of their countrymen, who l^ad comimtted no
offence and offered every possible submission.

In the second place, the British and French nations were

BXAMINATION OF SUBSEQUENT POLICY. 9

at war in Europe^ and from the small and insulated position
of the former, the power and dominion which France was
rapidly and zei^lously obtaining in Hindostan would, if per-
mitted to progress, be ere long fatal to the independence of
the British isles ; hence the absolute and unavoidable neces*
sity of establishing a power in India at least equal to that of
Prtftice, or, if possible superior : indeed, the different maritime
kingdoms of Europe sought a preponderating balance of power
by the acquisition of dominion in Asia ; and if England had
refused to play for the extraordinary stake which would re-
compense her for the loss of her American provinces, and
I^ace her at the head of the potentates of the earth, the com-
manding influence of her opinions and councils, whether for
good Or ill, would have expired with the last centur/ ; not
only, however, was there an imperious necessity to prevent by
every possible means the dominion of French authority in,
India or in Egypt, but there arose also the peculiar rights of
security and fncinage, the enforcement of which became a
matter not merely of expediency or prudence, but of absolute
requirement ; this point will be the more readily granted as
proven, when it is demonstrated that in the third place — ^it
was not the natives who expelled in so barbarous a manner
the British from their peaceftd pursuits on the banks of the
Ganges, but their Moslem conquerors, who, to the number of
some thousands, kept millions of one of the most timid and
passive races of men in abject subjection by means of murder,
torture, and confiscation, to an extent never witnessed in the
western world, and which (being continued for centuries)
would, under a less genial clime, or with a less enduring
people, have been terminated by total depopulation. The
destruction of the Moslem sway in Bengal by Britain, must
indeed be considered as a blessing rather than an evil by any
person who has perused the records of that ill-fated but
beautiful land, whose historic scroll had for ages been be-
dewed with human gore, either from internal insurrections, or
from the attempts of fresh locusts who sought to share in the
spoils of their more fortunate brethren.

10 CLIVE*S BXFBDITION AGAINST CALCUTTA.

To return from this digressioiu-^In August, 1756» the
alarming state of the East India Company's affairs at Calcutta
reached Madras; and Lieutenant^olonel CUvei* who had
just returned from Europe as Deputy-Governor of Fort St
David^ threw his prompt and energetic councils into the
Madras Goyemmenti for the purpose of re-establishitag the
EUwt India Company's Factory at Calcutta^ and avenging -the
sanguinary deed of Surajee ud Dowlah. After considerable
deHberationi the advice of Clive for the resumption of British
power in Bengal was followed ; and he was nominated to com-
mand the force destined for the perilous purpose. The
armanent consisting of 900 Europeans and 1500 Sepoy troops,
and a naval squadron, comprising of the Kjmt of 64 guns,
Cumderland of 70, Ttger of 60, SalMwry of 50, and the
Bridgewaier of 90, under the command of rear Admirals
Watson and Pocock, sailed from Madras, 16th October^
1756, and with the exception of the Cumberland of 70 guns^
(with the flag of Admiral Pocock) which grounded on the
sandheads off Saugur, and subsequently bore up for Viziga-
patam ; anchored in the river Hoo^ly, off Fulta, 80 miles
S.S.W. from Calcutta, 16th November, where the remnant of
the British Factory was found. The fort of Mayapore was
taken 28th April ; the Governor of Calcutta (Moneek Chund)
attempted to make a stand near the fort of Budge Budge, ten
miles S.S. W. of Calcutta, with 9000 foot, and 1500 horse, but,

* This extrtordinary iodiridual who ioflueaccd so powerfully the fate
of the British Empire in the East, was the son of a country gentleman
of ancient family, bat of small estate, at Styche, in Shropshire, and
bom on the 29th of September* 1725; his father practised the pro-
fession of the law at Market Drayton, which young Robert Olire was
at first destined to follow, had not his daring disposition induced his
father to aooepc for him the offer of a writershlp in India, from the duties
of whidi he was soon roused by the French bombardment of Madras in
September, 1746; after serving with wonderful intrepidity as a volunteer
in several actions, Clive solicited and obtained the i^pointment of ensign
in 1747, and lieutenant in 1749. How Glive escaped unhurt from all
the perilous achievements in which he was engaged, is, indeed, a matter
of astonishment. Lord Clive died in his 50th year.

CLIVS'S CONQUEST OF CALCUTTA. 1 1

after a short contest^ he fled utterly routed to Calcutta. —
Budge Budge fortress was besieged and breached by Admiral
Watson, S9th December, 1756, and evacuated by the enemy
during the night, on the firing and summons of a drunken
sailor, who was thought by the Hindoos to be followed by the
whole English army.*

The furious onslaught of the British, had so alarmed the
(Governor of Calcutta, that he fled on the approach of Colonel
Clire, leaving but 500 of the Nabob's troops for its protec-
tion, who only stood a few broadsides firom our ships, (after
losing about SO men) when Calcutta Factory became once more
the property of the East India Company. The Town of
Hooghly was next taken possession of by assault, after a
slight resistance; but on theSnd February, 1757, the Nabob
Surajee Dowlah arrived before Calcutta with a large army
and artillery, rejecting any armistice or negotiation. He was
immediately attacked by Clive, with a force consisting of 650
troops of the line, 100 artillery-men, with six field pieces, 800
sepoys, and 600 seamen. After a severe contest, in which the
dogged valour of British troops struck terror into the enemy ;f
die fonder returned to Calcutta, and a peliee was concluded
with Surajee, and the East India Company were authorised to
re-assume dieir possessions in tranquillity, to fortify strongly
Calcutta and carry on trade as before.

' Intelligence of war being declared between Great Britain
and France having reached India, and it being seen that
Surajee was only temporizing, until he saw a more favourable
opportunity for the expulsion of the English, Colonel Clive
formed the project of deposing the Soubah or Nabob, (the

* Tlie Btilor was named Strachan ; and on being brought on board his
•yp and flogged for going oa shore^ bis characteristic reply, was, that he'd
be d— -d if et er he'd take another fort for them ! The remains of the
fort choked ap with rains still exist, but the greater part of its materials
were recently employed in the more useful structure of an English Inn.

t The British loss in kiiM, was* Europeans of the line 27 ; seamen 12 ;
•epoys 18: an wmmded^ Europeans 70; seamen 12; sepoys 36. The
Nabob lost 22 officers of distinction, 600 men, 500 horses, 4 elephants,
several camek and a great many bullocks.

13 FRENCH CONQUERED AT CHANDERNAGORE.

supreme power at Delhi was now little more than nominal) and
placing Meer Jaffier, one of the highest miUtary characters in
Bengal on the Musnud, or government seat ; it being the
opinion of CUve, that Meer Jaffier owing his seat to tbeCoo^
pany, would be less disposed to molest them. A treaty was
therefore entered into with Meer Jaffier by Colonel Clivei
Admiral Wataon« and the Court and Council of Calcutta ;
that^ in the event of his being raised to the Nabob or Viee*
Toyship, the French nation were to be entirely excluded from
Bengal ; a territory around Calcutta was to be secured to the
Company, with an indemnity lof ten million of rupees for the
injuries inflicted by Surajee; 5^000^000 rupees to the British
inhabitants ; S^TOO^OOO rupees to the natives and Armenisoifl
who were living at the time under the protection of the Com-
pany } 2^500 fiOO rupees were to be allotted to the army, and
a like sum to the navy.

This project was commenced by Colonel Clive marching to
attack the French Settlement and Fert of Chandernagorei^
16 miles above Calcutta, on the HoogUy ; of which he began
the siege, 14th March, 1757, instantly driving in the outpcferts
and investing the fort* The land forces were seconded by
Admirals Watson and Pocock, with two line of bnttle- ships*
The French were unable to withstand the combined attack,
and after a brave defence in which numbers fell <m both sides,
Chandemagore surrendered on the 22nd March, and a pairt
of the garrison escaped to the army of Suri^ee Dowlah, wfaotti
Colonel Clive marched towards to Cossimbuzar to attad^ on
the 13th of June following, with a force of SOOO sepoys, 900
Europeans, 100 topasses, eight 6-pounderaand two howitzers.
On the 16th June, Clive reduced Pattee, a fortified poet on
the Cossimbuzar river, as also die townabd castle of; Cut-
wah, 12 miles higher up the river ; and on tb» S0nd of the

* The French have now a Settlement of two or three miles in,extent at
Chandemagore, and our Government ought to take steps for its cession
to Great Britain, as also, of the contiguous Settlement of the Danes U
Serampore -, their maintenance is of no use to those Powers* and they are
au eveaore and detriment in the heart of our dominions.

BATTLE OF PLASSEY AND DEPOSITION OF SURAJEE. 13

same months the little British army on arriving opposite Cos-
siitthuasttr Island, came in sight of Surajee's army of 50,000
foot, 8000 horse, a body of French officers, and a strong train
of afrtillery consisting of 50 pieces, encamped on the cele-
brated plain of Plassey.^

The rebult of this celebrated battle is well known, Clive
stood* on the defensive from day-light till S P.M., his small
buad being covered by a grove and high bank, when taking
adtantage of the 'confusion and slaughter, which his artillery
caused in the dense ranks of the enemy, and the death' of
theit principal general, he became the assailant; Meer
Jaiffier's corps separated from Surajee's army, a total rout
followed, the Nabob fled on his swiftest elephant, escorted
bjr 0,000 chosen cavalty, and astonishing to say, Clive
remained master of the battle field and its tents, artillery,
camp equipage, provisions, &c., with only a loss in killed, of
Europeans eight,' and Sepoys sixteei^, and in wounded, of
Europeans twelve; and Sepoys thirty-six !

Meer JaflSer was saluted by Clive Nabob of Bengal, Bahar
aod Orissa; Surajee in bis flight disguised, fell into the
hmda of a poor peasant whom he had formerly in his tyranny
cattaed to be deprived of his ears,f and the soldiers of Clive,
engaged in his pursuit,' made the deposed Nabob prisoner,
who soon ' fell a tictim to the dagger of the son of Meer
Jaffier. The new Nabob paid down of his stipulations to the
Britirfi 800,000/. out of 22,000,000 rupees, or 2,750,000/.
stetiing, and engaged to furnish the remainder by instalments.
From this extraordhiary battle may be dated the commence-
ment of the British Empire in Bengal, for the power of in-
vesting the Soubahs, or Nabobs, with authority in Bengal,
was now bssijimed by the East India Company's government;

* A town In Naddea, thirty miles from Moorshedabad^ lat. 23.45. N.
lonjc- 0^.15. E. '

t An interesting Baatem romance has been founded on this incident ;
the Hindoos defigfat in pointing to such instances of the retributive justice
ofHeaven.

14 THE MOGUL^S EFFORTS — OUDB KINODOM.

the sway of the Mahomedansi at Delhi, being merely nominal
when unsupported by the Mahrattas, or other States.

At this period a formidable attack, made by the Dutch
against the English in Bengal, with 700 Europeans, 800 Ma-
lay troops, and a squadron of seven ships, was defeated and
destroyed by Colonel Forde, under the orders of Clive.

At the close of 1758, the eldest son of the Mogul Emperor
Allumgeer II., thinking to recover the government of Bengal
by force of arms, marched to attack it, but, Meer Jaffier
being joined by the Company's forces under Clive, concluded
an important but bloodless campaign, 34th May, 1758, during
which the Mogul's son retired, for want of support, from his
allies, and to the Company were ceded some districts in
Bahar, along the bank of the river Ganges, yielding i^t-
petre in great abundance.

Shah Allum, eldest son of the late Mogul Emperor, who
had been put to death by the Mahrattas, having now ascended
the nominal Mogul throne, made another effort for the reco-
very of the ancient supremacy of his fiunily over Bengal, on
the ded of February, 1760, aided by the Nabob, or Vizier, of
Oude,* but he was defeated, at Patna, by the Company's
forces, and Meer Jaffier; the latter, however, proving an
indolent, tynmnical ruler, and the country rapidly deterio-
rating under his sway, was deposed, and his 8on*in*law Ifoer
Cossim elevated in his stead.

The Mogul Emperor was finally routed by Major Carnac,
and the remnant of his French auxiliaries, under M. Law,

* Oade like Bengal wu one of the Viceroy, or Soubah-ships under the
Government of Delhi, and is situate along the banks of the Ganges,
(which bound it to the W.) between the 26th and 28.N. lat. being in length
250 miles, and in breadth 100. It was early subdued after the Mahomedan
invasion of India, and remained attached to the throne of Delhi until the
dissolution of the Mogul Empire on the death of Aurungxebe ; the descen-
dants of the Mahomedan Soubahs continue to govern Oude as tributary to
Great Britain, with the title and style of King, but^ its disturbed and ill-
govemed condition render its contemplated final annexation to the British
dominions a matter of necessity.

E. 1. company's government condemn conquests. 15

<:aptured. Meer Cossiin was soon found as unsuited for his
station as his father-in-law, and a series of depositions, in-
trigues, and contests took place ; to end which the East India
Company, in 1765, sent out Colonel (now Lord) Cliye ; whom
tliey considered the founder of their fortunes in the East,
inasmuch, as he had been the means of obtaining a re-footing
in the country ; of establishing an extensive commercial in-
tercourse, and of directing the foreign influence of the native
government, in whose hands still remained the administration
of dvil and criminal justice, the collection of the revenue, and
the general powers of internal superintendance.

That the desire of tlie East India Company, at this period,
was peace, and not conquest, is evident from the language of
their numerous despatches, and if the home orders could
have been followed we should now have possessed little be-
yond the townships of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. So
early as 1768, the Court of Directors, in one of their des-
patches, remark, * if we once pass these bounds we shall be
led from one acquisition to another, till we shall find no seen*
rity but in the subjection of the whole, which, by dividing
your force, would lose us the whole, and end in our extirpa-
tion from Hindostan :'—*•* We utterly disapprove and condemn
offensive wars,* say the Court, in another despatch. Claver-
ing, Monson, and Francis, in theb discussions with Warren
Hastings, ably and strenuously advocated the same principles;
and it was truly remarked at the time, that it was not ambition
that first tempted the East India Company to embark in those
wars, — necessity led the way, and conquest had now brought
them to the choice of dominion, or expulsion. Self preserva-
tion first awakened them from commerce ; victory gained the
great advantages enjoyed ; and force now could only preserve
them: the East India company had, therefore, no alternative
but to be all, or nothing.

Lord Clive arrived at Calcutta in May, 1765, when he
learned the death of the late Nabob Meer Jaffier, the mino-
rity of his natural son, the war with, and deposition of Jaf-«
fier^s son-in-law Meer Cossim, the junction of Sujah Dowlah

16 ACQUISITION OF THE" DEWANY.

(the Nabob Vizier of Oude) with Shah Allum (the reigning
Mogul Emperor), the repeated defeat of their united forces
by General Camac, Sir Robert Fletcher, Hector Munro, and
other distinguished Bengal officers, the subsequent separation
of the Mogul from Sujah Dowlah, Vizier of Oude, and his
junction with the. English, and the Mahratta troops under
his command, — and finally, that Sujah Dowlah had voluntarily
surrendered himself to the British at Allahabad.

Thither his Lordship immediately proceeded, his prophetic
mind foreseeing the necessity of the East India Company
assuming the sovereignty of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, if
they would attend to self-preservation ; negociations were in-
stantly commenced, and, after a brief period, the Mogul Em-
peror resigned all sovereign claims over Bengal, and part of
Bahar,* and Orissaf to the East India Company, receiving in
return an annual stipend of 325,000/. sterling ; the fertile dis-
tricts of Corah and Allahabad were secured to his Majesty
(the revenue of which was estimated at 250,000/.), and his
quiet occupation of the Delhi throne ; to Sujah Dowlah, the
Nabob, or Vizier of Oude, Lord Clive restored the whole of
his territories, with the condition of paying a subsidy to the
East India Company for the keeping up of a military force to
protect Oude from foreign aggression, while Nujeem Ul
Dowlah, a minor and natural son of Meer Jaffier the former.
Nabob or Soubahdar of the Bengal provinces, was allowed
to retain his father's title, with a pension of 662,000/. a
year ; thus by the force of uncontrollable circumstances,
the East India Company were in less than ten years ele-
vated from refugees of an insignificant mud fort at Cal-
cutta to sovereigns over one of the richest kingdoms in the*
world, extending over 150,000 square miles, and with an
active, ingenious, and peacefiil population of upwards of
30,000,000 souls, and estimated to produce a yearly revenue

* Situate betifeen 22. and 27. N. L. and comprifling an area of 26,000
square miles, N. and S. of the Chtnn^.
t Between 18. and 23. N. L. bonnded by the Bay of Bengal, on die E.

BENARES, — WE6TERN INDIA CONQUEST. 17

of £5j000,000 of rupees ! Such was the Dewany of Bengal^
now known under the name of the lower, or permanently set"
tied provinces.^

In 1775, Asoph^ud-Dowlah, Vizier of Oude, ceded the
rich province of Benares to the East India Company, in re-
turn for their aid during the preceding year, by which the
▼izier reduced to subjection the tributary Rohillia chiefs, a
warlike and gallant tribe in the N.W. The fine territory,
thus acquired, contained 12,000 square miles, between 24^
and ^. N. lat., of which 10,000 comprised a fertile alluvial
flat on either side of the Ganges.

WESTERN INDIA, OR UPPER BENGAL CONQUEST.f

It is as much in the' course of nature for mind to prevail
over matter, as strength over weakness ; the continued pro-
gress of a power so civilised as England, over a country so
harassed by internal dissensions, and depressed, degraded,
and enfeebled by many centuries of unrelenting Moslem des-
potism was naturally to be expected, we accordingly find
that the East India Company were next necessitated to con-
tend not only for dominion in the W. of India, but for their
actual maintenance in Bengal, with the powerful confederacy,
headed by the wily chieftain Sindia, whose territories verged
on the fragments of the Mogul Emperor's dominion, and who
found himself placed (independent of auxiliaries) at the head
of an army of 200,000 cavalry, 10 formidable brigades of in-

* It may be useful to give here the dates of the principal Governcra
General of Bengal, from the time of Colonel Olive to the present period.

From To Qayemcn. Itom To

Ool. B. GUve June 17M Jan. 17OO. Marqois ComwallU Sefyt. 1780 Oct. ms.

J.UBotwca Jaa. 17M Jaljr 1760. Sir J. Shore Oct. 1793 Mar. 1798-

a. Vanslttart Jolj 17(10 Not. 17O4. Marqola Wettesley May 1798 J^Y 1B05«

J.Bpneer Dec. 17O4 May 17O5. Marqnii ComwaDIi July 180S Oct. 1605.

LgnlClive May 17O5 Jan. 1707* Sir o. Barlow Oct. 180ft July 1807*

" - - ' Jim. ly^ Dee. i;qp. EaflMloto July I807 Oct. I8IS.

J. Cutler Dee. 1709 Apr. 1779- Marquis Hastinfs Oct. 1813 Jan, 1823.

Waarai HMIlDgs A|r. 1771 FM». 1786. LoniAmtaentt Aog. IBSS Apr. I8S8.

Sr J. Macphenon F^b! 178ft Sept. 1786. Loitl W. Bentinek Jane 1888 X8S4.

t A large portion of the territory under this section embraces the new
fienteDaficy of Agra, or the fourth Indian Presidency ; I am induced, how.
ever, to adopt this division in order to umplify the history of our acquiti-
tions to those penooa, who are not very ^miliar with Indian afiairs.
VOL. I. c

18 MAHIK.ATTAS — COUNTRY ANp POLICV. :

fantry, and 500 gunsj. diBciplinad and conunanded \>y . the
ablest French and Grerman officers.

The avowed object of the fierce and sanguinary Mahrattas
was the complete expulsion of the English from India^ this
they had for some time been endeavouring to accomplish on
the western side of Hindostan, and Sindia after comjueriog
Bundlecundi and subduing other provinces in the N.W. to
his interests^ at length induced the Mogul Emperor^ Shah
Allum, to resign his amity with the English, and to ms^ the
Mahratta chiefs and French officers masters of Agra,. Delhi,
and other strong places in the N.W. provinces, by which
step the aged monarch forfeited the treaty concluded with
Lord Clive.

The original country of the daring and subtle Mahrattas,
comprehended, according to Hamilton, Candeish, Baghuia^
and part of Berar, extending towards the N.W. as far as
Gujerat and the Nerbudda river : to the W. they possessed
the narrow but strong tract of country which borders on the
Concan, and stretches parallel with the sea from Surat to
Canara, the whole territory of great natural strength, inter-
spersed with mountains, defiles, and fortresses, and admirably
calculated for defensive warfare* The Mahrattas ^eem to
have been under the government of feudal chieftains until
l^eir strength was concentrated under a bold lefider named
Sevajee, who at his death in 1680, had extended his empire
along the Malabar coast from Surat, (lat. SI. 11 N.) to n^r
Goa, (lat. 15.30 N.) and as fiir as the range of bills tha,!t ter-
minate the table land forming the eastern boundary of the
Concan. The territories which the Mahrattas conquered
were considered as predatory acquisitions, to be held only by
the sword, for to the subtle and aspiring Brahmin, war and
plunder were the two great sources of revenue ; hfinc;e the
quartering of a Mahratta army in a province was more de-
structive than myriads of locusts or years of drought and pes-
tilence, while of their rulers it has been aptly observed, that
their musnuds were their horsecloths, their sceptres their
swords, and their dominions the wide line of their desolating

TERRITORIAL CESSIONS FROM NABOti O^ OUDE. 19

Marches. At the festival which annually took place on pro^
ceeding to collect chout (tribute), the chiefs cut each a hand-
ful of com with his sword to denote the predatory object of
the undertaking, and the war horses had a sheep sacrificed
to each, and were sprinkled with the blood. This extraordi-
nary people, who contested for the supremacy of India with
England, on the fall of the Mogul dynasty, are in general di-
minutive in stature, of unparaUeled cunning, brave, vindictive,
and possessing more talent and independent principles than
any other class of the Hindoos, save the Rajpoots.

Warren Hastings in 1780, endeavoured to check the pro-
gress of the Mahrattas on the Bombay side of India, by de-
taching small bodies of troops from Bengal to make incursions
hito the enemies* territories, a supreme controlling power
being now vested in the Grovernor General and Councilof
Bengal; but on the accession of the Marquis of Wellesley to
the supreme Government in 1798, that nobleman soon per-
ceived that England must either acquire general dominion, or
be engaged in a constant series of hostilities, from which wide
spreading ruin would result.

In 1801, his Lordship obtained from the Nabob or Vizier
of Onde ^n commtitation for the military subsidy which he
had promised, by treaty with Lord Clive, to pay to the East
India Company), the extensive provinces in the N.W. of In-
dia, — of BareiHy, (6,900 square miles,) Moradabad, (5,800
sq. mileft,) Shahjehanpoor, (1,430 sq. miles,) &c. in Rohil-
cund; of the lower Doab and the districts of Furrucka-
bad, (1,850 sq. miles,) Allahabad, (2,650 sq. miles,) Cawnpoor,
(S,€50 sq* miles,) Goruckpoor, (9,250 sq. miles,) Azimghur,
(2,840 sq. mOes,) &c. embracing territory to the extent of
82,000 sq. miles, and a population of about 15,000,000 souls.

In 180S, that portion of the British army Which the Mar-
quis of Wellesley destined for the conquest of the Mahrattas
ita Upper Bengal, was placed under the command of General
(sftierwards Lord) Lake, with instructions to free the Mogul
Emperor from the thraldom of Sindia, and to offer evei7 rea-
sonable inducement to the French officers to quit the Mahratta

80 LORD LAKE*S BATTLES— COEL—ALIOHUIU

•

aenrice. The Mahratta and French auxiliaries were defeated
by General Lake at Coelinthe Doab, (£7.54 N. 78. E.) 29th of
August^ 1803; the strong fort of Alighur (53 miles N, of
Agra,) of a square form with round bastions, a formidable
ditch and glacis, and a single entrance protected by a-strong
ravelin, which formed the chief depot of the enemy, was next
captured after a desperate slaughter, and Lake marched with
4^500 men to give battle to £0,000 Mahratta and French, en-
camped in a strong position under the fortifications of the
imperial city of Delhi, the ancient capital of the Patan and
Mogul Empires (in lat. £8.41 N., long. 77.5 E.) General
Lake on nearing the enemy pretended to fly, the Mahrattas
quitted their trenches in eager pursuit of the supposed English
fugitives, but the latter at a given signal instantly wheeled to
the rights and by a single charge completely routed the enemy,
who sustained a loss of 3,000 men in killed and wounded, and
their whole train of artillery, baggage, &c. The result of the
battle was soon made apparent ; the aged Mogul once more
released from bondage, and in a state of abject destitution,
threw himself again on the humanity of the British, by
whom he was once more establbhed on the throne of his
ancestral capital, with an annual stipend for himself and
family of 1, £00,000 rupees (together with certain privileges),
and Lake entered Delhi amidst the general rejoicings of
its wretched inhabitants, who for years had been the prey
of war and internal rapine and feuds. This distinguished
officer next marched to attack the numerous Mahratta
troops posted in and around the strong and ancient for^
tress of Agra, on the S.W. side of the Jumna ; which was
reduced after a short but animated resistance, 17th October,
1803; persons and private property were respected, and
£80,000/. pubUc treasure was divided as prize-money among
the victorious troops. The power of Sindia in Upper Bengal
was now finally annihilated by the defeat of his best dis-
ciplined army, consisting of 9,000 foot, 5,000 cavalry, and a
numerous train of well organised artillery, by General Lake,
with a small British force, on th^e Ist November, 1803, afler

holkar's army and lord lake. 21

one of the most brilliant and daring contests ever witnessed.
Hie consequences of these extraordinary achievements was a
treaty with Sindia, 80th December, 1803, by which there was
ceded to the British under the Bengal Presidency, the Upper
Doab (a large territory between the rivers Ganges and Jumna)
Delhi, Agra, (3,500 square miles,) Hurriana, Saharunpoor,
(5,900 sq. m.) Meerut, Alighur, (3,400 sq. m.) Etawah, (3,450
sq. m.) Cuttack, (9,040 sq. m.) Balasore, Juggernath, &c.
(8,260 sq. m.) ; the power of the French and Mahrattas in the
N.W. was destroyed, and the decayed but still respected rc'^
presentative of a long line of monarchs was secured in peace
and comfort on the titular musnud of Ackbar.

The tranquil possession of these fine provinces by the East
India Company was for a time interrupted by the celebrated
Holkar, who, after the downfal of Sindia, endeavoured to
rally the remaining branches of the Mahratta confederacy for
the purpose of " overwhelming the British by repeated attacks
of his army, like the waves of the sea.*"^ The standing army
of Holkar, while professing peace, was 150,000 cavalry, 40,000
well disciplined foot, 200 pieces of artillery, and a numerous
corps of auxifiaries^ by which latter he was enabled to carry
on a devastating and desultory war for some time. After at*
tempting the recapture of Delhi, his army, subsequent to a
series of desperate actions with Lord Lake, General Frazer
and Colonels Ochterlony, Monson and Burns, was finally
routed, 17th November, 1804«, by the gallant Lake, who,
whether with cavalry or infantry, invariably gained the day by
trusting to the nerve of a Briton at the sabre or bayonet point*
A fiirious charge by the EngUsh cavalry cut to pieces 3,000
of the Indian horse ; the remaining troops of Holkar escaped
by a rapid flight to their infantry at the fortress of Deeg,f
which Lake invested, breached aft;er ten days cannonading,

* Vide Holkar's letter to General Wellesley.
. t Tbe fortress of Deeg is sitimte in lat. 27.30. N. long. 77- 12. £.,
57 miles N. W. of Agra city. In 1760 it was strongly fortified by Sooraj
Mull, the Jaat Rajab» but in 177G captured after twelve months siege by
Nudjiff Khan. It now belongs to the Rajah of Bhurtpore.

3S SIEGE OF BHURTPOUE BY LORD LAKE.

and carried by storm with almost incredible intrepidity on the
night of the 2Srd of November. Holkar took reftige in the
fortress of Bhurtpore,* a vast mud fort, which, with the town,
is nearly eight niiles in circumference, flanked with numerous
bastions at short intervals, well defended with immense citn-
non and surrounded by a very wide and deep fosse. The
garrison was complete, amply provisioned and confident in the
impregnability of their ramparts. Lake and his little band of
heroes sat down before this formidable place on the 8rd of
January, 1805 ; the trenches were soon opened, but wherevter
a breach was made the defenders speedily filled it up or for-
tified it with stockades, and, in addition to the most gatKng
and destructive artillery and musketry, showered on the be-^
siegers logs of burning wood and hot ashes, Ughted bales 6t
cotton steeped in oil, earthen pots filled with fire and com-
bustibles of every kind. Four times did the British tr6ops
attempt to storm the breach, and four times were they obKged
to retire, staggering under the (to them) terrible loss of up-
wards of 3,000 men of the flower of the army ; and here let
it be recorded, that his Majesty's 75th and 'Kth regiments^
(heretofore deemed like Ney * the bravest of the brave,* and
like M urat always foremost in the heady current of battle,)
became panic struck at the fury of their enemies, and refused
to follow their officers, until, shamed by seeing the East India
Company's 12th regiment of Bengal Sepoys once more he-
roically plant their colours on the enemy's walls, and stung by
the merited reproaches of their General, they loudly implored
to be permitted to wash the stains from their honour in the
fourth attack, which, notwithstanding their desperate valouf,

• Bhurtporb. Lat. 27.17. N. long. 77.23. E., 31 miles W. by N. from
Agra. When Lord Lake approached the fortress, a large expanse of water
at the N.W. side of the town instantly disappeared, and it was subsequeatly
discovered that the whole kke had been adikiitted into the ditch that sur-
rounds the town and fort. The carnage during the siege was enodrn^oua,
considering the small force of the besiegers ; the first storming party lost
456, the second 591, the thiixl 894, the fourth 997, ^liicb together with
172 casualties, made a total of killed and wounded of 3,100 of the Hower
of the small British army !

'CORNWAU^IS'S POLICY FRUITLESS. 2S

Vas Still unsuccessfiiL The Rajah of Bhurtpore foreseeing
by the perseyering gallantry of Lake that nothing would in-
duce him to abandon his purpose, dispatched his son to the
British camp with the keys of the fortress: a treaty was
condudedj 17th April, Holkar compelled to quit the terri-
tories, and the Rajah was obliged to pay two million rupees
towards defraying the expenses of the war ; his son was given
in hostage of his pacific intentions ; and Holkar, aAier several
gallant but fruitless efforts against Lord Lake in the field,,
was so reduced as to flee almost unattended for life*

The comprehensive and unavoidable policy of the Marquis
of Wellesley, which has not been sufficiently done justice to
by Indian historians or statesmen, was now laid aside by the
Marquis of Comwallis, who resumed the supreme government
in July, 1805, but died on proceeding to the seat of war in
the month of October in the same year, while his successes
Sir George Barlow was unable to understand the ideas of
future peace and stability contemplated by the Wellesl^ adT
miniatration. Lord Cornwallis tried in vain to introduce the
pidnciple of European treaties into Indian diplomacy, the
failure pf which was exemplified in the triple alliance between
the British government, the Nizam and the Peishwa ; while
the system of defensive subsidiary alliances from not being
until of late carried far enough, was equally unproductive of
beneficial results.*

Through the exertions of Lord Lake, whose talents in the
cabinet were as useful as his tactics and bravery in the field
were remarkable, the fruits of the past were not entirely lost :
Sindia and Holkar were admitted to peace on favourable
terms^ and the flame of the slumbering volcano was for the
present suppressed only to burst out however with renewed
vigour in other places and at more convenient periods, which
was nevertheless effectively and finally suppressed by the
military prescience of the chivalrous Marquis of Hastings*

* The war of 1817 deoMMistrated the lastintf adTsntaf^es of the compre-
beniive policy of the Marquis of Wellesley, the- key-stones of whose
political arch rested on Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

24! HSPAUL-^POHTION AMD

Tile Ghoorkbas, a warlike but uncivilized tribe wbo had
posBCBsed themBeWes q£ the beautifiil vallies of Nepaul^
began eneroachments on the whole north frontier of the Brirr
tiah territories, under a harave and skilful Chief (Ameer Singi^
in 1814, and without any previous intimation^ attacked and
maasacred the people of two thannahs or stationa tb Goruck-
. poor and Sarun ; upon which the Marquis of Hastings sent
agaanBt the invaders a forea of thirty thousand men, who met
with various siHxesses against the Nepaulese and Ghoorkba
hill forts . which were valiantly defended : the contest was
brought to a successful issue by the activity, skill and saga-
city of Sir David Ochterlony and the brave General Gilleapie>
who fell at the head of a storming party when cheering on hia
men before the Fort of Kalunga,* The Nepaulese were glad
to ratify a treaty on the 4th March, 1816, which they had
evaded the preceding year; — by which the E* L Com*
pany obtained possession of the entire, province of Kumaon^
(7,000 square miles) a portion of Garhwal, (3,000 square
miles) the valley of the Dheera Dhoon, with the a4jacei^
mountainous districts of Jounsar and Bawar, together with
Sabbathoo and other tracts on the. skirts of the Himalaya*
and in the delta of the rivers Jumna and Sutlej ; and the
territories of several Hill Chiefs were brought under Bri-
tish i>rotection $ the Company also obtiuned undisputed pos?^
session of a. long line of forest and pasture land, extending
along the base of the Himalaya Mountains, termed Torryani
which defined the northern boundary of their dominions, and
enabled them to open commercial communications with China
and Tartary. But the misfortunes arising from the defen-
sive policy of the amiable Lord CornwaUis were not yet ter-
minated. The Pindarics, a predatory body of mounted

* Situated on the verge of a ridge of hills, two noJlei and a half N<B<i
of the town of Deyrah, capital of the Valley or Doon, lat. 30^0. N. long.
78.5. £. at an elevation above the sea of 2,326 feet. The British forces
under Gillespie and Manly in 1814, lost more officers and men before this
small stone fortress than they would have stiffered in several pitched battles.
The fortress is now rased.

PINDARIEft — ORIGIM---CHARAC'n5R AND FORCE. 25

robbers, who opald collect under one of their chiefs thirty
thousand cavahy ! and who were secretly favoured by the
yet imannihiiiM^ Mahratta confederacy, made several plun-
dering incursions into the British territories, killing and
woundmg many hundred peaceable British subjects, and
carrying off and destroying property to the amount of several
hmidrad thousand poundsi These desperate freebooters
originated in the province of Malwa, where they first occupied
the coimtry in the vicinity of Nemawur, EUmtapoor, .Ooonas^
Beresha, and part of the Bilsah and Bhopaul territories, but
gradually extended themselves to the centre of this fine dis-
triot. Hie Pindaries wese principally composed of Maho-
aedans, but, tibeir leaders, although true Moslems, admitted
into their bands all the discontented and restless spirits which
the previous disbanding of the large armies of India left
whhbut occupation. They systematically carried on a war
of plunder and devastation, and terrified the neighbouring
piiteees into submdizing them as a guarantee against invasion.
As an instance of the Pindaric marauding, it may bemen«>
tioned that a body of these bandits entered the British terri^
Ixiry of Ganjam in January, 1817, destroyed property to the
amount of £S50,000. burnt two hundred and sixty-nine
houses, and plundered six thousand two hundred and three
maamons ; and of the sufferers by the robbers one hundred
and eighty-three were killed, five hundived and five were
wounded, and three thousand six hundred and three sub*
}eoted to torture. The scene of these depredations was not
far distant from Madras or Calcutta, and in the previous
year Gtmtoor in lat. 16.17. N. long. 90.32 E., underwent
a more disastrous visitation from these merciless destroyers of
peace and dvilisation. The Marquis of Hastings in 1817»
took the field against the Pindaries and their abettors, the
Mahratta Confederacy, at the head of an army, which pre*
sented a strong contrast to the handful of British troops
which Lords Clive and liake had commanded ; it consisted of
81,000 regular infantry, 33,000 cavalry, and a numerous and
efficient artillery, altogether forming a force the Uke of which
had never been seen on the plains of Hindostan,

S6 CONQUESTS OF 1818. — BHURTFORE 1825.

The events which followed afford matter for voltnmnoAeft
history, suffice it to say, that before the grand army und^t
the noble Marquis and his gallant and sagacious coadjutorft»
Generals Malcolm, Smith, Hislop, Doveton, Keir, &t, brefce
up in 1819, the Pindarics were utterly annihilated: the
Mahratta confederacy destroyed, and the foHowing tennto-
ries added to the Bengal Presidency, by conquest as 'well'
as by subsequent arrangements. Districts on the Nerbudda
river to the extent of ^,800 square miles; Sumbalpore and'
some pergunnahs on the N.W. frontier of Bengal; Khandah*
in Bundelcund; Ajmercj and part of Mairwarrah; part of
Nimah ; Bairsea, Shoojawulpore, and the fortress of HatrasB
in Alighur; while the following states of central India be-
came tributary to the East India Company, receiving protec^^
tion and guarantee in acknowledgment for British supremacy^
vie. Jyepore, Joudpore, Oude3rpore, Boondee, Kotah, Pertab^
ghur, Rutlana, Banswarra, and Doongurpore. The peace of
the N.W. provinces of India has ever since remained un-'
disturbed, with the exception of a disturbance in Bhurtpore
in March 1835, when Durjunt Sal took forcible possession of
the infant Raja, murdered his uncle and followers, and iiot*
withstanding the repeated mild persuasions of Lord Amherst,
who appears to have been desirous of following the poHcy *&f
Lord<}omwallis, treated the British power and authority with
the utmost contempt. Those who know any thing oflihfe
nature of the English dominion in Hindostan, will admit the
necessity of removing instantly an unfavourable impression
from a people who are too apt to consider concession or mild«^
ness as the result of indecision or fear. To prevent any thing
like the resistance which Lord Lake met with in 1805, L6td
Combermere was ordered to attack this strong fortress With
an army of 95,000 of the most efficient troops, and a powerftd
-train of battering artillery : his Lordship invested Bhurtpore
^rd December, 1825 ; the works since the former attack! had'
been considerably strengthened, and it was soon found Axat
the largest cannon balls made no impression On mud walls
60 feet thick ; a mine was therefore sprung, by which a breach
was effected on the .17th January 1826, and the fort stormed

BURMSaE NATION AND CHARACTER. , S7

and earned the foUowiog morniog, after a desperate but in-
effectual resistance, in which the British had 61 Europeans
and 4& natives killed, and 2SS Europeans and 183 natives
grounded ; while the loss of the garrison was 4000, almost all
killed. The State of Miurtpore was charged with the extra
expenses of this contesti amounting to 2,4&9,173 rupees^ and
the young Rajah (who is a promising prince) was installed
on the -Sth February, 18^. The fortress (as regarded its
principal bastions, curtains and other important parts) was.
rased and with its faU terminated a series of intrigues for the
deetraction of the British power which had been some time
organLittig in the N.W. provinces.

Burmese Conquest. — ^It became a matter of self-preserva-
tion to humble another Asiatic power, ere Bengal was secure
frcMBu invasion. During half a century a kingdom had been
gradually rising and extending on the south-eastern frontier,
named Birmah, whose tone, always haughty to the English,
became at last insulting and menacing. The origin of this
nation is thus traced : — In the middle of the sixteenth ce|i«
tnry the regions which lie between the south-eastern provinces
of British India, Yunan in China, and the extremity of the
Malacca Peninsula, were occupied by four powerful nations,
Imowa to Suropeans as Birmah (or Ava), Pegu, Siam, and
ArracaH. Devastating wars were carried on between these
Stfutes, particularly between the Peguers (or Talliens) and
the Bmmese. During the seventeenth century the Burmese
held the Peguers in complete subjection; but, in 1751, the
Peguers, aided by the Portuguese and Dutch, conquered the
Burmese, and took final possession of Ava. Headed, how-
ever, by the celebrated Alompra, the Burmese again subdued
the Peg^erS| and the Alompra dynasty was established in
Ava. In 1767, an army of 50,000 Chinese was destroyed on
its enhance into the dominions of Ava, and from that period
the Bunaiiese» continued extending their conquests, having
captured Cassay and Munipoor in 1774; Arracan in 1783;

and from the Siamese in 1784 to 1793, the provinces of Tavoy,
Tenasserim, Junk-Ceylon, and Mergui Isles. These acquisi-
tion so inflated the vanity of the Burmese, that the most

28 BURMESE NATION AND CHARACTER.

extraYagant schemes were entertained of the conquest of Hin^
dostan, and the utter expulsion of the English from India*
Intriguers were sent by the Burmese to excite the N.Wt
provinces of India to revolt against the British supremacy ;
and, in 1814, a confederation of aU the native princes of
India was attempted to be effected by the Burmese, the
object of which was the destruction of the English power in
the East : the King of Ava gave out that he intended to make
a jMlgrimage to Gaya and Benares, at the head of 40fiW
men ; emissaries were dispatched into the Seik country, via
Dacca, while the Shabundar of Arracan visited Madras and
Trincomalee, to gather information as to the politics ot ihef
S. of India. These projects were defeated, but the Bunnese-
went on extending their conquests over the petty States S*. of
the Brahmaputra, and establishing a strong and permanent-
military force along the N.E. quarter of the Bengal province^
ready at a moment's warning to commence an inroad on the
unprotected British possessions. Indeed from 1795, when
the Burman monarch marched 5,000 troops across the BeagaL*
frontier, to capture some of his refugee subjects, who had
fled from his tyranny, to the year 182S, when His Majesty
set up a claim to the petty Isle of Shapuree in the province
of Bengal, on the Chittagong frontier, recriminations had
been going on between the two governments. The intended
invasion of the Burmese, in 1795, was foiled by General Erd«
kine; in 1818, the Marquis of Hastings, by his policy,* diverted
another attack, but on the retirement of that great statesnum,

* While we were engaged in the Mahratta and Pindarie war,, the
Marquis of Hastings received a rescript from the Burmese Monarcli^
requiring us to surrender all provinces £. of Bagrutty; Lord Hastings
sent back the Envoy, stating, that an answer should be sent through ano-
ther channel ; a special messenger was therefore dispatched to the King
of Anrrnah, to dedare that the Gov.-0€n. was too well ae^idnled with ilift
wisdom of H. M. to be the dupe of the gross iwgerf attempted to be
pabned upon him» and that he therefore transmitted to the King the diHMk*
ment fabricated in his august name — ^hoping also that those who had
endeavoured to sow dissensions between the two Powers would be coi^
dignly pupished ; the subsequent defeat of the Mahrattas prevented the
repetition of this insolent threat.

MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 39

theBttrmese threatened to march into the Bengal prormces with
fire and sword, to the plunder of Calcutta. In 1825 the unpro-
voked aggressions of this turbulent nation were met by a foroe
at Chittagpng, while a krge British armament proceeded to
Rangoon, -the naval capital of Burmah (lat. 16.85. N., long*
,96 J15, IE.), captured it, and after a series of hard fought
acti<ms, and much privation and distress, forced the Burmese
to sue for peace in 1826, when the English troops were
almost within sight of the capital (Ava). By the treaty of
Yandaboo, the Bunnese resigned all chum to tne conquests
•whick for years they had been making in Assam, 'Cachar,
Getttiah, and Munipoor; the provinces of Arracan, Ye,
Tavey, Tenasserim, and Martaban, S. of the Saluen River,
OQiB|NriflUig 50,000 square miles, together with the Islands
Cheduba and Ramree, were ceded to the East India Com-
pany ; and 10,000,000 of rupees in cash were paid to the
Company by instalments, as part indemmty to defray the ex-
penses of war, which the rash ambition of his Burmese
Haiesty had provoked.

MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

The Southern Indian Presidency is called after the name
of its capital, on the Coromanllel Coast, in lat. 13*5. N., Icmg.
80JBL E., which to the extent of five miles along shore, and
one mile mland, was ceded to the East India Company, A.D.
1639, by the reigning Prince of Bijanagur, with permission
ta erect a fort, which was immediately commenced under the
designation of Fart St George* In 1653, Madras was raised
to the rank of Presidency, the military force of which was
only 26 soldiers, which the Court of Directors, in 1654, or-
dated to be still foirther reduced to ten. The native popu-
lation soon assembled round the English fortress; and, in
1489, the census of the inhabitants of the fortress of Fort St.
^teoTge, tiie city of Madras, and the adjacent villages within
the Company's boundaries, amounted to 300,000 persons. In
1702, Madras was besieged by Daoud Khan, one of Aurung-

30 FRENCH OCCUPATION OP MADRAS.

sebe's generals; but 'a more formidable power was soon to.
contest the footing of EngKshmen on the Coromandel Coast.
The war which broke out between England and France, in
1744, was carried on as fiercely in the E. as in the W., and
the ambitious, unprincipled, but talented Monsieur Dupleix
spared no efforts, either by intriguing with the native princes^
or by actual force^ to root the English out of all their factories
in India. A strong military and naval French force, under the
command of the brave and high-minded Labourdonnais, be-
seiged Madras on the 7th September, 1746, when the-Englidh
garrison amounted to but SOO soldiers : after a severe bom'bard-
ment of five days capitulations were entered into, that Labour-
donnais might enter within the four ill-constructed bastions
which defended the town ; but that, after taking posBesaion of
the Company's goods, &c., Madras should be restored on pay-
ment of a ransom. This stipulation was broken by Labour-
donnais's superior, Ehipleix (then Governor <rf Pondicherry),
and Madras remained in the occupation of the French until
the peace of Aix-la-chapelle, when it was restored t^the
East India Company in 1749.

While Madras was in the occupation of the French, the
presidency of the East India Company was eairied' on'ot'Fort
St. David, or Negapatam, a fortress on the sea coast of the
Camatic, 16 miles S. of Pondicherry, and 100 miles S.S.W.
from Fort St George, or Madras ; lat 1 1.45. N. long. 7^.50.
E. At this station the E. I. Company had established a
factory in 1691, and they subsequently purchased a tract of
territory larger than their settlement at Madras. M. Dupleix
next attempted to drive the English out of Fort St. David ;
but his army of 1,700 Europeans was defeated by abont 900
British, among whom was Etmgn (afterwards Lord) Clive,
who, after the capture of Madras, escaped in the disguise of
a Moor to Fort St. David.

Several severe ceptests between the French and English
took place, until, as before stated, peace in Europe allowed
the Company to resume possession of their Presidency at
Madras; but, although hostilities had ceased between the

WAR BETWEEN FEANCE AND ENGLAND IN INDIA. 31

rival nations in Curopei it was tkc otherwise in India, where
the French and English alternately struggled and gained the
aapendancy in the native councils and contests of the Car-
natic,'^ — ^the French long maintaining the upper hand, until
the di|rk|g genius of Clive, and the skill of Major Laurence,
contributed materially to diminish it ; while, in the Deccan,
M* De Bussy obtained firm possession of an extensive country,
600 miles in extent, reaching, frcmi Medapilly to the Pagoda
of Juggeroauti with an annual revenue of nearly 1^000^000/.
sterling.

On the breaking out jo£ the war, in 1756, between France
and JESngland, the celebrated and unfortunate Lally was sent
Ott^. 83 Governor of Pondicherry, with a large armament, for
th^ purpose of utterly extirpating the English in Hindostan ;
and the very ni^t Lally landed, he directed the march of
troopa f(NP tke attack of Fort St. David, which was taken and
raased to the ground, on the 1st of June, 1758, after which
Uie conqof ror proceeded with 3,500 European, S,000 sepoy
infivitry, and 2,000 European and native cavalry to the siege
of Madras, which, defended by 1,758 Europeans and ^4@4
native troops, withstood the most desperate attacks for two
mf nthci, until relieved by the arrival of aix English ships^
witb 6Q0 fresh troops.f

The French retreated precipitately from befere Madras,
9^' the English in turn became assailants. Colonel Coote

* This vast territory, formerly comprising the dominions and depen-
dencies of the Nabob of Arcot, extends from 8. to 16. N. lat. stretching
froai ihe southern firontier of Gnntoor Circar to Cape Comorin, a distance
of'MO mites, vnA an unequal but av^*age breadth of 76 miles. Hereto-
ibre jllU'Ganiatic was held by a number of petty RaJaiiSy mth whom the
F^ncbalteipa^Iy. intrigued la their efforts far complete supremacy, a
powt indeed which the wily Dupleix all but gained.

t During the siege the fort fired 26,554 rounds from their cannon, 7>602
shells from thdr mortars, 1,990 hand grenades were thrown, 200,000
imiiqa^try canndges eypended, and 1,768 barrels of gunpowder ; 13 officers
w^rekUiej, 14 wouaded, and 4 taken prisoners; of the European troops,
npsmrdi of dOO weve kiHed, and 140 made prisoners ; of ihe Sepoys and
J^ocan* \4& wer^ killed, and 440 deserted.

89 DOWNFAL OF THE FRENCH POWEE IN INDIA.

pursued and defeated LaUy at Waudiwash,* from whence
the remnants of the French sought shelter in Pondicherry,
vhich, m September, 1760, was closely blockaded by the East
India Company's troops and His Majesty's vessels by land
and sea; the trenches were opened under Colonel Coote,
12th January, and, on the 14th, Lally and his garrison were
prisoners. From this period the downfal of French in*
. fluence was progressive, while that of the EngUsh became as
rapidly ascendant.

In 1763, the East India Company obtained firom the Nabob
Y)f the Camatic, in return for services rendered to that prince
and his father, a district in the Camatic of S,460 square
Iniles, called the 'Jaghire* (Chingleput), which is bounded
on the E. by the bay of Bengal, between Nellore and Arcot.
The country was rented to the Nabob, on renewed leases,
until 1780, when the entire management was placed under
the Madras government.

The next territory acquired by the East India Company
in the south of India, was that of Guntoor, comprehending
an area of 2,500 square miles (the fifth district in the northern
circars) which was acquired from the Mogul, in 1765; but
<not taken possession of by the British authorities until 1786,
and then only on the payment of an annual tribute to the
tNizam of 600,000 rupees, which the East India Company
finally redeemed in 1833, by the payment of 1,200,000 ru-
pees to the Nizam at Hydrabad.

The wide spreading and devastating ambition of afierce adven-
turer, in his endeavours to expel the English from the Carnatic,
became the means of further extending the territorial dominions
of the East India Company. Hyder Ali, the founder of the
Mysore dynasty and kingdom, was originally a private soldi^
in a corps raised by his elder brother ; and, for his gallantry
at the seige of Deonhully (23 miles N.N.E. from Bangalore),
he was entrusted with the command of 500 infantry and 50
liorse. His character is described to have been a composi-

* In the Camatic, 73 miles S. W. of Madras, lat. 12.30. N. long. 79.37. £.

CARNATIC ACQUISITIONS HYDERALI. 88.

tion of courage, cunning, and cruelty; equally prodigal of
faith and of blood — equally victorious in the use of intrigues
and of arms. He could neither read nor write ; but his
memory was so tenacious, and his sagacity so great, that no
secretary would venture to practice a, deception on him. His
&ther died in 1734, in the humble situation of a Naick of
revenue Peons, leaving his family destitute and friendless ;
but Hyder Ali came on the stage when anarchy reigned in
Mysore, and when he who was the strongest and the most
cunning and daring, might easily U9urp the highest station in
the kingdom. From the command of a few hundred men, he
quickly raised his force to 2,000 horse and 5,000 foot, with a
snudl artillery. By degrees he obtained assignments of more
tban half the revenues of the kingdom, and ultimately taking
advantage of the feeble state of the government, he pro-
daimed himself ruler in Seringapatam ; reduced the Rajah of
Mysore to the condition of a pensioner, shut up his enemies
ia cages, strengthened his fortresses, raised a large army, and
vigilantly superintended the administration of the kingdom,
wlioae affairs he had usurped the government of. Like Na-
poleon, he had an inveterate hostihty to the English, because
tfaey treated him as an usurper ; and he owned the ruin of
his family to military co-operation with the French, for the
destruction of the British in India.

After conquering every independent Hindoo state in the
south, or raising them into hostile confederacy against the
British power, Hyder approached close to Madras to attack
it in 1767 ; but, deterred by its strength, the tyrant desolated
die Company's Jaghire, or territory (Chingleput), in 1768,
when he ravaged it with fire and sword, leaving little indica-
tiim of its ever having been inhabited, save in the unhappy
gpectad^ of the bones of massacred thousands strewed over
their smouldering habitations* In June, 1780, Hyder marched
from bis capital of Seringapatam, at the head of the finest army
ewr befiyre seen in the south of India,* with the avowed

* Iloontisted of 28»000 cavftlry, 15,000 regular infemtry, 40,000 Irregulars,
2,000 Fi«nch rocket men, 4,000 pioneers, and 400 Europeans.

VOL. I. D

34 HYDER ALl's 8UCX;ESS AGAINST THE ENGLISH.

purpose of annihilating the English^ and^ before the latter
were aware of their situation, columns of smoke, arising from
the desolated Camatic, were seen approaching Madras. The
success of Hydei* was nearly as complete in the south as that
of Surajee Dowlah had been at Cossimbuzar and Calcutta;
with a velocity and daring like that of Napoleon Buonaparte,
Hyder interposed his whole force between the small armies of
Colonel Baillie and Sir Hector Monroi who were endeavour-
ing to join each other; Colonel Baillie was defeated by the
Mysorean cavalry. Sir Hector Munro retreated, and Hyder
reduced Arcot, 8d Nov. 1781, and laid siege to Wandiwa8h>
Vellore, Chingleput, and other strongholds in the Camatic.

The Bengal Presidency now afforded to Madras a retttrit
for the assistance which the latter had sent, under Clive, for
the re-capture of the Fort of Calcutta, and Sir Eyre Coote>
with 660 Europeans, and a party of Sepoys, were ordered by
Warren Hastings for the relief of the sister Presidency* The
war was carried on for some time with Uttle decided advan^
tage on either side, notwithstanding Hyder had received $l
valuable reinforcement x>( 3,000 French troops from Europe,
with the most skilful officers at their head.

The East India Company struggled not for conquests, but
for existence, and, on the death of Hyder in 178^, afteir
reigning 21 years, a peace was concluded with his son Tippoo
Saib, whose throne, although the most powerful in the East,
began now to be shaken by the Mahratta chieftains. Tlie
wily Sultan, after defeating the latter, made a peace> and
turned his arms towards the subjugation of Travancore^ si-
tuate between the 8th and 10th degrees N. lat., which,
amidst every shock, had hitherto maintained its independence
and neutrality. A treaty of alUance, offensive and defensive,
having been entered into between this little state and the
English, the unprincipled and faithless disposition of Tippoo
became so apparent, that Lord ComwalUs resolved on puCling
a stop to the ambitious designs of a man whose Words "wem
as false as his cruelty was odious. After a desperate and
hazardous campaign, during which Tippoo shewed the mott

WAR WITH TIPPOO 9AIB. 35

daring courage, Lord Comwallis invested the fonnidabfe
fiMtress of Seringapatam, in February, 1792, with 11,000
Europeans, 30,000 regular sepoys, 4& battery guns, and 44
£eld pieces, and in front of which Tippoo gave battle, with
50,000 chosen infimtry, and 5,000 cavalry, strongly intrenched
and defended.

The British, as usual, notwithstanding their inferior num-
bers, carried all before them, from the commencement of a
moonlight attack, at eight p«m. and the morning's dawn, be-
lield the Mysorean tyrant a fugitive, with the loss of ^,000
of his troops, in killed, wounded, and missing. Tippoo was
glad to sue for and accept peace, by the surrender of half
lufl dominions, the payment of 4,000,000/. and the delivery of
his two sons as hostages for the quiet fulfilment of the condi-
tions imposed.

By the treaty signed 18th May, 179S, the Company ob-
tained possession of the frontier territory of Baramahal o|i
the east, in the south Dindigul, on the west a great part ofi
Malabar, including Tehcherry and Calicut, and part of Ca-
nara, &c. But the restless spirit of Tippoo was not to be
qu^xiied by misfortune ; in 1794 he rec^ved back his chil-
dieii, and immediately commenced secret negodati<ms with
the French (then at war with England) for the renewal of his
purpose of * utterly de8tro3ring the English in India.'*

The new Governor General (Marquis of Wellesley) saw
hnmediately on his arrival in India (1798) that although his
most positive instructions from the Company were, if possible,
not to wage war with any native prince, nor to extend the
British Dominions in the E., yet that if existence were to be
preserved, particularly in the 8. of India, the coahtion between
Tippoo and the French must be broken, and a blow struck
which would prevent the former continuing to stir up all the
native powers against the English. Tippoo, under the pro-
mbed aid of 30,000 men from the French Directory, and with
the hope that Napoleon's expedition to Egypt would not be

* hukguBf^ df Txppoo'fl secret intercepted circular to the different
Gomts of India while proleiniig tlie greatest friendship for England.

36 TIPPOO'S COALITION WITH FRANCE.

firuitless as regarded its ultimate destination^ had joyfully
hailed the planting of a tree of liberty in his capital sur-
mounted by the * bonnet rouge,* while his Jacobinical firienda
hailed the Mysorean Despot on his own public parade as
* Citizen Tippoo !' — ^To have waited the consummation of the
anticipations of the crafty son of Hyder would have been po-
litical idiotcy ; the Governor General therefore declared war
against Mysore in February^ 1799, previously causing the dis-
arming of a French organized army of 14,000 men at Hydra-
bad. The army under General Harris, consisting of 4,381
European, and 10,695 native infantry— 884 European 1,751
native cavalry ; 2,400 Lascars and pioneers, 608 artillery, and
104 pieces of cannon, besides 6,000 foot and 10,000 horse,
under, the Nizam's British officers, together with 6,000 sol-
diers which advanced from Malabar under General Stuart,
was in a fine state of equipment, and had in its ranks one who
ever after carried with him the fortune of the day, and who
now in his very first attack on Tippoo's right wing evinced
well merited confidence in the British bayonets, which he has
always proudly boasted have won him every victory. Colonel
Wellesley led the attack on the Sultan's army which lay en-
camped within 30 miles of Seringapatam; a large column of
Tippoo's best disciplined troops advanced to meet him in noble
style ; the English infantry under WeUesley stood fast, re-
ceiving their opponents' fire until they arrived within 60 yards,
wh^ the EngUsh rushed to the charge with an impetus which
it was impossible for the Mysoreans to withstand ; they qui-
vered under the dreadful shock for a moment, then broke
their ranks and were completely routed by General Floyd
with the cavalry. Tippoo made little further resistance in
the field, but threw himself into his strong capital with the
elite of his forces ; and on the 5th of April, the British en-
camped on the western side of the far-famed fortress of Se*
ringapatam, situate at the W. end of a small island (lat.
90.S5 N., long. 76.45 E.) four miles long by one and a half
broad, surrounded by the river Cauvery, occupying about a
mile in extent, and principally remarkable for exhibiting the

DUKE OF WELLINGTON AT SERIN6APATAM. S7

long, strait walls, square bastions, and high and steep glacis
of the Hindoo engineers. The siege of Seringapatam went
forward with determined rapidity, though peace was offered
to Tippoo when he solicited terms on the ^6th of April,
which, however, he subsequently rejected: — ^On the 4th of
May, at 1 p. m., the breach being completed in the curtain, a
storming party of 4,000 British, led by the gallant General
Baird, moved to the attack ; Baird had been four years a pri«
soner in the fortress under Hyder's tyranny, and was in some
measure acquainted with the locale: — ^tne parapet was
speedily gained, — * Come, my brave fellowSy said their heroic
leader, in the presence of both armies — * follow me, and prove
yourselves worthy the name of British soldiers /* The appeal
was nobly answered : after a desperate but useless resistance,
the Mysoreans were totally routed; and when the terrible
conflict had ceased, the lifeless body of Tippo Saib was found
buried beneath a piled heap of wounded, dead and dying men
and horses, and the dynasty of Hyder Ali had ceased to reign.
The Marquis of Wellesley took possession of the fortress for
the East India Company, also the sea coast of Canara, the
district of Coimbatore and the passes of the Ghauts ; and of
a portion of the recent Mysore kingdom a native state was
founded, at whose head was placed the ancient and much re^
spected Rajah of Mysore's family, who had long lingered in
obscurity and poverty. The native state then formed has
continued to nearly the present period a protected one by the
British Government, but of late years, particularly since 1810,
its internal administration had become so bad, and the dis-
orders and unhappiness of the people so great, that the Court
of Directors, by a despatch dated 6th March, 1833, authorised
the Madras government to bring under the direct manage-
ment of the servants of the Company the whole of the terri-
tories of Mysore. In 1800, the fruitful districts of Bellary
and Cuddapah, which fell to the Nizam on the conquest of
Tippoo, were ceded by his Highness to the East India Com-
pany by treaty ; and in 1801 the Nabob of the Camatic ceded
to the Company the districts of Palnaud, Nellore, (7,930

88 MADRAS PRESID£NCT DOMINIONS.

square miles,) Angole, Arcot province, (13,630 square miles,)
the Pollams of Chittoor and the divisions of Satiraid Tinne*
velly (5,700 square miles,) and Madura, 10,700 square miles.)
These possessions, together with those mentioned in the fore*
going pages, the then seaport fortress of Negapatam, captured
from the Dutch in 1781, but now delapidated, and some minor
places, containing altogether an area of 143,000 square miles,
and a population of upwards of fifteen million, form the large
dominion under the government of the Madras Presidency*

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY,

This Presidency derives its name from the small island or
barren rocks of Bombay,* situate on the Malabar coast in lat.
18.56 N., long. 73.57 £• being about ten miles long and three
broad. It was formerly under the Mogul dominion, but ceded
to the Portuguese in 1530, by whom a fort was erected on the
S.E. extremity of the island, its fine harbour indicating it as
a desirable place for establishing a factory. In 1661 the is^
land was ceded by Portugal to Great Britain, as a portion of
the Infanta Catharine's fortune on her marriage with Charles
II. The mortality of the king's troops was so great, and
there being no advantage derived by the Crown from the pos-
session of Bombay, the expenditure being greater than the
receipts, his Majesty, in 1668, transferred the island to the
Hon. £• I. Company in free and common soccage as the Ma-
nor of East Greenwich, for which the E. L Company became
bound to pay the annual rent of 10/. in gold on the 30th of
September in each year. In 1681, Bombay was a dependency
of the E. I. Company's settlement of Surat,but in 1683 it was
erected into a presidency, and in 1686 became the head sta-
tion of the EngUsh on the western side of India, the seat of
government being transferred thither from Surat, the capital
of Gujerat, in lat. 21.11 N., long. 73.7 E., where the E.I.
Company had their principal factory since 1613. Until the
beginning of the 18th century, the settlement of Bombay

* Called by the Portuguese Bom Babia (good bay).

BOMBAY ACQUISITION AND POSITION. 39

languisbed in consequence of the ravages of the pl^tgue, civil
dissensions among the authorities and the piracy carried on
by E^iglishmen not in the service of the E. I. Company, which,
indeed, caused the Mogul's admiral to invest Bombay in, 1688,
by whom it was very closely pressed, Mahinif Mazagong and
Sion being captured, and the governor and garrison besieged
in the fort Submission, however, being made to Aurengzebe,
his forces were withdrawn from the settlement. In 1776 the
bland of Salsette, (long possessed by the Portuguese, but
wrested from them by the Mahrattas A. D, 1750, from whom
it was captured by the British in 1773,) 18 miles long and 14
broad, (which has since been joined to Bombay by a cause-
way,) was obtained by cession from the celebrated intriguer
Ragoba or Rugonath Rao, on condition of restoring him to
the supreme power as Peishwa or head of the M ahratta con-
federacy. In order to understand the origin of the Mahratta
war, it may be necessary to premise that this wily chieftain
was unde and guardian to Nareen Rao, a minor, who, on the
death of his brother Madhooras Ballajee, (styled the Great)
succeeded to the office of Peishwa, or head of the Mahratta
confederacy of feudal barons or chiefs. The minor was mur-
dered, as was said, at the instigation of his uncle Ragoba,
who in turn became Peishwa for a few months, until it was
discovered that the widow of the murdered youth was preg-
nant A considerable number of the Mahratta chiefs then
confederated — ^expelled Ragoba and formed a regency until
die accouchement of the widow should take place, and the
son or daughter of Nareen Rao be enabled to assume the
government Ragoba fled to Surat, denied all participation
in the deafh of hb nephew, questioned the legitimacy of the
widow's offspring, and soUcited the aid of the English to re-
cover the Peishwaship. Hence the subsequent contested and
wars with the Mahrattas.

On the downfal of the Mysore dynasty in the S. of India, it
was deemed necessary by the Marquis of Wellesley to curb
the domineering power of the Mahrattas under Dowlut Rao
Sindiah, Holkar, and the Rajah of Berar. A few words re-

40 RAOOBA, SINDIAH's AND HOLKAR*S DYNASTIES.

specting Sindiah and Holkar will, therefore, be necessary.
Ranojee Sindiah, the founder of the Sindiah family, first dis-
tinguished himself as a leader of the Mahratta army in 1738,
when its successes against the Imperial forces of the Delhi Em-
peror, led to the foundation of the Mahratta States of Sindiah,
Holkar and Puar. M ahadjee Sindiah was his fourth but illegi-
timate son, and on the death of his four brothers succeeded
to his father's jagheer or estates. He died in 1794, and was
one of the most powerful native princes of his day ; his whole
life was passed in the camp devoted to the improvement of his
army ; his infantry and artillery being formed on the model
of the European troops, and his cavalry after the graceful
manner of Mahomedans and Rajpoots. He was succeeded
by his grand nephew and adopted son Dowlut Rao Sindiah,
whose army constituted a disciplined force of 45,000 infantry,
divided into 73 battalions, under European officers, with a
park of 600 pieces of artillery, and a numerous cavalry. He
died 31st March, 1837, after having for SO years played a
prominent military part in Indian affairs : — On his death, his
army, at the lowest computation (inclusive of the British con-
tingent and garrisons to forts) consisted of 14,000 infantry,
10,000 cavalry, and 250 pieces of ordnance, and he left terri-
tories capable of realizing 14,000,000 rupees per annum, if
|>rop6rly managed. Mulhar Rao Holkar, the originator of his
own powerful dynasty, was the son of a shepherd, who, in
addition to tending sheep, gained a livelihood as a weaver of
cumlies (native blankets.) From the command of 35 horse,
under Kantajee Kuddum, he rose until we find him, in 1734,
at the head of 100 horse in the Peishwa's service, whose prin-
cipal leader he became in 1733, when for the support of his
troops, Indore, &c. was assigned to him. He died in 1765,
one of the most distinguished Mahratta leaders of his day,
leaving possessions rated at a gross annual revenue of
7,500,000 rupees. Jeswunt Rao Holkavy the formidable
chieftain alluded to under Western India, was the illegitimate
son of Tokajee Holkar, whom the celebrated Ahlya Baye,
widow of Khunda Rao, had raised to the command of her army

BATTLE OF A8SAYE — CESSIONS TO BRITISH. 41

although no relative. Jetwunt Rao Holkar raised himself to
the Imperial power by poisoning his brother and nephew
together with the wife of the former ; he died mad in 1811.
His invasion of the British possessions in Hindostan was at
the head of an army of 90,000 men, of whom 19,000 were in
brigades of disciplined infantry, and 7,000 in artillery.

It was against these powerful Chieftains that the battle of
Assaye was fought on the SSrd September, 1803, (in which
General Wellesley with a force of 4,500 men, of whom only
2,000 were European^, attacked the confederate disciplined
forces of 50,000 men, assisted by. a well organized French
artillery and 10,000 infantry, disciplined and officered by
Frenchmen), which may be said to have given supremacy to
the British influence in the west of India.

On the termination of hostilities in December, 180S, with
the Mahratta Dowlut Rao Sindiah, the valuable districts of
Broach, (sixteen himdred square miles) in the province of
Grujerat, having the gulph of Cambay on the west, was
ceded to the Bombay Presidency; as was also the strong
fortress of Ahmednuggur,* in the province of Aurungabad,
which had been previously captured by General Wellesley in
August, 1803, together with some other places of minor im-
portance* Cutch Province next claims attention : the Govern*
ment of this maritime district consists of a Rao, whose power
is partly hereditary, and partly elective at the will of the
the Jahrejah Blugad or brotherhood of chiefs. In 1801 and
1804 the Cutch State sent deputations to Bombay, but no
alliance was then formed ; in 1809, a wily adventurer had the
control of the Government, and it became the hot-bed of pirates
and robbers, who were a serious annoyance to the British,
and a treaty was entered into to prevent predatory incursions
in our own and our allies' territories. From this period the

* Lat. 19.15. N. long. 74.65. E. distant from Bombay 181 miles, and

from Calcntta 1^119 miles. The fort is entirely of stone, of an oval shape,

and about one mile in circumference. There are a great many martello

towers and a glacis to cover the base of the waU ; the ditch is deep and

- broad, and the whole area mthin vaulted for stores.

42 THB PEISHWA-*-<:UTCH QOVBRNMENT.

eontoDtioBa for tbe Sovereignty and the disorders of the
State became intolerable to the neighbouring Powers ; the
unprovoked hostility to the British Power by Bharmalja (the
fiither of the present Rao) together with his tyrannous and
oppressive conduct to the Jahreja Chiefs owing to inebriety
and insanity, led to the combined operations of the British
and Gaekwar*s troops, who reduced the fort of Angar, and
subsequently the whole province was restored to order. This
led to the treaty of Bhooj in 1816, by which for political
Biotives^ Mandavie the chief seaport of the Cutch province,
(lat. Sa.50. N. long. 69.33. £.) together with Anjar, &c. in
the same province, was ceded by the governing power to the
E. I. Company, and placed under the sway of the Bombay
Presidency; and in 1819, Cutch became a subsidized State,
the Snglish engaging to curb the plunderers from Wagur,
whose depredations had been carried on with desolating
vigour, and to keep the Sindeans and Khosaa from their occft-
sional invasions of the province.

The ambitious and treacherous designs of the Peishwa in
1817 against the British| by whom he had been elevated to
power and supported in his dominions so long, was the means
of extending yet more the territories under the Bombay Pre-
aidency. The Mahrattaa took advantage of the Pindary war
to commence hostilities, but the decisive conduct of the Mar-
quis of Hastings, as prievously stated, settled up to the present
period the fate of Western India, and in 1818, the Northern
and Southern Concan, (12,370 square miles) Kandiah (12,430
square miles) Poonah, (30,870 square miles) Dharwar, (9,950
square miles) and various territories, &c, in Gujerat, became
the dominions of the British in India; tbe whole of the
Bombay Presidency, now forming an area of 64,938 square
miles, and a population of 7,000,000 million souls.

Stipendiary Princes, — Subsidiary and Protected States,

— ^AND FEUDATORY AND TRIBUTARY ChIEFTAINS OF BRITISH

India.

Stipendiary Princes. — ^It will be seen from the fore-

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY — ^STIPENDIARY PRINCES.

going details that a large portion of the British dominions
in the East is made up of the possessions of Princes 'who
either themsehres^ or their descendants now enjoy stipends
paid to them out of the public revenues. These Princes
first became connected with us by subsidiary alliances^ and
ceded territories in return for military protection^ — others
lost their dominions by the chances of war, while som^
territories were taken under our control from the absolute
incapacity of the rulers, or their tyranny, which in mercy to
the unhappy sufferers we could no longer permit to exist.
The Princes of the first and last classes are formally iib-
stalled on the Musnud, allowed to exercise sovereignty over
the tenants on their household lands,-^they are exempted
firom the jurisdiction of the British Courts of law, have their
own civil and military fiinctionariesi with all the insignia of
state, and a British Envoy usually resident at their Court,
whose duties chiefly relate to their pecuniary affairs, or the
ceremonials of sovereignty. The following is an abstract in
round numbers of their stipends.

1801

I77t
1799

Tlllai of Prlai

Empcnr of DdU and funllf
Soabfaadwr ot tke Cwnatic . .
nouitteB at famiat SoaUut-

dan

BaAah of Ttakm

Soabhadar of Bengal, &c. . .
Funilies of former Do. &c.. .

Ra)ah of Benares

FtakUifa of Hyder AU and

nppoo

BaJabs of Malabar

Stipend.
Rmpets.

15,90,000
11,65,400

9,00,000

11,88,500

16,00,000

9,00,000

1,43,000

6,89.949
a,50,000

Wlien
granisd

1818
1818
1808
1803
1806

1818
1818
1771

Titieti of PrlBCO.

BjjeeRow ......1 ^^^^

CUmni^ee Appah t »>«
VUiaeekRao .... f tJ^n.

ZoolflknrAU J "°*"y

Himmat Baliadoor'a detcen-

dants

Benaeek Rao and Seeta Baee

Gowind Rao of Calpee

Nawaub of Masalipatam ....

Total Rupees. .

Stipend.
Rapeen»

8,00,000
8,00,000
7,50,000
4,00,000

60,000
2,50,000
1,00,000

50,000

1,084)1,449

* Or at the rate of 8f. per Rapee, in sterling, 4^1,089,144

Subsidiary Alliances. — ^Nearly onehalf of the Hindostan
territory is held by Governments in subsidiary alliances with

* A very able document drawn up by Mr. B. S. Jones of the Board of
CoDtroly makes the amount of stipends paid in 1827-28, as follows^ —
Nabob of Bengal, S. R. 22,40,350,— Rajah of Benares 1,34,282,— Em-
peror of Delhi» 13,40,983,— Benaeek Rao, 5,79,866,^Nabob of Arcot,
17,63,965,— Rijah of Tanjore, 10,47.389,— Nawanb of Ma8ullpatam,52,671,
—Families of Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib, 6,38,858,— the late Peishwa,
Bajee Rao and Chimnajee Appah, 22,42,023,— Nabob of Surat, 1,62,675.
ToUl 1,01,92,557 or at 2s, the S. R. £1,019,255 sterling.

44 8VBSIDIARY STATES — AREA, RAVETIUE, StlBSIDYt &C.

the British Government, the general terms of the tresties
with whom are, on the side of the English, protection
agunst external enemies, and on the other, a submitting, in all
pohtical relations with foreign states, to the arbitration and
final adjudication of the British Government; a specific force
is fiimish&d by theC I. Company, and a territory equivalent
to the maintenance of the troops ceded by the former : the
subsidizing state is also bound to keep on foot a specific
contingent force to act in subordinate co-operation with the
subsidiary. The protecting power is not to interfere with
the internal administration of the protected state, but in
cases of exigency it reserves the right in general to assume
the whole of the resources of the protected state. The
subsidiary force is liable to be called out to protect the legal
succession to power, but not to be employed between the
head of the Government and its Zumendars or Chiefs.

The following is given as a list of the Princes, the military
protection of whose territories is undertaken by the British
Government, together with the amount of subsidy paid by
each, or the revenue on the territorial as^gnment in heu of
subsidy.

Two of the foregoing (Oude and Mysore) can scarcely be
styled stipendiary, the former being almost entirely de-
pendent, on the British Government, and the latter recently
ordered under the direct management of Madras Presi-
dency, owing to long misgovemment. Sindiah's territories

" Some nucounta give the aru of Oude at 17,008,000 wres, of which
about one teoth it Juoftle and forMC

PROTECTED STATES AND POLICY ADOPTED. 45

should also of right be excluded as^ to a great extent^ he is
independent of our authority. The charges include revenue
collection^ politicalj judicial and police^ maintenance of pro-
vincial battaUonSy customs, mint, &c, ; the balance remaining
after these deductions go to the purpose for which the territo-
ries were granted — ^namely, the military protection of the
Government which assigned them.

Protected States. — Besides the foregoing Governments,
there are several minor principalities with whom engagements
or treaties have been entered into agreeably to the peculiar
circumstances of each, but with general stipulations appU-
cable to all ; namely, that the Protected State maintain no
correspondence of a political tendency with foreign powers
without the privity or consent of the British Government,
to whom the adjustment of its political differences is to be
referred; they are perfectly independent in their internal
nile, but acknowledge the supremacy of the British Govern-
ment. When the interests of both powers are concerned,
the troops of the protected state, act in the field in subordi-
nate co-operation to the British forces, the latter being em-
powered to avail themselves of natural or other advantages
in the allied country against an enemy when necessary.
No asylum for criminals or defaulters is permitted, and
every assistance required to be given to effect their appre-
hension in the state. Europeans not to be employed with-
out British permission. According to the resources of the
protected state, a tribute is required, or a military contingent
to be kept in readiness, or service to be rendered according
to the means of $he protected pow^r. The states thus pro-
tected,* but without subsidiary alliances, are —

1^^. in the N* W. Siccim and the Sikh and HUl States, on
the left bank of the Sutlej — (the Sirdars are in number 150).

9md. Riypoot States. Bickaneer, Jesselmere, Jyepore,

* The IVotected States^ and Jagerdars in Bundlecond^ are in namber
d7s— «res in square miles, 12,918; number of yillages, 5,755; popula-
tion, 1,37B,400; revenue, rupees 8,381,300; cavalry, 6,087, and infantry
22,430. For detuls see Appendix.

PROTBCTED STATES AND POLICY ADOPTED.

Joudpore, Oudepore, Kotaliy Boondee^ Serowey, Kishen-
gurh, Dowleah, and Pertaubgud)» Doorapoorey Bansworra.

SrdL Jfmt a9id other Statei on the right bank of the Jmmnu.
Bhurtpore, Uivar, or Macfaerry, Kerowlee*

4fth. Boondelah Statei* Sompthur, Jhaiisi) Jaloun, Oorcluty
or Tehree, Dutteah, Rewah.*

5th, Steves in Mcdwa. Bhopaul, Dhar, Dewas, Rntiaiini,
Silana^ Nursinghur^ Amjherra^ &c. &c &c.

Gth. States in Guzerat, Pahlunpore, Rahdunpore, Raj-
peepla, Loonawara, SoonCh^ the States in the Myhee Cannta,
the Kattywar States*

^th. States on the Malabar Coast {ehiefiy Mahra^.
Sattarahy Sawunt Warree) Colapore, C(Jahba«

8th. Burmese Frontier. Cachar^ Jyntia.

States not under British Protection. Scuidia, the Rajah
of Dholapore, Barree and Rajakera (formerly Rana of Gohttd),
Runjeet Sing of Lahore, the Ameers of Scind, and the Rajah
of Nepaul.

The table on the opposite page exhibits the tribataries and
territories acquired ia India since 1813.

* Statement of protected States and Jageerdan in Sangor, abstracted from
the Letter of the Agent in the Sangor and Nerbudd% dated 4th Dec.
1831. See Bengal Political Cons. 13th January^ 1832, No. 56.

^ .

•

Mmtary force.

m»xm.

BEtent«rTttiitorsr.

»^

CmftHty-

lat^trf.

Rewah

70 Cobs, 8 miles N. to S.
«imI eo B. to W.

4000

ISOOOOO

9000000

4000

m •

Ocfaeynh .

10 Coss, B. to W.
7 ditto, N. to 8.

404

190000

150000

50 or 00

800

Sohawol

Compated to own aboat
half the qoaatlty of Land
that Ocheyrah possessed.

S174

80000

100000

» •

« a

KottM . .

6 Coss, B. to W.
5 ditto, N. to 8.

80000

SO or 80

800

llTbor

16 Coss, E. to W.
10 ditto, N.toS.

100000

150000

900

1800

Coss, N. to 8.
2a ditto, E. to W.

S8i

80000

69000

900

1000

Cttlndea .

thieliidediatli^

80000!

Bimerea

/ Rewa

h State.

70000

I :

Tiirr

■Ir

4. . ftl. .

Irhrm

I-

j-'j

I I !i

iin<

llill!

i:::::

t s

!!• r

u .J

Sim H 119 . I 9 tils

i% II IS
i i.li

iilAiyiiiii I { fir 11 1!

II I

48 FEUDATORY CHIEFS AND FOREIGN ALLIANCE.

British Feudatory CHiEFs.-^These chiefis so far differ
from the former class, that^ while the protected chiefs had
treaties concluded with them as independent princes, the
/eudatory have had their allegiance tranferred to Great
Britain bj their feudal superiors or by the events of war. In
most cases the lands which they held as a life tenure, have
been converted by our government into a perpetuity, and the
chiefs are permitted a supreme control on their own lands.
Among the number of these chiefs may be mentioned the
Putwurdhun family, of which there are nine chiefs ; the Sou-
bahdar of Jansi, chief of Julaon and Calpee ; family of Angria,
(the Mahratta pirate) ; numerous tributaries in Kattywar and
in Gujerat; the Rajahs of Shorapoor and Gudwal; the
Seedee of Jinjeera, and other Abyssinian chiefs.*

British Allies. — ^Independent of the foregoing States, the
East India Company's government have general treaties with
other surrounding nations, viss : — with Persia the Company are
in alliance, and have a resident at the court of the sover-
eign. With Cochin-China^ Siam, Caubul, Nepaul, and Ava,
the intercourse of the Company is principally of a commercial

* Parliamentary Retwn of the area of Protected and Allied States. —
Dominions of the Rfyahs of Travancore and Cochin, 9>400 square miles ;
Nizam, 108,800 ; R^ah of Mysore, 29,750 ; King of Oude, 25,300 ;
Dowlat Rao Scindiah, 42,400 ; the Rajah of Berar, including Nagpore,
64,270; Jeswunt Rao Holkar, 17.600; the Guicowar, including the de«
tached Pergunnahs belonging to the British in Kattywar and Quzerat,
36,900$ Rajah of Koorg, 2,230; Nabob of Kumool, 3,500; Rajah of
Sikhim, 4,400; Nabob of Bhopal, 7»360; Rajahs of Sattara, Ck>lapore,
Sewuntwarree, and the principal British Jaghiredars, 21,600; Rajah of
Catch, 6,100; Soubedar of Jhansi, Rajah of Duttea and others* com-
monly known as the Bundlecund Chiefs, 19,000. Territories under British
protection W. of the river Jumna, comprehending Jhodpore, Bikanier,
Jessulmeer, Khotah, the Seikh Country, the Hill Districts of Sirmoor, and
other small states, 165,000. Of Assam, Jynteea, Cachar, and Maneepore,
the boundaries are so undefined that it is difficult to form even an approxi-
mation to their superficial contents, but it is estimated at 51|000. Total,
614,610 square miles.

OBTAINING AREAS BY WEIGHING A MAP. 49

nature^ but - they have residents established at Nepaul and
Ava.

With the Imaum of Muscat y and with other Chiefs on the
western shores qf the Persian Gulf the Company have
treaties for coBomercial purposes, and with a view to the
suppression of the slave trade, and of piracy in the Oulf.
fai order to secure the fulfilment of the provisions of these
treaties, the Company have estabUshed political agents on
the shores of the Persian and Arabian Gulfs.

The area of the kingdoms and principalities of India has
been computed by Capt. J. Sutherland after a novel manner ;
the boundaries of each state having been marked off on a
skeleton map, drawn on paper of equable texture, the whole
were cut out with the greatest care, and weighed individually
and collectively, as a check in the most deUcate balance of
the Calcutta Assay Office : the weights were noted to a thou-
sandth part of a grain, the balance being sensible to the
tenth part of that minute quantity. Before setting to work
on the States, an index, or unit of 100 square degrees, cut
from the same paper, was first weighed, to serve as a divisor
for the rest The weighing process commenced in the driest
part of the day, taking the whole of the papers together ;
thus the continent of India weighed 1S7,667 grains troy : the
sum of the individual weights of the separate states 127,773
grains troy : the addition was proved to proceed from the
faygrometric water, absorbed towards the evening, and cor-
rections were applied to endeavour to neutralise this source
of error: the following- data must, however, only be consi-
dered as an approximation to truth in the absence of better
information, owing to the imperfect data of maps of India.
By Capt. Sutherland's weighing process, the area of the native :
States, in alliance with the British government, is 449,845
square miles. That of the territory under British rule, with
the remaining small states and Jagerdars, 626,591, giving the
superficial area of India l,076j591 square miles, which nearly
agrees with Hamilton's estimate of 1,108,000.

VOL. I. £

CLASSIFICATION OF THE NATIVE INDIAN STATES.

Capty Sutherland classes the native States of India under
the three following heads^ viz : —

1st. Foreign. — ^Persia, Kabool, Senna, the Arab tribes,
Siam, and Acheen. 9nd. External an the frontier. — Ava,
Nepali Lahore^ and Sinde. ^d. Internal (to which the fol-
lowing areas refer), which, according to the nature of their
relations, or treaties, with the Brituh, he divides into six
classes*

First Class.

B7 Wdgfament. B7 Hunllton.«

1. Ottde, square miles, 23,923 20,000*

2. Mysore, do. . . 27,999 27,000
a Berar,orNaf(pur,do.56,723 70,000

4. Tra?ancore, do.

5. Cochin, do.

6. Hyderabad, sq. m.

7. Baroda, do. . .

4,574 6,000
1,988 2;000

Treaties offensireand defensive ;
right on their part to dum pro*
tection external, and internal
from British government and
right of the latter tQ interfere
in internal af&irs.

Second Class.

88,884 96,000
24,960 12,000

Do. with the exception of the
right of Britain to interfere in
internal affairs, but empowered
'to require the aid of Britbh
troops for the realization of the
sovereign's just cUdms on his
subjects.

Third Class.

8. Indore, . . . square miles 4,245

f 9. Oudipore, (H. 7,300) 11,784

10. JeypOr, 13,427

11. Judpoor 34,132

12. Kotah, (H. 6,500) . . 4^89

13. Bundi, (H. 2,500) • . 2,291

14. Alwar 3,235

<» . 15. Bikbanir, .... 18.060

*^ 16. Jesalmir, .... 9,779

17. Kishengurh, .... 724

18. Bauswarra, .... 1,440
19 Pertabgurh, .... 1,457

20. Di&ngarp6r, .... 2,005

21. Keroli 1,878

122. Serowi, . . 3,024

33. Bhurtpdr, (H. 5,000)' 1,946

24. Bhopal, (H. 5,000) . . 6,772

25. Cutch (H. 13,300) , . 7,396

26. Dhar and Dewas, . 1,466

27. Dh61p(ir. .... 1,626

28. (in Bundlekund) Rewah, . 10,310

Treaties offensive and defensive,
states mostly tributary; ac-
knowledging the supremacy of,
and promising subordinate co-
-operation to, the British go-
vernment, but supreme rulers
in their own dominions.

29.
30.

and Terhi,

Dhattea, Jhknsi

Sawantwari,

16,173

935 J

* Extracted from Hamilton's Hindoostan byway of Gomparisen.

RELIGION AND DIVISION OF THE PROTECTED STATKS. 51

Fourth Class.

Guarantee and protection, sub-
ordinate co-operation, but su-
'premacy in their own territory.

^cs r^^-'^<»^k> • • 1,1031
gJ^Seronj, . . . 261 1 1,633
^^ INimbahara, . . 269 J
32. Pkitiala, Keytal, Naba, and

Jeend, . . 16,602

Fifth Class.

S3. Gwalior, , 32,944— Amnity and Mendship.

Sixth Class.

34. Sattara, .... 7,943 ] Protection, with the ri|^ht of the

35. Kolap(ir» . .3,184 > British Govemment to control

J internal afikirs.

Of tbe above States Capt. Sutherland enumerates four aft
Mahomedan {L e. with Mussulman rulers I presume), viz :—
Hydrabad, Oude, Bhopal, and Tonk : of the Hindoo States
eight are Mahratta, viz : — Sattara, Gwalior, Nagpur, Indore,
Banda, Kolapur, Dhar, and Dewas: 19 are Rajput, viz: —
Oadipur, Jeypurj Judpur, Bundi, Kotah, Cutch, Alwar, Bhi*
kanir, Jesalmir, EJshenghur, Banswara, Pertafagurh, Dungeiv
pur, Kerole, Serow6, Rewah, Dhattea, Jhanse, artd Terhi :
six are of other Hindoo tribes, viz: — Mysore, Bburtpoor, Tra-
vancore, Sawantwari, Cochin, and Dholpur. Besides these
allied States, there are the following inferior Raj ships and
Jagerdars, viz: — Chota-Nagpur, Singujer, Sumbhalpur, Oudi-
poor, Manipur, Tanjore, the Baroach family, Ferozpur, Me-
rich, Tansgaon, Nepani, Akulkote, and those of the Sagar
and Nerbudda country, together with Sikhim, and the States
of the Northern Hills.

Before closing the subject, it may be desirable to mention
an independent chief of great talent, wealth, and power, with
whom the British government is on terms of friendly alli^
ance. I allude to Runjeet, or Ranajit Sing, whose country
mcludes not only what is called the Punjaub, and the whole
of the lovely and important valley of Cashmere, but also con-
siderable tracts of territory beyond the Indus from Tatta on
the S. to Thibet on the N.^ and from Caubul on the W. to
beyond the Sutlej bn' the E. This formidable Potentate pos-
sesses a large army (see MUiiary chapter\ an immense arse-
nal at Umritzar, and a vast treasury (his annual revenues are
estimated at 1,80,00,000 rupees) at Govind Garrow.

1)2 MR. JENKINS ON OUR ASCEND ANCV IN INDIA —

On the important question of the advantages, or disadvan-
tages of subsidiary alliances, I am happily saved the necesisity
of dilating, by reason of the following statesman-like evidence
given before the late East India Parliamentary Committee,*
by Richard Jenkins, Esq. M.P., a gentleman who had passed
30 years of his life in the civil service of the East India Com-
pany (the last 20 of which were spent as a diplomatist), and
whose opinions, here given, bespeak his high range of talent
On being interrogated upon the general nature and character
of our subsidiary treaties in India, and their eflFect upon the
good government of the respective territories, to which they
relate, — ^Mr. Jenkins thus replied.

The question re^i^aitliiig our subsidiary alliances seems to require a short
reference to the still more general one, viz. are we to maintain our ascen-
dancy as the paramount power in India ; and if so, is it to be maintained
through the means of subsidiary alliance, or through what other system*

The rise and progress of our power in India hare been n;g\d and mar-
vellous. Unlike other empires ours has been in a great degree forced upon
us, built up at almost every step against our own deliberate resolution to
avoid it, in the face, I may say, of every opposition which could be given
to it by the Legislature, by his Mijesty's Government, by the Court of
Directors' acting upon corresponding dispositions in our governments
abroad. Each successive Governor-General for the last half century, sent
from this country, with minds fresh and untouched by local prejudices, in-
cluding Lord Comwallis during his first administration, who went to India
under the Act containing the well knoivn denunciation against conquest and
extension of dominion ; Lord Wellesley, Lord Minto, Lord Hastings,
(the two last strongly impressed against the existing foreign policy in In-
dia) and Lord Amherst, have seen reason to enter into the wars and nego<
dations, defensive in their objects, but generally terminating in that very
extension of territory and dominion which was dreaded.

What are we to infer from this, but that our position in India has al»
ways been such, that our existence has depended on the very steps pro-
scribed by the Legislature, and which would surely have been most reli-
giously avoided by those noblemen, had not the public safety demanded a
contrary course ; that at no one time for the last 60 years have our ablest
and most enlightened politicians been able to find a resting-place where
we might repose in security amidst the wreck of surrounding states, and

« 27th March, 1832.

SUBSIDIARY POLICY ITS MAIN SOURCE. 53

that we are now perhaps in the kame oncerudn predicament, though all bat
masters of the whole of India.

With regard to the system on which this ascendancy, if necessary to our
existence in India, is to be maintained, I have to observe, that a very great
proportion of our power has arisen out of the subsidiary policy. It is in-
deed the main source of oar ascendancy, both military and political, it has
grown with our growth, and strengthened with our strength ; it is inter-
woven with oar very existence, and therefore the question of abandoning,
or materially departing from it, seems to me to be quite irrational, unless
we are at the same time prepared to abandon India.

We first appeared in India as traders, but it was as armed traders, and
our various contests with onr European rivals, the prospect of which ren-
dered a warlike garb necessary to support our peaceful objects, were the
origin of our military reputation in that region. Courted even by the
Great Mogul, and by the Sophi of Persia, as useful instruments to free
their coasts from pirates, we acquired, as the price of our aid, many of
those commercial, advantages which fixed us on the continent of India.
Then again the brealdng up of the Alogui empire led to arming onr fieu;-
tories, to protect our lives and properties. • The same skill and gallantry
which had at first won our way to commercial settlements, displayed anew,
induced the native powers newly arising out of the wrecks of the empire,
to court onr aid in their contests with one another; and the views of secur-
ing and improving our commerdal establishments, through the favour of
those powers, forbad our refusing to intermeddle with their politws. Here
the first step was the decisive one r once committed we could not recede.

The French in the meantime had made still bolder advances to empire in
India, and onr destruction or their expulsion became the alternatives.
Gould we hesitate which to choose? We now began to raise armies.
These were to be paid ; and could only be paid by the princes whose cause
we espoused against the French and their allies : pecuniary payments often
fisiling, territorial assignments took their place, and we were obliged to ex-
ercise a civil as well as a military power. Our whole dominion on the
coast of Goiomandel arose in this way, and much of that on the western
coast : and through it, and the armies it enabled ua to maintain, the power
of Hyder was checked, and that of his son Tippoo was annihilated : the
French power and infiuence in the Deocan was destroyed, and the Mah-
ratta empire bronght under subjection. In Bengal, though the acquisition
of the Dewannee, gave us the great nucleus of onr power in that quarter s
still it was extended and secured through the same system of subsidiary
. alliances applied to Oude ; and in fact, if we examine the composition of
our territorial acquisitions, we shall find that a very considerable portion
of them has accrued to us in payment by the native states of specified num^
bers of. oar troops, amounting in revenue to the whole military expenses

SUBSIDIARY POLICY. THE MAIN fiOUECE

of Ben^> as the foDowiiijc roi»gli su^tement will shew. The civil chaqpBl
beiiif? deducted, the balance is given as appru^ble to military pmp^ses* .

1897-28.

CamatlCfin Hea of Subsidy.

Tuijore.

Nizam

Felfthwa

Travanoore sabsidy

Cbehln ditto

Ifyioredltto

Gaychwaf

Onde

Benares

Nagpora Oesshms

Do. Tlibate

BereniMt*

804,673
584,869

estimated at. .

388,790
l|81S,8tt
778,533
csttaiated at. .

Chril Charges.

<tf 493,270
186^698
138,911

147,170
506»398
833,359

Balance.

4^11,004
908,084
541,458
480,008
80^409
»,857
900,088
835,696

]^07»38e
546,174

60,000

Total Subsidies, and Cessions in Ilea of ditto £4,689,040

If^ with these great advantapfcs, and many others, we also experience
some inconveniences from oar sabsidiary alliances, we most not complain ;
bat I really see none of the latter to onrsehee at all to be put in competi-
tion with the former. I do not believe that we have ever been engat^ed in
a war in defence of oar allies, which did not call upon us to interfere in
their favonr whether they were our allies or not. Whilst having >the right
to goide their political conduct in the minutest points, we are secure from
any involvement in hostilities of an ofieneive nature through their ambi-
lion or want of faith, many other advantages of our alliances will be ob-
vious on consideration of the general position of the several states and our
own. Our subjects, I presume, derive 4>enefit from any political situation
which strengthens our power, and relieves them from .the dangers of in-
vasion ; and by preserving peace and order amongst our neighbours, tidies
from before their eyes the temptation to a life of plunder and irregularity ;
settles their minds to a determined adherence to peaceable avocations, and
opens sources of foreign trade to their industry and enterprise ; and each
is the result of the subsidiary system.

With regard to the effect ^of our alliaaces upon the native prinoes them-
selves, and their subjects, I would premise, that our alliances are such>as
were concluded with the states that were at the time upon some footing of
equality with ourselves, though M by some external danger to submit to
certain terms implying a diminution of sovereignty, as the Nizam, the
Peishwa and the Guychwar, or such as exist with states owing their very
existence to our creation or forbearance, or those mth inferior states
whose internal independence in civil affairs we acknowledge, with certain
exceptions inseparable from vtheir subordination to us in military matters,
and in cirenmstsnees afieedng lite publio traM|uillity.

With respect to the first dass, they have aH obtained Ibe benefit they
sought, of security from external danger, by which they were left at H«
bertf , if so inclined, to cultivate the arts of peace. The natund effect.

OF BRITISH ASCENDANCY IN INDIA. 55

hovfeftr, of mch a cdnnectioii is to lessea the energy'aad Belf«depoiideD€t
of ^e iiatlfe ^tate, and to induce it to neglect its natural retources/ or only
to cnltjyate them to the d^ree necessary to swell their personal treasures,
Idth a ti^w to conting^encies, either of hostile attempts on their own part
6r on ours ; and the result, speakinfif broadly, has been a gradual falling of
the power of the state into our hands, (e?en where, by treaty, all inter-
ference in internal afbirs has been prohibited,) whether from the weaka^s
or the evil disposition of our "tXty, giving rise to dangers and disorders that
would otherwise have ditfsol^ed the alliance, and caused the destruction of
the stete by a contest with us, or its own dissolution from internal or ex-
temal fbrte. These consequences, too, have occurred, in spite of our
effints to prevent thetn, at Hyderabad, whilst at Poooah the success of such
efforts has not prevented the forcible disruption of the alliance. With the
afiairs of the Quychwar we have been involved «6 inith in a direct inter-
ference ; and the necessity of reverting to it, i^ter a trial of our opposite
system, is the best proof of the evils of the latter, if not of the benefits df
Hie former, only adopted from absolute necessity in the first instance.

With regard to their subjects, our support, has given cover to opprea-
lAons and extortions, which probably, under other circumstances, would
bave driven them to rebellion ; and such evils have only been remedied
where we have been forced to a direct interference for the special purpose
af remedying diem.

The freedom from external invasion, unless accompaiued with such in-
terfierence, I ^ould fear would hardly be a boon to the inhabitants y for
tdth all the borttsrs of such invasions, especially i»y the Pindarees, they
were usually well prepared to mitigate their effects in part, and in part to
torn them to their own account in evading the exaction of their princes.

l^th regard to the second class of states, as Holkar, Mysore, Satarah,
Oude and Nagpore, (not to speak of the states of Travancore and Cochin,)
we have a formal right of interference with all but that of Holkar ; and
alltough with regard to him there may exist some grounds of exoeption
to the conclusion, it appears to me that in all the considerationB of the in*
lerests (I mean the real welfare, apart from the pride of indqiendence) of
the governments and their subjects, the benefits of direct interference and
control wiU be found to predominate. In such cases, if we have the courts
tiie highest classes eivfl and military, viz. the official dassee, the great
hndowners, and a few leading bankers against us, we have the middle and
lower orders^ monied, meroatttile, manufactiuring, agricultural, and even
inlliiary for OS.

The last class, as the states in centtai India and Ri^otana, have n&-
dOubtedly received benefits from the connection with us, in being saved
from destructicm, or at least a constant state of depftssion and misery,
uall^r Bfahratta, Pataai and PIndaree domination, beyond that of any other

56 BALANCED ADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIARY SYSTEM.

State or people, and tlie increased cultifation and prosperity of those rcu
gions is a proof of it ; still there are difficulties and hasards attending these
connections which I am not prepared to go into.

If there be any class of states wliich may be supposed to embrace our
protection with a certainty of its nnmixed advantafe both to them and our-
selves, such states are the latter. The less we interfere with their internal
concerns, I should say the less likely ft would be that causes of discontent
would arise ; and free as they are, or ought to be, from the jealousy of
our domination, having been always dependent on one power or other, ge-
nerally on all who are stronger than Aemselves, yet the high military spirit
of the tribes of which tiiey are composed will hardly submit for a length of
time even to the just restrunt imposed by us on thdr hostilities vrith each
other or their domestic feuds. Still we may hope to Iceep them attached
to ourselves in a greater degree than any other class of our allies.

Of the latter I fear we can never be sure, through any course of policy^
however liberal, but by the means of our actual military strength ; and
although it is, of course, just to do our utmost to keep them in their actual
condition, as settled by trustees, and perhaps politic with a view to the al-
ternative of bringing their dominions under our direct rule, and to other
considerations of keeping up the respectable classes of natives as long as
our institutions are at variance with that object, I am rather of opinion
that, in all points of view, such an alternative is not the worst, if we regard
our own interest, those of our own subjects or those of foreign states,
whether governors or governed. Act as we will we cannot divest ourselves
of the high station we are placed in without the danger and ahnost cer-
tmnty of a complete foil ; nor, were we philanthropic enotigh to view such
an event with indifference, if conducive to the real good of India, can we
anticipate any such consequence. On the other hand, the ebbs and flows of
our poHcy, sometimes itiierferittg for the people, sometimes withdrawing
our protecting arm, are a poutive evil both to the native princes and to
their subjects, and injurious to our reputation for consistency and good
futh, encouraging to our enemies, and mortifying to, or even worse, dis-
gusting to our friends. I am of opinion^ then, that we ought not to recede
from any step we have guned, but to improve every occasion legitimately
presented, to compensate the inhabitants of India for the unavoidiable evils
of foreign domination, by securing to them the benefit at least of more en-
l^tened, just and humane principles of government.

Placed in the midst of nations foreign to us, and inimical not only to u$,
but to isvery other people, by the extraordinary and exclusive nature of
their religion, manners, customs and habits, not to mention language,
which hardly alludes to foreigners but in terms of contempt, and not taking
into account those sources of hatred and jealousy common to all nations
under a foreign yoke, and particularly to those native states who have M-

PR0GBS88 OF BRITISH POWER IN HIND08TAN. 57

lea from a high estate to one of humiliating dependence, it if expecting* I
may almoet say, impossibilities^ to look to any means of maintaining our
footing in India, but by the cultivation and improvement of our intrinsic
strength, to exclusion of all reliance on our foreign relations for anything
but a gradual preparation for the entire conquest of the €!ontinent.

The rise and progress of the British power in Hindostan,
has now, with as much brevity as possible been brought to a
close, and it is almost impossible, at this short distance of time,
to contemplate coolly and impartially, the important proceed-
ings therein narrated : step by step, from the landing of Clive,
in 1757, at Calcutta, for the re-conquest of the few acres of
land possessed by the East India Company to the present
period, the British power has gone on increasing in strength,
and I trust in wisdom. There can be no doubt, that if the
happiness of the great mass of the people be considered as
paramount, the acquisition of the Indian provinces by the
British^ must be looked on as a most fortunate circumstance,
for peace, the indispensable prelude to civilization, had not
within record or tradition heretofore been known to continue
for the shortest period among the unhappy inhabitants. The
Mahomedan dynasties were built on usurpation, cemented with
the blood of the feeble and innocent and maintained by seques-
trating the riches of the wealthy ; the policy of the Moslems in
Asia was complete subjugation, universal dominion, and uncon-
trolled despotism; their ruling princip^eV avarice, sensuality,
an imposing pageantry, and a conversion «co the faith of the
Koran. The Mahratta conquests were considered as preda-
tory acquisitions, to be held only by the sword ; and such was
the confused condition of the small Principalities existing in
different parts of India, that in the Carnatic for example, no
less than twenty petty chiefs assumed at one time the title of
Nizam Ul Mulk (Composer of the State), exhibiting a scene
of boundless exaction and rapacity on the part of those
cbdming the government; no wonder therefore that the
ploughman was armed at his rustic occupation, and the shep-
herd while peacefully tending his herds, always prepared for
the battle field. Property of every kind may well be supposed
totaOy devoid of security ; Mr. Orme, writing at the time, says

58 FORMfifl INSECURITY OP PROPERTY, AnD

(Book I. CSi. IV.) *'tbe mechanic or artificer, under the go-
Ternmentof the petty Princes, will only work to the measure
of his necessities — ^he dreads to be distinguished ; if he be-
comes too noted for having acquired a little more money
than others of his craft, that will be taken from him ; if con-
spicuous for the excellence of his skill, he is seized upon by
some person m authority, and obliged to work for him night
and day.' It is indeed on authentic record, that rebellion, mas-
sacres, and barbarous conquests, make up the history of India
from the remotest annals ; we read of thousands — twenty —
seventy — a hundred thousand persons being slaughtered in
one day^ without the slightest compunction; — unbounded
perfidy and treason ; — ^never ending assassination for personal
revenge, or public confiscation, — ^the noses and ears of thou-
sands cut ofi^ one time, justice openly sold, villainy prac-
tised in every form, — all law and religion trodden under foot,
— the bonds of private friendship, of connexions, of society,
broken, — every individual, as if amidst a forest filled with
wild beasts, relying upon nothing but the strength of his own
arm ; — in fine, the work of war and blood was perpetual,
living beings hewed or torn * to pieces, hillocks of bodies and
pyramids of human heads piled up for public show, the
inhabitants of whole provinces hunted like wild beasts for
royal amusement ; the march of a monarch, whether Mussul-
man or Mahratta, tracked by gore, desolation, burning vil-
lages, famine, and pestilence.

It may perhaps be said that I have exaggerated these
statements in order to uphold the sway of the E. I. Com-
pany, but let the reader peruse the following description of
the former state of India, by Mr. Rickards, whb did all in his
power to destroy the Company, though c<mrpdled to admit
their fitness for the government of India; — ^Mr. Rickards,
speaking of the Mahomedan dynasties in India, says, that
' Throughout the whole period of the Mahomedan ascendancy
in the south of India, the same enormities, the never-failing
accompaniments of their presence and power, are recorded
to have been uniformly and unceasingly perpetrated, as in
the northern provinces. To rfeview the occulrences of this

aCSN£S OF BUTCQBilY AND DEVASTATION. 59

period, would qnly he to gkre further examples of the aame
unprovoked and devastating warfare, the same istniggles for
power, jlihe same unbridled thirist of conquest, the same per^
^y, treaswy and private awamnaUon ; the same disregard
of any tie, whether of nature, of honesty, or of honour,
and the same persecution, oppresaion, and massacre of the
Hindoos*

* The scenes, indeed, of butchery and blood, are often
mentioned as too horrid to relate — thousands — twen^ —
seventy^ a hundred thousand smiIs being saorfficed at one
tiate, without the least remorse ; it was no un^common thing
for 50,000 and 100,000 souls to be massacred at once, in
which neither sex nor age were spared ; and of the blood of
the most venerable priests, learned men, and citizens, being
used for tempering the earth with and plastering the city
walls ! Mahomed, son of AUarud-deen, one of those southern
monsters, died, it is true, acknowledging ^ all is vanity,' but
not until after gjratifying during his hfe every sensual pas-
sion, slaughtering dOO,000 persons, and ruining <uid depopu*
lating the Caroatic'

' The treasuries, of the southern princes were always filled
firom the enormous /plunder of their defenceless subjects ;
and the system of Mahomedan exaction, sometimes under the
name .of oontiibution, but permanently under that of revenue,
beiiig m^i^ where the same, with the power of rapacious
armiee every where to enforce it, the fate of the unhappy
people wiis here, as in the nordi, stamped with the same
wretchedness* These was no security for person or property ;
the hitter more especially wms always a &ir oigect of seizure
whenever it was known to exist,^ atnd the mass of the people
were thus reduced to a state <of poverty from which there was

* Even to the present day tbe Hindoos have not entirely got o?er the
dread of being known to possess money, or of having gold and silver
utenBils. Vast stuns of money remain buried in the earth from generatioa
to generatioD, and not mifrequeutly a sudden death deprives tte iriierhfiv
af ireatoe of aknowledge where it lies eoaoealed. Those whQhave cofrp
^ttwed with wealthy natives can confirm •inc in this particular .—R. M. M.

60 DELINEATION OF A MAHOMEDAN DYNASTT.

no escape^ and of Tiolence and oppression against which there
was no redress/*

"What a revolting description of despotism is the foreg<Hng
delineation of a Mahomedan dynasty ! While perusing it the
blood curdles in the reins, and the genial current which in
general flows aroond the heart, becomes almost froasen in its
course. Yet let me proceed : the same authority asserts that
the ' loose principles of banditti were, on a larger scale, those
of the Asiatic courts for seven or eight centuries ; whoever has
a taste for atrocities of this nature ; for details of lawless ra-
pine, and wholesale butchery of the species, for flaying and
impaling alive, and every species of torture, /or hewing Uting
bodies to pieces, fot massacreing prisoners in cold blood,
and making hillocks of their bodies, and pyramids of their
heads for public show, for hunting down the inhabitants of
whole provinces like wild beasts, with - other like modes of
royal amusement, may be feasted to satiety in the history of
the Mussulman conquests and governments of the Decken,
which is little more than a continued series of those disgust-
ing barbarities. Timour was justly denominated the * fire*
brand of the universe.' The Westminster Review for July
188S, says he was ' one of the greatest wholesale butchers of
humanity ever heard of; he plundered and massacred in India,
without distinction of religion or sex, and his track was marked
by blood, desolation, famine, and pestilence!' Aurengsebe
persecuted the Hindoos in a similar maimer to the other Ma-
homedan tyrants ; Tippoo Saib circumcised aU the Brahmins
he could get hold of, and, as the reviewer says, ' subjected
60,000 christians to the same operation in a single province.'
Of the Mogul proceedings in India, Mr. Rickards ob-
serves, that ' the prisoners taken were inhumanly massacred ;
insurrections in the provinces were also incessant, so that
the wort of war and blood was perpetual; massacres were
common to every reign, when the butchery extended, not
only to the parties immediately concerned, but to their vassals,
depcoidents, and even acquaintances ; not even weeping mo-
thers, nor their smiling infants at their breasts, were pitied or

* Rickards' India, vol. i. page 223.

THE GREAT MOGUL. 61

spared ! To prevent the accumulation of property in a few
hands, the wealth* and estates of Mussuhnans and Hindoos
were, without distinction, seized upon and confiscated; no
man durst entertain his friends without a written permission
from the vizier, and the different public offices were filled
with men, whose indigence and dependence rendered them
implicitly obedient to the dictates of government !' Yet,
strange to say, while narratuig these horrifying facts, Mr,
Rickards loads the English with opprobium for their conquest
of Hindostan, and pines over the downfal of the Great Mogul,
and with him of the Mahomedan dynasties in India.

A Mahomedan historian famed for his impartiality, named
Golaum Hossein Khan, is however less tender than Mr. Rick-
ards for the fate of the Ghreat Mogul. In his able work, entitled
' A View of Modem Times,' he says, * when the Emperoi?
Shah AUum was carrying on war against the English nation
on the plains of Azimabad, it was made known that the
emperor designed to march thither in person. Although the
inhabitants had received no benefits from him, they seemed
to have but one heart and one voice on the occasion ; but
when he arrived amongst them, and they experienced from
his profligate officers and disorderly troops the most shame-
less acts of extortion and oppression, whilst on the other
hand they observed the good conduct and strict discipline of
the English armtfi the officers of which did not suffer a blade
of grass to be spoiled, and no kind of injury done to the
feeblest peasant, then, indeed, the sentiments of the people
changed^ and the loyalty which they once bore to the emperor
was transferred to the English, so that when Shah Allum
made his second and third expeditions they loaded him with
imprecations, and prayed for victory to the English/

* The quantity of plunder, and the value thereof, abstracted at various
times from the Hindoos, is detailed with much minuteness by Mr. Rickards ;
and it must astonish every one, where such immense treasures could be
had, and how speedily they were re-collected, did we not know what a sa-
lieiit power there is in Hindostan, and how rapidly the moal destructive
dKmten ars recovered from by an indastrious people, of commercial
habits and few wants.

68 MAHRATTA CONQUESTS AND DEVASTATIONS.

I turn now to the same author's description of the
Mabratta governors, whom he states to have been ' quite
equal to the Mussulmans in the dreadful atrocities they "per-
petrated, and the devastating ravages with which they deso-
lated the countries through which they passed ; their route
being easily traced by ruined villages and destroyed cultiva-
tion ; plundering as they went along, and seizing, by violence
or by treachery, all that was valuable or conducive to their
present security or ulterior views ; controlled by no fixed
laws, and by no better sense of right than the power of the
sword. The districts which resisted were overrun with fire
and sword, the inhabitants tortured and murdered, and the
country left a dreary waste, to forewarn others of their
fitte if not averted by ready compUance with these lawless
exactions.'

The annexed sketch of Mabratta barbarity afibrds a me-
lancholy illustration of the dreadful state to which the great
mass of the people were reduced by the combined barbarities
of the Mussulmans and the Mahrattas, from which, in a few
years, they were so happily rescued by the East India Com-
pany : — 'Inl7S9, Abdallah again turned his attention towards
Hindostan ; and in 1761, made himself master of its devoted
capital Delhi. He laid the city under heavy contributions,
and enforced the collection with such rigour and cruelty,
that the unfortunate inhabitants, driven to despair, took up
arms. The Persian ordered a general massacre ^ which, with-
out iniermissiony lasted seven days. The relentless guards of
Abdallah were not even then glutted with slaughter ; but the
stench of the dead bodies drove them out of the city. A
great part of the buildings were at the same tikne reduced to
ashes; and many thousands, who had escaped the sword,
sufiered a lingering death by famine, sitting upon the smoking
ruins of their own houses. Thus the imperial city of Delhi,
which, in the days of its glory, extended 34 miles in length,
and was said to contain S,000>000 of people, became almost a
heap of rubbish. But this was not all ; for the Mahrtxttas
had now marched towards Delhi, to oppose Abdallah, with
an army of S00,000 cavalry. On their approach Abdallah

CAPTURE AND DESTRUCTION OF DELHI. 68-

evacuated the city, which th^.Mahrattas immediately entered,
and fiUed every quarter of it with devastion and death. Not
content with robbing the miserable remaias of Abdallah's
cmelty of everything they possessed, they stripped all the
males and females naked^ and wantonly whipped them through
the streets. Majny. now prayed for death as the greatest
blessing, and thanked, the hand which inflicted the wound.
Famine began to rage among the unfortunate citizens to such
a degree, that men fled from their dearest friends as from
beaats of prey, for fear, of being devoured. Many women
devoured their own children, while some mothers of more
humanity were seen defad in the streets, with infants still
sucking at their breasts.'

Several formidable bands of Hindoos, who, like the Mah-»
rattas, gloried in the ^ inestimable advantage of having a
finger in every man's dish,' afford ample scope for details of
cruelty and devastation; such, for instance, as the desolating
freebooting Pindarics, the bands of terrific robbers named
Coolies, and professional murderers called Thugs ; but my
limits forbid me — ^I cannot, however^ close this chapter with-
out adducing the testimony of the author before me, respect-
ing the governments of the minor princes ; and who, according
to Mr. Rickards and Colonel Wilks, are accused of privatdy
assMHinating 400 priests (the only number they could collect
together who would trust them), while passing from the audi-
ence-hall into a pretended refreshment chamber, because they
opposed themselves to the moderate request of a tax upon
' opening a doox !' — or of surrounding with large bodies of
cavalry any .conununity of their su}:aects who shewed the least
resistance to oppression I

* The kingdom, of Mysore, which arose dut of the ruins of
Vyeyanuggur, ^^hibits also a like origin in military adventure
and blood, and in a similar series of intriguing usurpations,
murder, and conquest Eftch petty chief, by counterfeiting
grants from Delhi, laid his claim to districts; the country
was torn to jneces with civil wai», and groaned. under every
species of domestic confriBion.'

Another set^ — ' The Polygars, like the northern zemindars,

64 TH£ POLYGARS AND PETTY PRINCES.*

were originally military adventurers^ or lea^rs of banditti^
or revenue or police officers^ employed under former go-
vernments, and who, availing themselves of times of weak-
ness or distress, or the absence of a controlling force, estab-
lished themselves in their respective districts. Each Polygar,
in proportion to the extent of his jurisdiction and power, had
forts and military retainers, and exercised within his own
limits all the powers of an Asiatic despot. In the history of
the PoUams (the districts governed by the Polygars), anarchy,
misrule, lawless power, insurrection, civil and external wars^
ravages and famines, are the most prominent features. When
the contribution demanded by a Polygar, the amount of which
depended on his conscience, was resisted or not quietly sub^
mitted to, it was enforced by torture and the whip ; the whole
village was put in confinement; every occupation interdicted ;
the cattle pounded; the inhabitants taken captive into the
Pollam lands, or murdered; in short, every species of outrage
continued to be committed, until the object of the Polygar
was accomplished.'*

Another specimen. — ' In the northern circars, when Aeyv
came into the Company's possession, not only the forms but
even the remembrance of dml authority seemed to be totally
lost ; the zemindars had all forts and armed forces for their
defence, the more powerful using their force as opportunities
favoured to extend their possessions, and swaUow up minor <
zemuidaries.'

One more instance. — ' The jaghire (now called Chingleput,-
a distance of S,440 square miles in extent, and in the imme-
diate vicinity of Madras), was twice invaded by Hyder Ali —
once in 1768, and again in 1780. In the latter, more espe-
cially, fire and sword seemed to contend for pre-eminence in
the work of havoc and destruction. At the close of the war
in 1784, the country exhibited few signs of having been in-
habited, save in the bones of murdered bodies, or the naked
walls of villages and temples, the melancholy remains of an.
almost universal conflagration. To the miseries of a deso-

* Thii is just the state of Western Africa at present.

ADVANTAGES OF THE BRITISH ACQUISITION OF INDIA. 65

lating war^ succeeded a famine ; death and emigration nearly
depopulated the country.'

But why continue detaps at which the heart sickens ? —
why rekte further instances of 100,000 men being put to
death, in cold blood, in one day? — ^why depict streets of
cities made impassable by heaps of slain? — why describe the
pitiless slaughter of thousands of mothers, with their smiUng
mfants at their breasts ? — ^why picture the fury of respectable
citizens, who,hehoIding the pollution and ravishment of their
wives and daughters, their wealth seized by the hand of
rapine, and they themselves insulted, beaten, and abused,
with one consent shutting the gates of their cities, murdering
their consorts and children, setting fire to their houses, and
then rushing out like madmen against their enemies ? — ^why, I
ask, narrate any more of scenes such as these> which every-
where crimson the page of Indian history, prior to our con-
quest? A christian and a philanthropist would say, that
any power, European or Asiatic, interfering to put a stop to
such harrowing scenes would be entitled to the highest ap-
probation which man could bestow. If the East India Com-
pany had never added one shilling to the wealth of England,
one inch of dominion to her crown, or one leaf of laurel to its
glory, the mere circumstance of estabhshing peace in a coun-
try such as India, which for countless ages had been a prey
to every species of atrocity which degrade men far below the
level of the brutes, and which, under a less genial clime, and
fertile territory, would have converted the whole land into a
howling wilderness, — ^they would most assuredly deserve to be
ranked among the noblest benefactors of the human race. Let
therefore those who condemn the British conquest of Hindos-
tan, reflect whether Providence acted wisely in putting a stop
to scenes which harrow up the soul on bare perusal, making
England the means of introducing tranquiUity, civilization,
and christian precepts into a country whence incalculable
blessings may flow, to cheer and gladden many hundred mil-
lion of human beings scattered throughout the vast territories
of the Eastern Hemisphere.

VOL. I. F

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CHAPTER II.

PHTSICAXi ASPECT — OB OLOGT— -CLIMATE — NATURAL PRODUCTIONS, EM-
BRACINO THE ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL KINGDOMS, OF THE
BBNOAXi, MADRAS AND BOMBAY TERRITORIES.

No language would do justice to the varied and magnificent
scenery of Hindostan, partaking as it does of the richly lux-
uriant and wildly Heautiful ; here interminable plains, inter-
sected with deep and mighty rivers ; tJ^ere inaccessible moun-
tains^ whose unmeasurable summits are wreathed in eternal
snow; — on the one hand an almost boundless landscape,
verdant with the softness of perpetual spring — on the other
alpine steppes^ ruggedly romantic, and fringed with vast and
towering forests : mountainous ranges or ghauts on this sharCy
presenting a stupendous barrier to the Indian ocean, — while
on thaty a low and sandy alluvium seems to invite the further
encroachments of the deep and stormy Bengal Bay. Indeed
the features of British India are so varied that, although des-
pairing to convey an exact idea of their peculiarities, I must
distinguish the country by provinces, as offering the most
simple mode of delineating this immense section of the British
empire, whose sea-coast line (extending from Cape Negrais
to the frontiers of Sinde) is SfiSlZ English miles, with a terri-
torial breadth (from Surat to Sinde) of 1,^0 miles : premising,
however, that the leading geographical features are the
Himalaya Mountains, along the northern and eastern fron-
tier ; a range of ghauts, rising at the southern point of the
peninsula, running N. along the coast until receding at the
parallels of 20. to 22., when they branch off in ridges of dif-
ferent elevations across the continent of India, until lost in
the table land of Malwa and Allahabad ; while on the eastward
the mighty Ganges^ and on the westward the nearly equal
ItubtSy roll their impetuous and lengthened torrents from the
Himalaya snows to the sultry coasts of Bengal and Cutch,

68 PHYSICAL ASPECT OF BENGAL AND BAHAR.

giving off in their progress an infinity of tributaries, which
are ramified in every possible direction over the whole pe-
ninsula.

Physical Aspect of the Bengal Presidency. — Although
it might be naturally supposed that in a territory extending
over so great an extent of surface as that of the province of
Bengal, a diversiiy of physical aspect would exist, there is
with few exceptions a remarkable monotony of scenery. The
province of Bengal proper, containing 100,000 square miles,
has scarcely a hill of any elevation, and the few eminences
which are to be found are confined to a small area on the
eastern boundary.

No country in the world is better irrigated than this flat
alluvial province, which has long been considered the granary
of India; the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Hooghly, Teesta, Roop-
narain, Dummoodah, Kooram, Korotoya, Cosi, Manas, Conki
and Jhinaya, with their innumerable tributaries everywhere
intersect Bengal, and owing to the fewness of the river
banks, and those banks being composed of a sandy, clayey
soil, large streams are frequently changing their beds, and
causing stagnant marshes of considerable extent, by which
the boundaries of property are annihilated, and the erection
of stable edifices materially impeded.

The province of Bahar, containing 54,714 square miles,
situate between 22. and S7. N. lat. is, with the exception of
the northern division (which is an uninterrupted flat), a beau-
tifiil hill and dale country ; the former extending in ranges,
and in some places, as at the Rajmahal hills in the neigh-
bourhood of Boglipoor, assuming the features of a Celtic
region. The soil is fertile, unless where saltpetre is in excess,
but the province, it may be supposed, is not so well watered
as bengal, it is only, however, in tracts S. of the Ganges,
where artificial irrigation is much required. The principal
rivers are the Ganges, Sone, Gunduck, Dummodah, Caram-
nassa, and Dewah.

The province of Allahabad (including the rich district of
Benarea) is, in the neighbourhood of the great rivers Ganges

ASPECT OF N. W. PROVINCES OF INDIA. 69

and Jumna, flat, well watered, and exuberantly fertile ; but
to the S.W. the country becomes more elevated, and in the
Bundlecund district assumes the form of table land diversified
with hills. The principal rivers are the two before-mentioned
and the Goomty* and Caramnassa, with their numberless
branches.

Bundlecund presents, in its physical features, a remarkable
configuration; the mountains run in continuous ranges pa-
rallel to each other, each successively supporting a table
land one above the other. Bindkydchal, the first of these
ranges, commence at Kesogkar, five miles N. of Seunda on
the Sindhe River, making a circuitous sweep by Narawd,
Ciandri, Hirapur, lU^ghar, Ajeyghaty and Calanjara ; they
cease near Barghar to belong to Bundlecund, and continue
dieir course by Bindhyavtmni and Tdrd^ until they approach
the Ganges at Surtifghara, and again at RajmahL Nothing,
says Capt Franklin, can be more striking as a topographical
feature than the plains of Bundlecund, which resemble a vast
bay of the ocean formed by these natural barriers, crowned
with the fortresses above-mentioned ; and what is somewhat
lemarkable, the progressive elevation of the soil firom the
bed of the Jumna is towards the apex of this bay : hence the
diminished altitude of the range at that point, being scarcely
300 feet above the surface, whilst at Calyanghar the same

* A canal ^b miles long, is now being executed between the Goomty
and Ganges. The territory under the sway of the King of Dude is here
ntuate, amounting to 21,000 square miles, with a population of 6,000,000,
spread over one of the most fertile parts of India, but immersed in poverty
and wretchedness. The capita) is termed Lucknow, built on the Goomty,
(a branch of the Ganges) in lat. 26.61., N. long. 80.50. E., and with its
numerous gflded cupolas, minarets, turrets, arches, temples, and pinnacles,
presenting an extraordinary picture of oriental magnificence. Its popu-
lation is nearly half a million, whose mean and filthy tenements present a
melancholy contrast to the splendid palaces and temples of their rulers and
priests. Constantia, the residence of the late General Claude Martin, by
whom it was built, at a cost of j^ 150,000, stands in the neighbourhood.
Lucknow contains a mixture of enterprising adventurers from various
parts of Europe, who expect and generally obtain employment from the
king ; it is distant 650 miles, by the nearest road, from Calcutta.

70 BUNDLECUND AND AQRA DISTRICTS.

range is 800 feet. The most elevated summit does not exceed
SyOOO feet above the ocean level. The picturesque, numerous^
and isolated hills which appear to stand alone and uncon-
nected with other mountains, are portions of ranges which
alternately appear and disappear, sometimes in the form of
isolations and sometimes in continuous ranges ; .but they all
radiate from the apex of the bay as if from a common centre,
and diverge from it like the sticks of a fan. Pafma, the se»
cond parallel range, preserves a distance of 10 miles from
summit to summit. The Baudair, or third parallel range, is
the most elevated portion of the province, and its contour
describes in miniature the greater curves of the lower ranges,
as if it it were the nucleus on which they were formed. The
range resembles an acute spherical triangle, the apex of
which is hear Nagaund, the area being table land, and the
sides of the triangle having their abrupt &ces outwards.
This range gives rise to the Ken and Patni riv^s. The
Kaimur, or Vindhyana mountains do not properly belong to
Bundlecund, but they run parallel to the foregoing rangea,
and form part of the tropical zone of mountains which rmi
across India, a tract which comprises several ranges nearly
parallel. The vast province of Allahabad, as also those of
Agra and Delhi are divided into collectorates, the territories
under which have an area of 66,510 square miles.

Agra province, situate between 25. and 28. N. lat, extend-
ing in length 250 miles, and in breadth 180 miles, is to the
N.E. flat, open, and rather bare of trees, but hilly and jungly
to the S, and rather more so on approaching the western
frontier, with hills of various elevations in the N.W. The
soil, dry and sandy, is but imperfectly watered by nature,
deep wells and canals affording the chief supply of the indis-
pensible element of cultivation. The principal rivers (which
become smaller as they approach their source) are the Ganges,
Jumna, Chumbul, Sinde, and Kohary.

Agra, built on the S.W. of the Jumna, lat. 27.11. N., long.
77.53. E., is a large and strongly constructed fort, of a red
kind of very hard sandstone, quarried at Futtehpoor (19 miles

AGRA AND DELHI CITIES. 71

distant): the fosse is of great depth with douhle ramparts,
tbe irai^ one being 60 feet above the level of the river : well
constructed bastions are placed at regular intervals, and the
fortress is one of the keys of Western India, particularly from
its ooimnanding the navigation of the Jumna, which in the
month of June is half a mile broad, .and never fordable at any
time at tins spot. The moslem buildings in the fort are nu-
merous and splendid, in particular the Tauje Mehal, built of
marble resembling Carara, the Mootee Musjeed, or pearl
mosque, built of small white marble, of singular purity of de-
sign : the great Chowk contiguous to the principal gate of the
fort^ the tomb of Etimaund ud Dowlah, &c., all attest the
splendour with which the Mahomedans sought to captivate
Ae weak minds of their Hindoo serfs, well knowing that
owing to the infirmity of our nature, regal pomp, and mag-
nificence, often reconciles a feeble race to the despotism of
foreign conquerors. The Moslems in Spain, as well as in
India, expended the taxes of their subjects in erecting splen-
did structures, which, after the lapse of centuries, remain as
monuments of the daring genius of the conquerors, and of
the slavish submission of the conquered.

The census of the city of Agra has been lately estimated
as follows : houses, S9,788, viz. Pukha, 25,536^ and Kutchq,
4,952 ; inhabitants, 96,597, viz. Hindoos, 65,01 1 (males,
55,085, females, ^,983), Moosoolmans, 31,579 (males, 16,059,
females, 15,5S0).*

Delhi, 800 feet above the ocean level (embracing the N. part
of the inclined slope which forms the plains of Hindostan,
extending from the Himalaya to the Bay of Bengal), between
28. and 31. N. lat, is more hilly and sandy than Agra; it is
level in the centre, clear and cultivated in the S.W., hilly in
the N.W., and covered with dense jungles and forests ; the
chief rivers are the Ganges, Jumna, Caggur, and Chitting ;
but the thirsty soil soon imbibes the greater part of their
contents in the dry season ; Bareilly excepted, which is level
and well watered.

♦ A similar census ought to be prepared for every town in India.

72 BERAR — VALLEY OF THB NERBUDDA AND MALWA.

Delhi, the ancient capital of the Patan and Mogul empires^
lat. 28.41. N.) long. 77.5. £., according to popular tradition,
covered a apace of 20 square miles, and the ruins at present
occupy nearly as great an extent. The new city of Delhi was
founded by the Emperor Shah Jehanabad, in 1631 ; on the
W. bank of the Jumna, it is about seven miles in circumfer-
ence ; the waDs are faced, along their whole extent, with sub-
stantial masonry constructed of huge blocks of sparkling
granite; marteUo towers stand at intervals,flanking the de-
fences, and the city has seven gates all built of fireestone*
The principal street, leading from the palace to the city gate,
is 1 100 yards long and 30 broad ; the second, leading from
the palace to the Lahore gate, is a mile long by 40 yards
broad. Until 1011 A.D. Delhi was governed by Hindoo
Rajahs, but in that year Mahmoud the Ghaznivede, captured
and plundered it, but subsequently restored it to the Hindoo
Rajah, making him a tributary prince. In 1 193, Cuttub ud
Deen, the slave of Mahomed Ghauri, took final possession of
the city from the Hindoos, and commenced the series of
Afghan or Patan sovereigns, which reigned until the invasion
of Baber, the grandson of Timour. It was pillaged by Ti-
mour in 1398, and in 1516, Sultan Baber finally overthrew
the Patan, and founded the Mogul dynasty; the descendant
of whom, after 14 sovereigns intermediate, now resides in
Delhi as a nominal prince, without a shadow of power, but
enjoying a yearly income of nearly 150,000/. Delhi is distant
firom Calcutta, by the Birboom road, 976 miles.

The British provinces in Berar are wild, rugged and hiUy^
with steep water-courses, dense jungles and impassable rsr
vines; their area is 55,900 square miles, and they are but
little explored. Hussingabad, the key to the British pos*
sessions in this quarter, is situate S. of the Nerbudda river, lat*
22.40. N. long., 77.51. E. 135 miles N.W. of Nagpoor. The
romantic valley of the Nerbudda, formed by the V indhyana
range of hiUs on one side, and the Gundwana on the other,
extends in length from Gurry Mundeiah to Hindia through
a space of nearly 300 miles ; the distance from one mountain
chain to the other being on an average from 15 to 20 miles.

SHOT MBHALS OF KUMAON IN THE HIMALAYA. 73

and the river holding its course through the valley more to
the N. or Malwa side. The aspect of the valley (with the
exception of the middle part) is rude and uncultivated in the
extreme ; forests of deep jungle extending on both sides, and
rising to the summits of the adjoining hills. The soil consists
of a dark, coarse earth, denominated regur or cotton soil, the
product of decomposed trap and amygdaloids, which must
have existed in great abundance in these districts. The
source of the Nerbudda river (which performs a known
journey of 700 miles) is not yet explored. The natives say
it rises in Omerkuntuck in Gundwana, ^,463 feet above the
sea, close to the source of the Sone ; it has fewer curvations
than most India rivers, but its passage is obstructed by rocks
and shallows and beautiful cataracts.*

The Malwah territory belonging to Britain occupies up-
wards of 8,000 square miles, and is situated on an elevated
)dateau, averaging 2,000 feet above the level of the sea,
diversified by conical, but table-crowned hiUs and low ridges,
watered with numerous streams, which flow over a deep, rich
Uack soil of unsurpassed productiveness.

KuHAOM Province. — ^Mr. Trail, the commissioner for the
allkirs of Kumaon, says, that Kumaon, with the annexed
territory of Gerhwal, forms an almost equilateral parallelogram
fiidng N.E. and S.W. On the N. where separated from
Tartary by the Himalaya, the frontier extends from long.
79.51. lat. 31.4. to long. 80.45. kt. 30.10., giving a line of
about 100 miles; the £. boundary, which is formed by the
river KM or Sarde, gives a line of 1 10 miles, extending from
lat 30.10. long. 80.45. to lat. S6.S. long. 80. On the W. the
province is divided from the Raj of Gherwal by the rivers
KaU and Alakananda, with a line of frontier of about 110
miles, stretching from lat. 31.4., long. 78.10., and on the S.
the province joins on Rohileund the line of demarcation being
nearly parallel and equal to that on the N. Within the

* At HnsBiDgabad the bed of the Nerbudda is macfa broktt, and about
900 yards broad ; but there are 13 fords within 14 miles of the town.

74 KUMAON P&OPBR, GUBRWAL, &C.

boundaries above detailed the horizontal superficies d the
province is about 10^967 square miles, of which there are

Snow .,^2^24 square miles. Cultivated .^^2,193 aquaro miles.

Barreo ^-^,665 square miles. Uncultivated .^^'— 2,193 square milea.
The whole province is numerous ranges of mountains, the
general run of which are in a parallel direction to the N. and
S. line of position. The peaks and ridges i^cessarily vary
in height ; commencing from the plains of Rohilciuid (^500
fiset above the level of the sea), the first mountain range fffen
an elevation of 4,300 feet, while, the second range, the Gha*
gdr, attains 7,700 feet. The intervals between the mountains
are extremely small, and the whole country, when viewed
from a commanding position, exhibits the appearance of a
wide expanse of unconnected ravines rather than a successicin
of regular chains of mountains. The valleys (if the narrow
interstices between the mountains merit such an appellation)
are lowest on the banks of the largest rivers, and it is in the
same situations that the greatest portion^of level land is gene-
rally to be met with. These spots. However, in no instance,
exceed, and in a few cases equal, half a mile in breadth. The
site of the town o{ Shrinagur, lat. 80.14. N., long. 78.37. E.,
on the banks of the Alakananda is of this description, and is
only 1,500 feet above the level of the sea. The ^aras. or
forest land of saul, sissoo, and bamboos, included in the pro-
vince, is very unequal in extent. Under the Gherwal per-
gunnas it averages only from two or three miles from the foot
of the hills, while in Kumaon Proper it is no where less than
twelve or fifteen miles broad. From Kotedwara, long. 78.S0.
to near Bhamouri, long. 79.90., the tarai is divided from
RohQcund by a low range of hills, which contain numerous
passes, some practicable for wheel carriages ; the remainder
is wholly open to the plains. Where there is sufficient soil
the sides of the mountains are cut in terraces (supported in
front by alight stone abutments, as in Ceylon and in Italy)
rising above each other in regular succession. There are
several lakes, but of nO great extent; the depth, however, is
considerable (some in the higher Himalaya are stated to be

DELTA £• AND S. OF THE GANGES. 75

tmfa^omable) and the base of every mountain has a stream
of more or less magnitude flowing silently or rapidly according
to the elevation of the country. The country about Almorah
(lat. S9.^. N. long. 79.39. E., built on a ridge of mountains
5,400 feet above the level of the sea) is extremely bleak and
naked. Mr. Trail has furnished a very interesting paper in
the seventh vohime of the Transactions of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal, on the * Bhotia Mehcds (districts) of Kumaon^
Bhot signifying that part of the Himalaya range which once
formed about a third part of the Tibet province of Bhot,
fifteen parts of which consist of snow or barren rocks: the
nrinifinm elevation in the passes of the Himalaya is here 6,000
feet above the sea : — these tracks or paths are along branches
of the Granges and Groggra, and roads of communication
through the Himalaya unite the passes from £• to W. ; but
they are buried in snow, except for a few days in the year.
The interior of the Himalaya mountains (of which a full
account will be found in a subsequent page), except at these
passes and paths^ is almost inaccessible, and they are be-
coming daily more and more &o. The Bhotias now point out
ridges never free from snow, which, within the memory of
man, were clothed with forests, and afforded' periodical pas-
tores for sheep.

The kingdom of Nepaul is one of the most interesting
divisions of Hindostan. To the N. it is separated from
Tibet by the Himalaya mountains ; on the S. bounded by the
British territories in the provinces of Delhi, Oude, Bahar,
and Bengal (with the exception of about 60 miles intervening,
which belong to Oude) ; to the E. the Nepaulese territories
are separated from those of the British by the river Mitchie ;
from thence to the Himalaya mountains they are bounded by
the principality of Sikhim, which stretches N. to the Chinese
frontier; to the W. the limits are accurately defined by the
coarse of the river Call (the western branch of the Goggra),
beyond which is the British district of Kumaon. The lowest
part of the ancient Nepaul kingdom, stretched into the great
I^ain of Hindostan ; the great valley of Nepaul whose northern-

76 CALCUTTA.

most boundary lies about ^.50 N. lat., is 22 miles from E. to
W. and 20 miles from N. to S. Let us jiow turn to view the

Sea Coast of the Bengal Presidency, and the territories
to the £• and Southward. The sea coast of Bengal province is,
for many mQes, scarcely elevated above the level of the sea,
and where the sacred Ganges and mighty Burrampooter, with
their hundred mouths, rush to join the parent fountain, a
vast extent of country (30,000 square miles) called the SuH"
der bunds, extending for 180 miles along the bay of Bengal,
is an interminable labyrinth of salt water lakes, rivers, and
creeks, interspersed with mangrove islets of shifting mounds
of sand and mud.

Calcutta, on the banks of the Hooghly, lat. 22»2S», long*
88.28., distant from the sea 100 miles, and from the Sand^
heads about 130 miles, has a very intricate navigation through
thelbanks of the sand and mud which occasionally shift their
beds in the Hooghly river as well as in the other branches
of the Ganges.* It is, however, very favourably situate
for internal navigation, as the Ganges and its subsidiary
streams permit the transport of foreign produce to the N.W.
quarters of Hindostan over a distance of upwards of 1000
miles, and the day may not be far distant when the Indus and
the Ganges navigation will be united by a canal. Diamond
harbour, about 30 miles below Calcutta on the £• bank of the
Hooghly, has a draught of water sufficient for the largest
Indiamen, but ships of 600 tons anchor quite close to the

* In 1829, the author, when sailing on the Hooghly off Ghandernagore,
tried the depth of water at varioos periods, and did not find sufficient to
float a four hundred ton ship. The whole channel of the Hooghly is
shoaling fast, and the other emhouchures of the Ganges are deepening.
There is a native prophecy, that the Ganges (or Hooghly, which is merely
a name for a branch of that mighty river) will flow over the spot where
Calcutta with its million and a half of inhabitants now dwell ; and cer-
tainly, to stand at Chandpaul Ghaut, and watch the rising of the river in
the rains almost to a level with the houses on the ' Strand,' one would
think the prophecy on the eve of fulfilment. If the \nXen ever pass the
strand road banks, the whole city is lost, for they would overwhelm it in
joining the salt water lake at the opposite extremity of the metropolis.

THE COMMERCIAL CAPITAL OF THE EAST* 77

grand promenade (entitled the Strand road and Esplanade)
of the * City of Palaces.'

This metropolis and commercial emporium of the East (now
containing upwards of a million of inhabitants)^ was so late
as 1717 a small straggling viUage^ with a few clusters of huts»
to the number of 10 or IS, the inhabitants of which were
husbandmen, endeavouring to reclaim the surrounding forests
and swamps, which extended even to where Chandpaul Ghaut
now stands. The city is divided into streets at right angles
with each other, with large and handsome squares through-
out, particularly in the European part of the metropolis, each
square having in its centre an extensive tank or reservoir of
the Ganges waiter, with verdant sloping banks planted with
evergreen shrubs. The residence of the Governor General is
of equal magnitude to any palace in Europe. The architec-
ture is of the Ionic order, with arcades aU round on a rustic
biCsement. The palace has four wings connected by circular
passages, in order to secure a free admission of air from what-
ever quarter the wind may blow. The grand entrance is to
the north, where there is an immense arch of steps, beneath
which carriages drive up to set down; on the south side is a
circular colonade with a splendid dome. In the centre of the
building are two magnificent state rooms, the lower paved with
dark grey marble, supported by numerous Doric columns, re-
sembling Parian marble ; the upper or ball-room is floored with
exquisitely polished dark grained woods, supported by beau-
tiful Ionic pillars. The Vice-regal canopy and chairs of state
are of light and beautiful construction. The apartments are
lit by a profusion of cutglas lustres suspended from a painted
ceiliiig with gold mouldings. The entrance gates are of a
grand and imposing appearance, and the square around the
palace is tastefully laid out, particularly since Lady William
Bentinck's arrival in Bengal. Several of the other public build-
ings, such as the Mint, are on a noble scale, and the private
nuuisiona are built in the fascinating style of Grecian archi-
tecture.

The stupendous fortification of Fort William was commenced

78 FORT WILLIAM — ITS SIZE AND STRBKGTH.

by Lord Clive after the battle of Plassy, and has cost the £. I.
Oompany £2,000,000. sterling* Situated on the margin of the
river HoogUy (about one-fourth of a mile below Calcutta),
and on a level with the surrounding country, which is a per-
fect flat for many miles, it does not make an imposing appear-
ance, indeed its strength is scarcely perceptible ; nevertheless
it is superior in strength and regularity to any fortress in
India, and requires from 10,000 to 15,000 men to man the
works. The form is octagon, five sides being regular and
three next the river according to circumstances. The river
flows up to the glacis, the citadel towards which has a large
saliant angle, the faces of which enfilade the whole sweep of
the water : indeed the guns of the faces bear upon th^ city
until crossed by the fire of the batteries parallel to the river.
This salient angle is defended by several adjoining bastions and
a counterscarp that covers them. The bastions on the five re«
gular land sides have all many salient oriUons, behind which
are retired circular flanks extremely spacious, and an immense
double flank at the heighth of the berme ; the double flank
would enable the besieged to retard the passage of the ditdi^
as from its form it cannot be enfiladed ; the orillon is effective
against ricochet shot, and is not to be seen from any parallel :
the berme opposite the curtain serves as a road, and contri-
butes to the defence of the ditch like a fausse-brave. The
ditch is very wide and dry, with a cunette in the middle which
receives the water of the ditch by means of two sluices that
are commanded by the fort. The counterscarp and covered
way are excellent ; every curtain is covered by a large half
moon without flanks, bonnet, or redoubt, but the faces each,
mount thirteen pieces of heavy ordnance, thus giving a de-
fence of S6 guns to these ravelins. The demi-bastions whidi
terminate the five regular fr(»its on each side are covered by
a counterguard, of which the f^ices, like the half moons, are
pierced with 13 embrasures. These counterguards are con-
nected with two redoubts constructed in the. place of arms of
the adjacent re-entering angles, the whole faced, and pali-
saded with great attention to neatness as well as strength.

CUTTACK— ^RIVERS, HILLS, AND MOUNTAINS. 79

The advanced works are executed on an extensive scale, and
the angles of the half moons being extremely acute, project
a great way so as to be in view of each other beyond the
flanked angle of the polygon, and capable of taking the
trenches in the rear at an early period of the approach. The
interior of this admirable fortress is truly beautiful, — large
grass plots surrounded by rows of shady trees, beneath,
which are well gravelled promenades,— with here and there
{Hks of balls, bombshells, and parks of artillery. The bar-
racks are spacious, and will contain S0,000 men. The wells
are numerous, and there is an immense reservoir for rain,
water. The church is of an elegant Saxon style of architecture
with enamelled glass, and the residences of the commandants
of corps, and the principal staiF officers, on an extensive
scale. For a quarter of a mile round the fort no tree or house
is permitted, and the ships pass so close to the fort that they
may be hailed from die glacis.

Cttttack sea coast is similar to the contiguous Delta of
Bengal (which closely resembles the Mississippi Delta) ex-
cept that the flat shore does not extend more than from five
to fifteen miles inland firom the Black Pagoda to Piply on
the Subanrekhoj while that of the Sunderbunds extends nearly
aOO miles. The town of Cuttack (lat. SO.^. N. long. 88.5. E.,)
S51 miles travelling distance from Calcutta, containing 6,512
houses, and a population of 40,000 souls, is advantageously
situated, politically and commercially speaking, on a tongue of
land or peninsula near the bifurcation of the M ahanuddy
river (which is here two miles across) with a pleasing and
picturesque prospect from the environs of the hilly country
oiBxywarra. The town is defended from the encroachments
of the river by stone revetments which front two of its sides.
Within firom two to five leagues of the sea coast of Cuttack
the land rises into swelling undulations, extending over a
space of fix>m 15 to 50 miles, gradually becoming more ele-
vated, when the surface assumes a hilly shape with a dry and
fertile soil and magnificent forests of every description of
timber. This hilly region which is termed the Mogulbundy,

so THE CHILKA LAKE AND MOGULBUNDY.

has a soil of a whitish appearance, and often for miles the
surface is strewed with a thin sprinkling of lime-stone con-
cretions. This description of country extends from N. of the
Mahanuddy to Midnapore. The Mogidbundy is finely culti-
vated, and has a most picturesque aspect. At Balasore,
(where the Dutch had a settlement in 1660) lat. 21. SS., long.
86.56. E. a group of fine hills of this district project forth to
within 15 miles of the shore of the Bay of Bengal. The
principal rivers are the Mahanuddy, (which during the rains
may be navigated SOO miles from the sea) Brahmini, Biturini,
Solandy, Kausbans, Burabalang, Subanrekha, &c.

The Chilka lake, 35 miles long by 18 wide, is separated
from the sea for many miles by a narrow strip of land, or ra-
ther sand, sometimes not more than 300 yards broad. The
native historians say it was formed by an irruption of the
ocean at a period corresponding with the third century of
the christian era ; it is scarcely more than five feet deep, and
is filling up from the sand and mud brought into it by various
streams. Cuttack however is but Uttle known ; the hilly region
is said, by Mr. Hamilton, to reach as far W. as Gundwana in
Berar, in breadth probably 100 miles, in length 300 miles : the
greatest height of the hills seen from the Mogulbundy, or-
central district, is supposed to be 2000 feet, their general
elevation from 300 to 1200, chiefly of granite formation re-
sembling sand-stone, and containing a variety of valuable mi-
nerals (rich iron ore is abundant) and curious precious stones.
The rivers in the lowlands are embanked with immense
bunds or mounds of earth, some 60 feet in breadth, and
nearly 20 feet high, the necessity of which will be understood
when it is known that in one night the Cajori river, of one
mile and a half broad and 30 or 40 feet deep, rose in height
eighteen feet ! In the cultivated country the banks of the
rivers are extremely picturesque. Mr. StirUng observes that
the granite rocks of Cuttack are highly indurated and de-
nuded of vegetation, presenting a bold and varied outline with
frequent and sharp peaks and abrupt craggy faces ; they are
in many parts curiously intersected by trap veins, which seem

GEOGRAPHY OP CUTTACK — ARRACAN DISTRICT AND TOWN. 81

to consist chiefly of green stone, approaching often to basalt
and hornblende rock. In company with these rocks talc slate,
mica slate, and chlorite schist passing into serpentine and pot
stone are found in abundance. A yariety of corundum and
steatite in the shape of a remarkably pure white powder are
plentiful. The British district comprises an area of 9000
square miles.

The maritime province of Arracan, situate between the
18* and 2V of N. latitude, presents for a short distance from
the sea an aspect similar to that of Bengal and Cuttack, but
the ocean barrier being of a firm argillaceous nature with a
limestone formation exhibits, instead of an interminable marsh,
a series of islands, peninsulas, and isthmuses, which are peo-
pled and cultiyated. About SO miles inland, conical hills arise
to the height of 500 feet, intersected by jeels (small lakes) or
rirers, and about SO miles further to the £. a range of moun-
tains from 2,000 to 5,000 feet high, run N. and S. nearly pa-
rallel with the sea shore. The town of Arracan (lat. 20.35 N.
long. 93.3S E.) distant, in a direct line from the sea, about 50
miles, has a navigable river running close up to it, and then
dividing into several smaller branches which flow through the
town m every direction. The average rise of tide is about
eight feet, spring tides of course rise higher. Arracan bears
N.E. fit>m the mouth of the river, and from the town are
visible three distinct and parallel ranges of hills ; the former
being situate with respect to the general line of the first range
nearly as the apex of a triangle to its base, but from the num-
ber of insulated hills and slight curvatures in the range, it
appears nearly embayed in a recess of the hills. The height
of the highest hill in the first range is 550 feet, and of the
second and third ranges from S,000 to 4,000 feet. The hills,
generally speaking, are abrupt, and many of them insulated,
About a quarter of a mile from the N. W. angle of the fort, is
a large lake, extending several miles among the hills, the
structure of which latter is principally schistus, no granite
having as yet been observed ; the soil is luxuriantly rich, and

VOL. I. o

82 ARRACAN AND ASSAM — RIVERS^ ISLES^ &C.

beyond the hilly range is a magnificent champaign country^
with navigable streams and particularly healthy.

The principal rivers of Arracan are the Mayoo, Kaladyne,
Arracan, M onjee^ and Lemonkrong : the Mayoo is the most
northerly, and running in a S.W. direction along the base of
an extensive range of hills, empties itself into the bay a little
to the N. of the Arracan river. The largest river in the S.
division of the province is the Lemonkrong or Lembroo,
which after a winding course to the N.W. flows into the bay
of Bengal, among the numerous detached rocks which extend
along the coast between Ramree and those high insulated
hills to the N. of the Arracan river called the Broken Islanda.
All the rivers to the S. and many to the N. are intimately
connected with each other. The islands of Ramree and Che-
duba (dependencies of Arracan) lie within the 19<^ N. latitude.
Ramree is mountainous and jungly, and separated from the
mainland only by a creek; Cheduba is larger, more com-
pletely insulated, rather a low island, but dry and sandy ;
pretty free from jungle and healthy. The little island of
Aykab, at the mouth of the Arracan river is similar to Che-
duba on a small scale.

The Assam territory, between 36<^ and 28<^ lat, and 90® and
96® long, is formed of the valley of the Brahmaputra, which
is about 40 miles wide, by 150 long, bounded to the north-
ward by the mountainous ranges of Bootan,* Anka, Dophlay
and Meree, and to the southward by the Garrow HiUs.
Lower Assam, comprehending 4,100 square miles, is bounded
on the N. by the Bootan Mountains, on the S. by the Garrow
and Kossya HiUs, on the W. by Monass river, and on the E^
by- Bissanath ; it is a rich and valuaUe country, about 60
rivers flow through it^ which have in general a sufBoient depth
at all seasons to admit of commercial intercourae. The soil
is fertile and well watered ; the rivers being numbered to the
extent of 96, the principle of which are the Brahmaputrat

* At the foot of these mountains there is a plain of 30 miles broad
dothed with the most luxuriant vegetation, like <^e /tfrk.

CACHAR, TAVOY, YE, AND TENASSERIM. 83

Dihongy Dibong, Dikho and Dikrong. The Brahmaputra
river is stated by some European authorities to have been
traced to 25.M N. lat.> and long. 25.24 £., when its naviga^
tion was impeded by a mass of rocks ; its channel was then
150 yards across ; the natives described it as running easterly,
and stated its sources to be the snowy mountains, from
whence the Irrawaddy proceeds.

The country of Cachar is as yet little known. Southern
Cachar, which is the most valuable part of it, contains about
S,500 square miles of level land, generally from 200 to 300
feet above the sea, intersected by detached hills and low
wooded ranges, and bounded on three sides by mountains,
some of which have an altitude of 5,000 or 6,000 feet. The
soil is eminently fertile, and has been been found by experi-
ment to be perfectly well adapted to the production of wheat,
barley, gram, potatoes, tobacco, and sugar cane, as well as
that of rice, kulaie, sursoo, &c. which latter alone are com-
monly raised* The population of Cachar is small, and out of
all proportion to its extent, but it is very various, consisting of
Cacharees, Bengalees, Munnipoorees, Assamese, Nagas and
Kookies.

Cachar enjoys an uninterrupted water communication with
Calcutta, besides which it will soon have the advantage of a
high road, which is now in progress and more than half
finished^ by order of Oovernment, throughout the country,
from Banskandee to the town of Sylhet, from which place it
is to be hoped it will ultimately be prolonged either to Dacca
or Commillah^ and thus complete an interior line of communi-
cation along the whole frontier northwards from Arracan,
which cannot fSul to be of immense value in a commercial
point of view, enabling also the Government at any time
easily to occupy in force the important pass which Cachar
forms from Burmah, and whidi renders it in fact the gate of
cor possessions in the eastern part of Bengal.

The Ultra Gangetic provinces of Tavoy, Ye, and Tenas-
serim, ceded to the British after the Burmese war, fom a
strip of land on the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, ex-

84 MARTABAN — MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

tending from Ut. 10.35 N. to 15.30 N., 340 miles long, by an
average breadth of 44 miles, and embracing a surface of
15,000 square miles. The shore is full of creeks, rivers, and
rocky islets, but it is not of the swampy nature of Bengal or
Cuttack. The country is diversified with hill and dale, rising
towards the Siamese Mountains on the eastward, with ranges
of hills, clothed with forests of teak shelving towards the sea,
the vallies of which form conduits for the mountain streams.

The province of Martaban on the same line of coast as the
preceding districts, extends from 15.30 to 16.30 N. compre«
bending a surface of about 6,000 square miles, and its physi-
cal aspect bears a general resemblance to the contiguous pro-
vinces of Tavoy, &c. Three large rivers, the Saluen, Gain,
and Athran, rising in the eastern mountains of Siam, and navi-
gable for small craft to a considerable distance from the ocean,
join their embouchures in forming an expanse of water seven
miles broad, opposite to Martaban, the chief town, which
stands on the N. or Burmese side of the river Saluen.

Physical Aspect of the Madras Presidency. — ^The ter-
ritories under the government of this Presidency present no
vast alluvial plains like the deltas of the Ganges, Jumna, and
Burrampooter, nor is the sea coast of that marshy nature
which characterises Bengal, Arracan, or Cuttack. The pro-
vince of the Northern Circars on the W. side of the bay of
Bengal extends from 15. to SO. N. lat., comprising an area of
18,800 square miles. The coast, as viewed from sea-ward,
appears mountainous to the beach ; it has, however, a strip
of sandy waste along its whole extent, stretching interiorly
about three miles, when the land rises into detached hills,
which separate the province from the Hydrabad territories.
From Coringa to Nellore the shore is flat and sandy, as in-
deed it is throughout the lower Carnatic, extending 560 miles
along the Bay of Bengal, as far as Cape Comorin, but from
this point up the Malabar coast, the aspect is totally different.

The southern part of the Asiatic peninsula is, within a few
feet, as high as the extremity of the African peninsula at the
Cape of Good Hope. At Cape Comorin the promontory be-

CAPE COMORIN — SEA COAST PROTINCES. 85

gins to lessen in height a few miles from the sea, and as it
approaches the ocean, runs out into a low green headland^
something like Green Point at Table Bay, From Cape Co-
morin, through Dindigul and Tinnivelly, the scenery combines
the magnificent and the beautiful: the mountains assume
every varied form, and are clothed with stupendous forests,
while the smaller hills, which skirt the plain, are here and
there graced with temples and choultries, exhibiting exquisite
specimens of architecture : winding streams flow from every
hill, and the soft and lovely vallies are in striking contrast to
the dark and mighty forests which overcap them.

The little State of Travancore,* extending from the Cape
140 miles to the northward, by 40miles inland, presents along
the sea shore vallies clothed with perennial verdure ; then a
lovely and picturesque scene of hills and dales, the latter
richly cultivated, while further inland are seen the gigantic
western ghauts, crowned to their very summits with immense
forests of teak, bamboo, &c., the tout ensemble forming the
most splendid picture of tropical scenery to be witnessed in
any part of the globe. The British province of Malabar,
extending 120 miles along the sea coast, embracing an area
of 4,900 square miles, |ias in general a similiarity of fea-
ture to the Travancore coast, but in some parts a sandy plain,
of three miles wide, runs along shore, with numerous inlets
of the sea, or low downs covered with cocoa-nut trees, and
the sea coast hills are separated from the western Cordillera

* Pondicherryt French factory, distant from Madras 100 miles, from
Seringapatam 260, from Hydrabad 452, from Poona 707, from Nagpoor
773, from Calcutta 1,130, and from Delhi 1,400 miles, is now an insigni-
ficant settlement, on a sandy plain, not far from the sea shore, producing
only palm trees, millet, and a few herbs. As a commercial town, it has
no natural advantages, and cannot be considered as any benefit to France.
So long as we sought or seek to maintain supremacy in India, it should
not have been restored to the French ; and it is wise for the French now
to negociate for the final cession of Pondicherry and Chandenagore to the
British government. In the event of hostilities between the two nations,
the latter would immediately seize on the former; it would be better,
therefore^ for the French to make some compromise in time.

86' NIL-OHIRI MOUNTAINS AND TABLE LANDS.

by narrow, steepsided, but fertile vallies. In the adjoinittg
British province of Canara, extending S30 miles along the
sea coast, and comprehending within its territory 7,477 square
miles ; the ghauts in many places run close to the sea shore,
or hills, with naked rocky tops, are laved by the waters of
the Indian ocean.

The eastern and western ghauts connected by the NM'
gherries, a range of mountains, extending from W. to £• S4
miles, and from N. to S. 15 miles, elevate a vast extent of
table land, from 2,000 to 5,000 feet above the level of the
sea, partaking in its general features the aspect of the table
land of Spain on which Madrid is situated, or perhaps bearing
a more decided resemblance to the extremity of the South
American continent, the Andes and the Ghauts of India oiSer-
ing a striking similar conformation, if the greater height of
the former be excepted.

The Nil-ghiri, or Blue Mountains, are of various eleva-
tions, and almost insulated from the East and West Ghauts.
Jackanairi is 5,659 feet ; Jackatally, 5,976 ; Dimhutti, 6,041 ;
Ootacamund, 6,416 ; and Moorchoorti Bet, 8,800 feet above
the ocean level. These hills, or mountains rather, are re-
markable for being free from jungle, and in general in a high
state of cultivation. . The rivers Myar and Bhavani rise
among the highest peaks. Coimbatore, the capital of the
province, is in 10.53. N. lat., 77.5. £. long., 120 miles S. by
£. from Seringapatam, and 306 from Madras. The country
about Coimbatore is not more than 1,000 feet above the sea,
but to the N. it shoots up rapidly, the scenery blending the
wild and beautiful.

The extensive table land of southern India is, for the
greater part, under British dominion, and contains some of
the most fruitful districts in the Madras presidency ; viz. Bel-
lary, embracing an area of 12,703 square miles ;* Cuddapah,

* Z?W/aiy proper has 8,695 square miles, Harpunlwlly 666, and Kur-
Dool 3,342; Caddapah proper has 11,852 square miles, Pungaooor 6^,
and Banagaupully 248>

MT80RB, BANGALORE^ &C. 87

of 19,752 sq, miles ; and CoiinbatoTe> 8|392 nq* miles, — the
three districts poissessing a population of 3,000,000 souls.
In so derated a region, there are no large rivers, nor in-
deed are there any throughout the S. of India,* to compare
with those of Bengal ; but the small rivers which descend
from the plateau are numerous, and fertilise a great portion
of country. The Mysore territory, situated between IP and
15* N. lat., in length ,from N. to 6. SS4 miles, breadth E. to
W. 2M milesi wHh an area of S7,561 square miles, consists of
an elevated pleateau or table land, from S^OOO to 2,500 feet
h^^ enclosed on two sides by the £• and Wi Ghauts.f At
Bangalore> a plateau of 60 miles by fiO, the surface is un-
dulating, and neariy 3,000 feet above the sea; to the N.
after passing Nundydroog, the country falls rapidly, and to-
wards jS^ingapatam the surface has a sudden descent. Siva
Gunga, the highest mountain in Mysore, is 4,600 feet above
the sea. The rock basis of the country is a kind of syenite,
composed for the most part of quartz, felspar, horneblende,

* Nor in tlie Southern penfnsulas of Africa, Eorope, or America.

t The kiagdom of Coorg^ which has lately occupied our attention. Is
citnaie io the westvrard of Myiore, of emaU extent, being oomprited
within the twelfth degree of N. lat. and the seventy^fifth and seventy'^ixth
degrees of £• long. It is 60 miles long by 60 broad, with an area of 2,165
square miles. Surrounded by lofty mountains, for the most part inac-
cessible, it contains many others, scattered o?er the interior surface,
forming a snoeenion of wild nigged hills and highly cultivated yalleys ;
•ad, as if this were net sufficient to confirm its title to the appellation of
a ' strong oooatry,' the oatWes have dirided the whole interior into squares.
Those where no streams or marshes are contained being generally about a
mile in width, with an enormous ditch and high mound or back, formed
by the original contents of the ditch, and covered inside and out with deep
jungle, in which are indnded many enormous forest trees. Some of these
enelasuret have four apertures for ingress and egress, one in each face,
particularly those through which the principal roads pass, and which con-
iequently present so many strong barriers against an approaching enemy.
Every hill and mountun is also covered with jungle ; the finest teak, jack,
mango, and other large trees, growing spontaneously in a country watered
by numerous streams, and continual fogs and misty clouds, which, from
its great height, even above Mysore, are attracted by the hills, and cover
them during the night.

88 THB HYDEABAD TERRITORY.

and mica ; the principal rivers are the Cauvery, Toombudra,
Vedavatti, Bhadri, Arkanati, Pennar, Palar, and Panaur;
there are no lakes of magnitude; several excellent roads
exist through the province, and the bridges erected over
the Cauvery river, by a native gentleman (at his own ex-
pense) named Ramaswamy, deserve the highest commenda^
tion. One of these magnificent structures, completed in
1821, is 1,000 feet long, with a road-way of 18 feet, and a
height of S3 feet, supported by 400 pillars of stone ; the
whole fastened with iron pins and mortar.

The Hydrabad territory, embracing an area of nearly
100,000 square miles, consists principally of lofty granite
ranges, and in the plains and valleys are found elevations^
which are miniature features of the loftier ranges. These
are few in number, and remarkably interrupted und irregular ;
their extension inconsiderable, and their height above the
level of the sea S,500 feet. The mountains are bare and
i^ugged in their outline, and consist of piles of rock heaped
on one another in irregular succession. The country is
watered by the Godaveri and Kistna, which like all the other
Indian rivers are subject to great variations in the quantity
of water, and dependent on the periodical rains. Their banks
vary from SO to 50 feet in height, and about 50 miles from
their embouchure they both pass through the chain of granite
mountains, which extend from Gantur to Gundwana. The
inundations of the Godaveri are the most extensive, varying
from 6 to 3 miles on either side of the river. The rivers take
their rise in the Western Ghauts, and disembogue widiin 60
miles of each other.

Physical Aspect op the Bombay Presidency, — ^The
Northern and Southern Concan, forming the more southern
sea coast territories of the Bombay Presidency, extend along
shore from Damaun to Malabar, about 2S0 milesi by 35
miles inland, embracing an area of 1S,S70 square miles, and
presenting a congeries of steep, rocky mountains, rising in
some places to the height of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet, as abrupt
as a wall, while in most parts the table land to the eastward
is of difficult, if not of impracticable access for wheeled car-

PHYSICAL ASP£CT OF BOMBAY PRESIDENCY — THE GHAUTS. 89

riages. The Ghauts in general, gradually decline towards
the sea, possessing in some places fertile rice tracts> irrigated
by numerous mountain streams* The coast is indented with
small bays and shallow harbours or cores, with rocks, ra-
vines and chasms.

Bombay Inland (containing eighteen and a half square
miles^ including Colaba and Old Woman's Island) is little more
than a cluster or double bank of once detached whinstone
rocks, through which the sea and Goper river flowed, but which
the retreating ocean from the western side of India has now
permitted the consolidation of into an islet, by means of two
aand»belts at the northern and southern extremity of each ledge
of rocks, and these natural causeways, now changing into rock,
are rendered more secure by the construction of artificial dams,
by which at spring tides, the ingress of the sea is prevented.
On the cession of Bombay by the Portuguese to England in 1661
its population did not exceed 16,000 souls, the refuse or out-
casts of the native^ of India ; it now contains a population of
229,000 persons, inhabiting 15,474 houses, which are valued
at jE3,606,4^. sterling ! The fort is extremely strong towards
the sea which surrounds it on three sides, and the view from
thence is singularly beautiful, consisting of verdant isles, and
on the main land lofty and curiously shaped hills and moun*
tains. Admirable roads have been formed throughout the
island, the causeway communicating with Salsette widened, a
great military road from PanweU to Poona (70 miles) with
several bridges over rapid rivers, and a road cut with great
labour over a high range of mountains, have been constructed.*

* Capt. Hughes, under whose superintendeuce the road has been con-
structed, thus describes the country :

' The Bhore Ghaut is formed of a succession of lofty eminences, tower-
ing above each other, the last of which attains a height of 2,000 feet above
the level of the sea. Its outline at a distance is bold and imposing ; it
presents 9^ plane or table summit, with ranges of stupendous hills beyond,
with the sublimity of which Europe possesses little that is analogous. At
its foot stands the small and romantic village of Campolee, which has a
noble tank appertinent and a Hindoo temple, both built by Nana Furna-

90 BOMBAY^ SURAT, OUZERAT, &C*

Among the nuinerous buildiiigs the town hall and mint are
conspicnouB for the elegance and conyenience of their atruo-
ture. There are no riyers of magnitude on the Concan coast ;
when ceded to the British in 1818^ almost every hill had a
fortification, and every rock of an inaccessible nature a for-
tress, all of which are now rapidly crumbling into decay*

The districts of Surat (1,350 square miles) of Broach
(1,600) of Ahmedabad (4,600) and of Kaira (l,8fi0 square
miles) all in the province of Guzerat, cover an extensive por-
tion of wild sea coast, as well as hiUy, jungly, and motui'
tainous country, with many fertile tracts, cultivated and
waste, watered by several noble rivers, such as the Nerbudda,
Tuptee, Mahy, Mehindry, and Sabermutty; not available for
conunerce like the Oanges. With respect to Gua^at itself,
Lieutenant Col. Bamewall describes it as ' a flat country, very
rich and fruitful ; the fields in the eastern districts inclosed,
and the prosperity of the peasant marked by his dress, the

vese, the Peishwa's prime miaister, at his individual expense. Entering
upon the scene, langua^^e can very imperfectly describe the beauty of this
mountain — the luxuriant and varie^ifated foliage by which it is clothed ; or
faithfully contrast that ftature with its dark and fearful chasms ; its high
and impeading rocks. Planti of great variety, Imd ricih in colour, and all
those graceful and stately trees which adorn an Indian forest, particularly
the palm and feathery cocoa-nut, are scattered over it in gaudy profusion.
The riews obtained from commanding points in ascending this Ghaut
(particidariy from the Durwazu, or Gateway), are of that order which may
be termed the ma^nificenily ptcturetqw s commencing, in the foregrooad,
with Campolee, its tank and temple, and traoquilly unfolding a twni and
cultivated plain of very considerable extent, watered by the silvery and
sinuous course of a mountain stream, that, during the Monsoon, swells
into a broad and rapid river. The road which has been carried over this
Ghaut has had the effect of changing the mode of transport between
Panwell and Poonah (a distance of 70 miles), from the back of a bullock
and shoulders of a man to a four-wheeled waggon ; of reducing the hire of
conveyance to at least one^ialf; of abridging the time occupied by mm^
third} and, lastly (no trifling consideration), of drawing to the purse of
government a revenue of 40,000 rupees per annum. Already there is a
surprising increase in the number of carts in Panwell ; from 50 or 60 they
amount to upwards of 300, within the short interval of two years : One
habit of industry begets another.'

CUTCH — THE DECCAN — GHATPURBA AFD KRISHNA. 91

comfort of his dwellings and the high cultivation of his
fields/

The Bomhay goYemment possesses a political control in
the rich mineral province of Cutch, a district abounding in
coal and iron, and evidehtly indebted for its origin to a vol-
canic Eruption at so^e distant period.

The N. W. quarter of the ancidnt district of India, termed
the ^ Deccan/ or Dukhun, is under the administration of
Bombay, and affords in its general features/ a complete re-
seihblance to the European kingdom of Hungary, and like the
latter, though of exceeding fertility in some places, yet in
many parts, owing to the mountainous and rocky nature of
the country, it is exceedingly barren. The Deccan, (em«
bracing altogether 44,987 square miles,) is by the natives
divided into the Mawhuls or hilly tracts, arid the Desh or
flat country, the former situate along the face of the Ghauts,
and the latter extending to the eastward, in very extensive
plateaus descending by steep steps. In travelling southward
through the Deccan there are chains of flat-topped hills, occa-
sionally assuming a conical form, but scarcely ever exceeding
the moderate height of 1,500 feet; their sides are neither
abrupt nor sloping, and are covered with numerous blocks of
trap rock, which in tlie interior of the mountains appear to
have a tabular arrangement, giving them at a distance a for-
tification-like aspect, as if one circumvaUation contained
within another ascended from below. Between these hilly
chains narrow valleys are formied, some of which are ex-
tremely rich, and romantically situate.

On approaching the banks of the Krishna the country is one
extensive plain to the S.E. and N.W., whilst the ridges of
bills on the N. and S. side are at a distance barely visible.
From the Krishna river at Yervoi to the Ghatpurba at Argul,
the country undulates, and presents here and there hilly
ranges of broken basalt and extensive plains. On the Ghat-
purba banks the hills of Padashapur become visible, running
from E. to W., surrounded by fine valleys opening to the N.
and S., in which direction the Ghatpurba flows to form the

92 POONA, CAMBEISH, &C.

falls of Gokauky — a cataract fonued by the descent of the
Ghatpurba (here 180 yards wide) over a perpendicular quartz
rock of 176 feet. Near Belgaum the country agam becomes
undulating — ^the landscape diversified by low sloping hills*
The Collectorates of Poona and Ahmednuggur embrace an
area of 20,870 square miles, of an irregular country, elevated
2,000 feet above the level of the sea, intersected by many
rivers and streams, flowing through the most lovely valleys
the sun ever shone on, overtopped by hills 1000 feet high
of the trap formation, with the scarped summits peculiar
to that species of mountain, and crowned by native fortresses
of a highly picturesque aspect.

Candeish, another British settlement in the Deccan of
12,430 square miles in extent, is an extensive, fertile, well
watered plain, interspersed with low barren hills, at the base
of which run numerous ever purling Umpid rivulets flowing
from the table-land into the Tuptee ; a large extent of country
is still under jungle. The only remaining territories to be
noticed of the Bombay Presidency are the Collectorates of
Darwar, Sattarah, and the Southern Jagheers, containing
9,950 square miles, situate in the S.W. quarter of the Deccan.
The western districts in the vicinity of the Ghauts are in many
parts extremely rugged. Lieutenant-Colonel Sykes states that
along the Dharwar, the Satarrah, and Poona frontier, and
part of Ahmednuggur, there is a depth of from 30 to 50
miles of mountainous valleys, studded with clumps of forest
trees ; and that there is also a good deal of jungle. The
eastern tracts are less alpine, affording more level country
where the rocks, which in some places stud the surface, are
buried in a rich black mould. The Ghauts along this dis-
trict are not so much broken into masses, but present to the
view continuous hues of mountain forests, and along the course
of the principal rivers Krishna, Toombuddra, Beema, and
Ghatpurba, the country is exceedingly rich and picturesque.

Rivers. — ^The vast territory, of which a brief delineation
has now been completed, is distinguished above all other
parts of the known world by two of the most striking na-

RIVERS OP HINDOSTAN — THE INDUS. 93

tural phenomena, — ^the loftiest mountains on the surface of
the globe and rivers of such magnitude, that compared with
them the Thames is but a rivulet.

The Indus is 1700 miles long, and for the distance of 780
miles there is sufficient water to sail a 200 ton vessel, and in
some places it is from four to nine miles wide. From the sea
to Lahore there is an uninterrupted navigation (for fleets of
vessels) of 1,000 miles* British. The waters of the Indus
enter the Arabian gulf in two great branches, forming a rich
delta of alluvial land 1S5 miles wide at the base, and 80 in
length from thence to the point where they separate about
six miles below Tatta. At 75 miles from the sea the tides are
scarcely perceptible, and at full moon the rise at the mouth is
about nine feet ; the tides ebb and flow with great violence,
particularly near the sea where they flood, and abandon the
banks with incredible violence : there are no rocks or rapids
to obstruct the ascent, and the current does not exceed two
and a half mUes an hour : when joined by the Punjaub it
never shallows in the dry season to less than 15 feet, the
breadth being half a mile : the Chenab or Azesines has a
minima of 12 feet, and the Ravee or Hydrastasis is about half
the size of the latter : the usual depth of the three rivers can-
not be rated at less than four, three, and two fathoms. Lieut
Bumes found the Indus at Tatta (kt. S4.44., long. 68.17,--
from the sea ISO miles distant) 670 yards broad, running with
a velocity of two and a half miles an hour, and a depth of 15
feet; these data give 110,500 cubic feet per second, but esti^
mated in April so low as 80,000 cubic feet of water per se-
cond; it exceeds by four times the size of the Ganges in the
dry season, and nearly equals the Mississippi. The much
greater length of course in the Indus, its tortuous direction
and numerous tributaries among towering and snowy moun-
tains (the Sutledj rises in lake Manosauwara in Tibet, 17,000
feet above the sea) leads to such a result. The slope on
which the Indus descends to the ocean is gentle, the average
rate of current being two and a half miles an hour, when the

* The passage down of 1,000 miles was made in 15 days ; a steamer
might average six knots an hour in opposition to the stream.

94 THE GANGES — LENGTH OF RIVERS.

Pimjaub rivers navigated on the journey to Lahore were one
mile in excess of the Indus* While the Ganges and its sub-
sidiaries take their origin from the S. face of the Himcdaya^
the Indus receives the torrents of either side of that massy
and snow-girt chain swollen by the showers of Caubul and
the rams and ice of Chinese Tartary.

The Oanges is 1,500 miles long, and 500 miles from the
sea the channel is SO feet deep when the river is at its lowest
during the dry season, and its width makes it appear an in-
land sea. At 800 miles frx>m the ocean the Ganges separates
into two branches ; the S. £• retaining the name of Ganges,
and the W«, which assuming the appellation of the Hooghly,
the delta between the two being termed the Sunderbwub.
This magnificent river, like its compeer, rises amidst the
perpetual snows of the Himalaya, in the SL of N. lat.
^,000 feet above the level of the sea I The arch from
beneath which it issues is 300 feet high, composed of deep
froasen layers of snow — ^probably the accumulation of ages,
surrounded by hoary icicles of gigantic magnitude* From
Calcutta to Allahabad the distance on the Ganges through
the Sunderbunds is 1000 miles, and thither the steam ship
Hooghly lutely made three trips ; the height of the river at
Allahabad above the level of the sea is 348 feet, and the
maximum and minimum known rise is 4S and 34 feet. There are
other rivers, such as the Brahmaputra (which in some parts is
ftom four to six miles wide /) Sutledj (which is 900 miles long
before its junction with the Indus) Jumna, Jhylum, &c. which
would be considered vast rivers in Europe.

The length of course of some of the principal rivers to the
sea is in English miles — ^Indua, 1,700; Ganges, 1,500;
Sudedj, (to Indus 900) 1,400; Jhylum^ (ditto 750) 1,S50;
Jumna (to Ganges 780) 1,500 ; Gunduck (to Ganges 450) 980.
In the Deccan and South of India — Godaveri, to the sea 850
miles ; Krishna, 700 ; Nerbudda, 700 ; Tuptee, 460 ; Cavery,
400. Taking the limit of the Ganges and Jumna to the W.
and S., and the Brahmaputra and Megna to the E. the coiii>-
try completely intersected by navigable rivers may be com-
puted to cover an area of not less than/or/y square degrees !

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 95

Himalaya Mountains.* — ^The Himalaya range, or, as its
name signifies, the cAode of snoWy elevates its lofty peaks
from S0,000 to 27,000 feet above the level of the sea, forming
an alpine belt 80 miles in extent from Hindostan to Tibetf
Twenty thousand feet have been barometrically measured and
trigonometrically confirmed; at this height huge rocks in
immense detached masses lie scattered about or piled on each
other as if realizing the Titanic fable ef climbing to heaven.
Beds of decayed sea shells are found, and lichens and mosses,
the last link in vegetable hfe, struggle through a stunted ex-
istence beneath the verge of perpetual snow* At 16,800 fieet
N. side, campanulas and ammonites have been found by enter*

* The OhaaU and other a^ountun raqges do aot requijce separate notice.

t The principal chain of the Himalayas^ running from N.W. to S.E.,
rites in a ridge^ mth an abrupt steep face against the plains of 6^000 feet
in height; there is then a slope from the crest of the ridge towards the N.
Hie momitains on the side of the snowy range consist of a series of nearly
parallel ridges, with intermediate Tallies or hollows } spars are thrown off
in all directions into iha hollows, fonniag subordinate vaUioL There is
aothing like table land (perhaps in the whole of the meuntains, with the
exception of Nipil), and the valleys are broad wedge-shaped chasms, con-
tTMted at bottom to a mere water course ; for this reason the quantity of
level ground is inconsiderable. On the flank of the great chain there is a
Hne of low hills (the SewdUk), which commence at Roopur on the Satlej»
and ran down a long way to the S., skirting the great cliaia« In some
places they ran op to and rise upon the Himalaya^ in others they are
separated by an intermediate valley. Between the Jumna and the Ganges
they attain their greatest height, viz. 2,000 feet aboye the plains at their
feet, or d,(X)0 above the sea, rising at once from the level, with an abrupt
mural front. To the E. of the Ghinges and W. of the Jumna the Sewalik
hills gradually fkll off. They are serrated across thttr direction, forming a
saceeasion of scarcely panlkl ridges, with a steep fiiee on one side, and a
slope on the other; the slope being, like that of the great chain (see Geo^
Ugp\ towards the N., and the abutment towards the S. These hills may
be conndered an upheaved portion of the plains at the foot of the Himalaya,
and formed of the debris of the mountains, washed down by rains and
other natural caases. They are covered with vast forests of saul, toon,
and fir, aad are uninhabited, and, as on the Himalaya, the dip or slope being
towards the N., and the abutment towards the &, the great mass oi vege-
tation has a northern exposure, and ihe S. faces pve geneially nake •

96 VEGETATION ON THE MOUNTAINS.

prising Englishmen, — ^at IS^OOO feet the birch, juniper and
pine appear, and at 19,000 feet the majestic oak rears its
spacious head, towering amidst the desohition of nature.
The cultivated limits of man have not passed 10,000 feet on the
S. slope, but on the N. side villages are found in the valley
of the Baspa river at 11,400 feet elevation, who frequently
cut green crops, and advancing further the habitations of man
are found as high as 13,000 feet, cultivation at 13,600, —
fine birch trees at 14,000, and furze bushes for fuel thrive at
17,000 feet above the ocean level! At 11,000 feet elevation
Capt. Webb found extensive fields of barley and buckwheat,
and 11,630 feet above Calcutta his camp was pitched on a
clear spot surrounded by rich forests of oak, pine and rhodo-
dendra; a rich rank vegetation as high as the knee, extensive
strawberry beds and beautiful currant bushes in full flower
(21st June) and a profusion of dandelions, butter cups,
crocusses, cowslips, and every variety of wild European
spring flowers* In the skyey villages of Kunawar, although
the soil is poor and rocky, apples, pears, raspberries, apri-
cots and other fruits are abundant, and above them is a
forest of gigantic pines, the circumference of which is stated
to be 24 feet and the height 180. The summer heat is so
great as to uncover whole mountains of their snowy covering,
and the cold of winter frequently so intense as to spUt and
detach vast masses of rock, which roll from mountain to
mountain with terrific uproar. Captain Grerrard in crossing
the Charang Pass, (17,348 feet high) describes the neigh-
bouring mountains to be all of blue slate, naked to their tops,
and exhibiting decay and barrenness in their most frightful
form ; and the natives declare that volcanoes* exist amidst

* Since the first edition of this work appeared, I have received from
India an account of a severe earthquake arisingf on the N. of the great
Himalaya range^ which was experienced throughout the greater part of
Western India, on the 26th August, 1833 ; tl\e vibration was from N.E. to
S.W. There were three principal shocks; the first at 6*30, p.m.; the
second at 11.30, p.m.; and the third, or most severe shock, within ^re
minutes to 12 (Calcutta time). The second shock was particulariy noticed

EARTHQUAKE IN INDIA. 97

the regions of perpetual snow. Although the limit of eternal
frost had been fixed by theory at from 10 to 12,000 feet, yet
Samsiri, a halting place for travellers on the banks of the
Shelti, is 15,600 above the sea;* the landscape is there
beautiful^ — ^verdant hills and tranquil rivulets^ with flocks of
pigeons, herds of deer, and lovely banks of turf and shrubs.
A village has been found at a height of 14,700 feet : in the
middle of October, the thermometer on two mornings was
17; yet the sun*s rays felt oppressive, and all the streams and
lakes which were sheeted with ice during the night, were free
and running by two o'clock. The finest crops of barley are
reared here, and to irrigation and solar heat are the people
indebted for a crop. The barometer gave for the highest
field 14,900 feet of elevation ; this verifies the observations,
or rather inferences, as to the Umit of cultivation in the upper
course of the Sutlej ; and it is quite possible and even pro-

tt Calcutta by the stopping of an astronomical clock, and is thus compared
with otheKplaces :

Obserred. DlCLong^. Cal.Time.

R. M. M. H. M.

Katmandu (Nipdl) 10 45 + 12 = 10 6? Effects very severe ; loud noise.
Rungpur 11 20 — 2 = 11 18 Ditto; many houses injured.

Monghyr 11 2? -h 7 = 1134 Noise heard; walls cracked.

Arrah 11 15 + 14 =: U 29 Ditto, ditto.

Goiakp^r 11 20 + 19 = 11 39 Ditto, ditto.

Baoooorah 11 30 + 4 = 11 34 None such since 1814.

Calcutta 1 1 34 48 No injury done.

At Katmandu 19 persons were buried under the ruins of their houses,
and at Bhatgaon, E. of Katmandu, 300 souls perished. The earthquake
commenced gradually, though travelling with the speed of lightning to-
wards the W. ; it increased, until the houses, trees, and every thing on the
svrfiuse of the ground seemed shaken from their foundations ; full-grown
trees lient in all directions, and houses reeled like drunken men ; the earth
heaved most fearfully ; in a dead calm a noise, as if from an hundred can-
nons, burst forth ; and, to add to the impressiveness of the scene, a general
sboat arose from the people in every direction, and the murmur of their
wiiversal prayer was carried from the city to the British cantonment, a
mile distant. Slight vibrations were felt towards Katmandu during the
easniog 24 hours.

* That is three miles and a half high 1

VOL. I. H

98 THEORETICAL UMIT OF PERPETUAL 8NOW.

bable, that crops may vegetate at 16^000 or I7|000 feet. Tkfe
yaks and sbawl goats at this village seemed finer than at any
other spot within my observation. In fi»$t, both men and
animals appear to live on and thrive luxuriantly^ in s^klte of
Quarterly ReviewerSi and Professor Buddaildy wha had
calmly consigned those lofty regionfi^ and tibiose myriads of
living beings to perpetual ice and oblivioiii On the north
eastern frontier of Kunawar, dose to the stone bridge, A
height of more than SO^OOO feet» was attained without crossing
snow, the barometer showing 14,S20j thermometer 27 at 1 p* nt
Notwithstanding this elevation, the sun's rays were oppfees^
sive, though the air in the shade was freezing. The view
from this spot is grand and terrific beyoild the power of
language to describe. It comprises a line of naked peaks,
scarce a stripe of snow appearing.

At Simla (lat 31.06. N. long. 77.09. £.) 7,486 feet abov^
the sea, where the Bengal Government have founded a
delightful station, the view of the Himalaya Mountam ia
magnificent. The portion visible is a depressed continuation
of the chain extending from the emergence of the Sutlcg
through the snow, to an abrupt limit bordering close upon
the plain of the Pui^ab, near the debouche of the Raves f
few, if any of the detached peaks rise beyond 20,000 feeti
the crest of Jumnotree may indeed be seen from the highest
point of Simla, which is a conical hill named Jucko, formerly
in undisputed possession of the bears and hogs. This insu-
lated point Jucko, besides being crowned by garnets, throws
the waters of its corresponding declivities towards the Bay of
Bengal on one side, and the Gulph of Cutch on the others
the former by the intersections of the Giree, the Tons, and
Jumna, to the Ganges ;^ the latter by the medium to the

* Tlie Ganges and Brabmapootor may also be considered as adjancf
riven ; but they part to meet again» as Rennel observes. The two streams
are as diflferent in character as tnascuHne is from fefnlnlne ; one dfeeps
slowly through fertile phdns, under the pressure of supefsdtious reverence
for gods and co^vs ; the other rolls over nigged and barrea wastes, whars
beef is worshipped by keen appetites.

VIBW OP TRfi HmAlAYA mOM SIMLA. 9D

Sutlej) «nd that magfiifioent river the Indus^ a narrow fieptum ;
^vtn tbe road itself here marks the diTergence of trnn stream-
ktSy which are latterly separated 1^500 miles.

Tliere are xione of those giant peaks visible from Simla,
which we hear of aspiring to ^5 and @B,000 feet, threatening
heaven widi their points and earth with their fall; but the
gelidi array is sufficiently grand to excite astonishment in di^
mmds of people in their noTiciate, who behold the primeval
aummits sheeted in drapery of perpetual whiteness. The
lioundary is ntSA very lofty, perhaps not under 13,000 feet
nfprm ihe plainward slope, while the dark rock stares through
the snow in the highest regions. But it is on die cessation
o£ the periodical rains diat the scene is most striking; the
lops only relnaining covered, glare their radiant 6now at the
poweriess sun in calm desolate grandeur. Gteater part of the
bare rock is then disclosed, and the vast dim mass, just
crowned by gelid points, appear like the curling crest of an
cfiormous ware riising out of a sea of mist. l*he marginal
limit has then receded to its maximum elevation, and may be
detennilMd as a fixed point; traces of snow extend down the
hollows, and accumulations repose far below, while steep cliffy
project their bare sides even to 18,000 feet, but the belt is
very precisely defined, and if geometrically measured, will be
fctmd to have an uniform level beyond 15,000 feet.

Hie pines, lipon the slopes of the snowy chain, are taller
and more symmetrical than elsewhere ; Whole forests occur
where infividuals measure S4 to S6 feet round. The maxi-
mum giith in one instance was 39 feet. Close to the sam^
spot were numbers of the same magnificent barrels, like gi-
gantic imasts, each rising as if in rivalry, and all at a level
verging upon 10,000 feet, a limit beneath which on the equator
(according to Baron Humboldt) the larger trees of every kind
shrink^ ; a limit which Mr. Colebrooke and clever reviewers
placed close to the marginal snow in the region of the torpid
lichen ; but tlie Himalaya peer over the Andes, laugh at phi'*
losophers and closet speculators, and dwindle Dr. Buckland
and his fossil^ bones into utter insignificance. The phenomena

100 TOUR OYER THE HIMALAYA — SUTLBDJ.

which are presented ui obscure caYes in Europe, are appealed
to in the mountains of Asia, but they answer by exhibiting a
superb contrast*

Dr. Gerard crossed the Himalaya range to the skirts of
the Ladak capital* After traversing the table land of Roop-
shoo. Dr. G. descended into the valley of Speetee, opening
upon the Sutlej at the monastery of Kanum. The Sutlej
was crossed in July by a rope bridge, where the bed of the
river has an extreme elevation of 2,500 feet. The mountain
state of Cooloo, tributary to Runjeet Sing, was traversed by
a route successively varied by ridge and valley. It being the
season of rain, the landscape was obscured with mist — the
roads being bad and quaggy. The lofty boimdary ridge,
which {)irows the streams from opposite sides to the Sutlej
and Beas, was crossed at a height of nearly 10,700 feet. On
the 27th of July, Dr. G. came in sight of the ancient Hypha-
sis, at the ferry of Koortor, where the river has an expanse
of bed, which he little expected to find so near its source*
At Sultanpore, the capital of Cooloo, he encamped near the
margin of the river, upon a green sward shaded by magnifi-
cent elm trees. Sultanpore is populous, and frequented by a
considerable number of foreigners. Good roads, however,
are totally unknown. The physical configuration of this
alpine tract is gigantic, and its frontiers well defined. The
Sutlej is southward, the Hyphasis on the western skirt, while
the Himalayan crest forms a magnificent limit on the N., and
opens into countries of which we scarce know the name.
Leaving Sultanpore, he crossed the Beas by a double bridge,
connected by an island.

On the 8th of August, he pitched his tent on the slope of
the Himalaya, at an altitude of 10,000 feet, surrounded by
luxuriant vegetation and flowering herbs. The road up is
on^ long stair to the crest, constructed by a fakir. On the
9th, they crossed the Himalaya by Rotang Pass, turning a
little to the right to the consecrated rills of the river, which

* Letter from Simla, in the Aiiatk Jpunial/

CHAND£RA-BAOA — ^SOORUJ-BAGA. 101

are collected in a small basin^ walled round for the purposes
of ablution* Here is the source of the Beas^ which, at the
distance of only five days' march, presents a formidable ex^
pause : the extreme altitude of this spot appears to be about
13,000 feet. Descending into a ravine, the bed of the Chan<«
dera-Baga, or River of the Moon, was crossed by a cradle
bridge. The traveller is now struck with the change of the
climate, and the alteration in the appearance of the inha-
bitants. The configuration of the country assumes a new
form, and the eternal snow gradually recedes to the summits
of the mountains : even the skies have a deeper and more re-
splendent blue* Nothing was green but the crops ; the vege-
tation being scanty and arid, and the sun*s rays powerful. In
the former part of their route they had been daily shrouded
in rain and mist: vegetation was luxuriant, and the slopes
were fringed with pine forests : here, however, not a tree was
visible but the drooping willow, which is' planted. The soil
was quite destitute of verdure, and the air felt dry and elas-
tic. On the 13th of August, Dr. 6. reached Tandeh, upon
the bank of* the Sooruj-Baga {River of the Sun). The pas-
sage of the stream was by a fragile bridge of osier twigs. It
has an altitude of 10,000 feet. The temple of Tilaknath is
two long days' journey down the river. The valley of the
Chenab, or Acesines, is imder the dominion of Runjeet Sing,
but the government officers seldom shew themselves so high
up as Tilaknath. The whole coimtry aboimds in ancient
gigantic ruins.

On the S9th of August, Dr. G. resumed his journey along
the coarse of the Sooruj Baga : and on the 2nd of September,
he reached the last inhabited spot of the country, at an ele-
vation of 1 1,000 feet. The valley was prettily enamelled with
villages and cultivation. The inhabitants, however, appeared
poor, greasy, and ragged. He was greeted by one of the
Thakoors (chiefs) of the country with a present of ardent
spirits, distilled from malt, some rice, atta, and butter. It
was now constant sunshine, and the temperature increased
with . the elevation, though they were still in the vicinity of

%xi99wouB inasseB of iuiow* Darcfaa ift th9 last rflhge u» Ihe
deUj «nd the sunV ray a reflected from tbe barren MdM of ilici
roeka raise tbe tempei^atore to 84. ia Ae shade.

Oa the 8th <^ September, Dr% G. eresaed the Pamlaaa
chaiii, at au elemtkui of 16,500 feet, and tra<^ the Soon^
Baga (whieh the party had heen following) to ita aowm^ ia.a
hjte on^ 300 feet lower. Dr. G« renuudked^ ' that its awrfaee
D9IIS at ite extreme ehh; thus ahnoat verifjring Moorcraft'a
aimlar ohserratioa reapeoting Manaarowar^ a faet which Mr.
Colehrooke^ and reviewers^ were pazaled at» and actuafly dia*
credited; but it would appear that the lakes^ at least in the
Tjrana-flimalaya regions, ate highest in spring, when ihe ice
first fafeaks up and thaws*' In crossing this lofty lidge, the
wind blew piercingly on one side^ while the sun's rays were
scorchingly ardent on the other. The extremely thin» dry,
and cold air checka the vital energy with fearful rapidity.
On the sixth days' joum^r from the inhabited limitSf they
ascended the Laitchee long range, which rose up abrup(t}y»
like a vast wall from the bed of the Chaoder-Bfiga. Along
this traot ace found miyrine fossil renudna. At length, after a
most toilsome journey over rugged and alerile mountains and
roid^y tracts. Dr. O., for the first time, ' pitched hia camp
upon the plateau of Tartary.' The barometer indicated an
^leiratioD of nearly 16,000 feet t In fiiont was a black sidge^
having the uniform height of 3,000 feet above the camp ; yet
there was no snow on ita summit. The soil was almost withr
out any vegetation, baked, hard, and thirsty. The due^
were of the most resplendent indigo tint» and the air highly
transparent. The attendants, who expeeted to enteir upon a
fine fiat country, after crossing three aucceaaive rangea, viewed
with consternation interminable Alpa upon Alpa itrise. They
SAW a wild horse, at whieh one of the party fioed ; but hardly
any report was heard, sound being so feeble in the ra^j&ed
nir. A pack of wild dogs (quite red) were aba seen ateaUng
along a gully.

On the 17th of September,, his progresa was arrested by
the Wuseer of Ladak. His interview with thia person waa

I.AKB CHIVOREREI.. 103

Mffhly agreeable i his deportment^ dress, and address were
ahowj, kis conversation frank, and his appearance altogether
prepcnsessing. The day after he invited Dr. G. to dinner.
The Wuxeer seemed, on the whole, to he a jolly bon^ieani.
In impedmg Dr. G.'s further advance, he appeared to rely
more upon that gentleman's good feeBng than any exertions
of his own ; remarking that he wonld not oppose it by rude
mterftrence, but thai the consequence would be discredit and
^sgrace to Aim. The three days Dr. G« passed in the
Wiiseev's camp were fiir from untnteresting : yet, notwith-
standing his easy &miliarity, he seemed quite uneasy till Dr. G.
decided upon tumii^ face southward, and his eagerness to
equip and transport him into Speetee, by a route skirting
|he Chinese confines, evinced his extreme anxiety to get him
fidrly out of his sight, and away from the precincts of the
capital

On the morning of the 19th of September, the yaks being
ready, after the ceremony of smoking pipes together, our
traveller and the Wuxeer parted. His route now became
excessively uncomfortable, owing to exposure to the cold
night $ir in such a savage country. He met several groups
of wHd horses, which they endeavoured in vain to chase.
Southward, towards Speetee, the landscape appeared very
sharply peaked, and in clusters of white tops ; bat in the
N.S. tile mountains were of a vast contour, and the snow
more uniformly defined. At length they encamped in a dell
wUch opened upon Lake Chimorerel. From tliis spot were
seen Bumerous herds of shawl goats, sheep, horses, and yaks*
The dell, save towards the lake, was land-locked on every
side; and Lake Chimorerel itself spread out its blue expanse
te the foot of very precipitcms mountains, forming a sharply
deined ttid lofty boundary to the valley of Speetee, through
the windings of which the route of the party lay.

On the S7th of September, their path skirted the shore of
the hike, the whole circumference of which is embayed by
mountains; bat hill-ward, on its north-eastern shore, the
mass of elevated land rose very abruptly from the water's

104 EVAPORATION AND RAREFACTION — ROL.

edge^ and entered the regions of snow, which had an uraform
tnargin of 19^000 feet Neither this nor the other lake has
any efflux, and were we less acquainted with the oourse of
the SutleJ5 we should have here at least a verification of the
fact, which Mn Colebrooke, and reviewera, received with
cautious credence, and even actually discredited, of Mansaf
rowar being entirely land-locked, conceiving that in so ele-*
vated a region evaporation was insufficient to carry off the
supplies derived from the neighbouring snow ; thus forgetting,
or not knowing, that the absorbing power of the atmoaphere
is infinitely increased by its rarefaction, and in tracts bo sin-
gularly arid, that the traveller beholds ice permanent and
un thawed in a temperature of 50., torrents frozen fast in their
fall in a medium often 20. warmer than the graduated &eemag
point. Throughout India, in July and August,. though the
thermometer often points above 90., evaporation is checked i^
spite of this heat ; such being the density of vapour at so low
a level that a damp mouldy surface is thrown over everything.
Upon the table-^land of Thibet the air is so dry that firost is
not visible upon the soil, or grass, though the thermometer
may stand at the zero of the scale. Few and inconsiderable
streams pass into the Chimorerel at this season, but the dry
channels of water courses were crossed, which shewed an
expanse of bed that argued their powerful body at some per
riod of the year. The highest water-mark upon the shore
did not appear to exceed five feet.

The frozen zone in the tropics which the reader is now
examining, is yet but imperfectly explored, and doubtless
every additional information which can be obtained and
placed on record will be desirable. Mr. H. T« Colebrook
whose learning and zeal for the honour of his country has
been productive of so much advantage to the Asiatic hernia^
phere, has furnished some valuable extracts from C^>tain
A. and Mr. J. G. Gerard's geographical survey of the
Himalaya to the Royal Asiatic Society. The diary of
Messrs. Gerard commenced in the month of June at.Kol^
a small district in Chuara, one of the larger divisions of

BUGHKALGHAT AWD SHATUL — ^APFEARANOE. 105

Basehar, 9,350 feet above the level of the sea, and the
highest inhabited land wiikoui the Himalaya Mountains.
Crops — ^wheat, barley and peas. Road to Buchkalghai
11,800 feet, through fine woods of oak, yew, pine, rhododen-
dron,, horse-chesnat, juniper and long thin bamboos ;— ^
flowers abundant, particularly cowslips and thyme ; soil, a rich
moist black turf not unlike peat. Crossed the ShdiM pass
(15,556 feet) rocks, mica slate and gneis — ^huge granite blocks,
vast angular fragments of quartz, felspar, &c. jumbled together
in the wildest confusion, the route over which was fraught at
every step with considerable danger. Upon the snow (two
of Mr. Gerard's servants were frozen to death at mid-^ay
in September the previous year when crossing this pass) at
SHbitul were many insects like musquitoes, which revived as.
die sun rose; some birds were seen resembling ravens,—
mosses were found on a few rocks ; the British travellers
rested for the night under shelter of a large rock, (18,400
feet above the sea) where the steep ascent above, them of
2,300 feet higher seemed appalling; here and there a rock
projected its black head; all else was a dreary solitude of
unfathomable snow, aching to the sight and vntfaout trace
of a path; when the dnow was melted, plenty of lovely flowers
were found, but no bushes. The snow was sof): at mid-day
and afibrding good footing, but the suflTering caused by the
elevation as it affected the breathing and head was very
great. On the 9th June, the temperature did not rise above
41. at noon, it was 34. and 26. at sun rise, — ^in the evening
itsnowed« On the 11th June our adventurous countrymen
began their descent on the opposite side of the pass, along
the dell of the Andreti, (a branch of the Pabar river). rising
near ShatuI, and halted on the bank of a rivulet named Dm^rr^,
just above the forest limit. The lowest point in the dell was
11,000 feet; leeks were gathered at 13,000 feet; the ground
was a rich sward cut up in groves by a large kind of field rat
without a tail, {Mus TypJdus), Mr. Colebrooke here observes
that the Himalaya glens run for the most part perpendicular
to the range, or from N.N.E. to S.S. W. and S. W. ; the N.W.

108 YUSU PA»8-H8APilf EIVBa— BA8PA VAL.UT«

fiuse being invambly rugged and tbe opposite oae fitctng the
£L £• sheWing, The roads to tile most frequented passes
fie upon the gentle accfiyity ; the difference in the elevation
of the forest is very lenuiKkabK in ^ome instances exceeding
1|000 feet* The general height of the forest on the 6. fiuse
of the Hhnalajra is alMWt 11,800 to IS.QOOfeet above the sea;
oaks and pines reach tiiat elevation, birches reach a few feet
Ler, and juniper was observed at 19,900 feet ? A Tagno
le, (8,800 feet) abnndasee df strawbtsrnes, thyme, netdes
and other Europeam plants were noticed^ and the houses were
shaded by apricot, walnut and horse chesnut trees. The
ascent of the Yfisu pass, (16,877 feet) at the head of the
Sapan river, was performed widi the greatest difficulty ; the
glen through which the Sapan forces its passage becomes
more and more contracted, until it is at last bounded by
amral rocks of granite, between which the river flows in
impenetrable obscurity under hnmense heaps of indestructi*
Ue ice» running in lofty ridges and studded with gigantic
mmmds of snow* The source of the Pabar is in a, lake
eaHed Ckardmii, (16,000 feet high) above a mile in circuit,
wiafOL the river rushes forth over a perpendicular rock,
forming a fine cascade, the appearance of which is heightened
by the enormous banks of snow, 100 feet high above it, some
of which have cradked and fallen outwards into the lake.
The dreary soHtude of the place was now and then br<^n by
the tremendous crashii^ sounds of felling rocks or mountdn
avahnehea. Messrs. Oerard descended into the romanlte
valley of the noble Btupa river by sliding down the snowy
declivifaes seated on a blanket, (a mode invariably practised
by the mountaineers where there are no rocks or precipices).
Baikam village in the Baspa valley, (11,400 feet high) is
aitaate in the western comer of the glen, here three furlongs
wide, half of which is laid out in thriving crops of wheat and
barley, and the rest occupied by sand-beds or small islanda,
with the Baspa river winding among them. Just above the
vilbge, high steeples of black mica rock rise abruptly 8,000
feett

KINLIA & CHABAMO PAi9iW-*TlWNa & HANGALTI EIVERa. 107

TheJKMi^ pm9g wfm aUenptectj b«t only ISfSOQ feet
€0^14 b^ 4ttiiui0d wben the gnow became impassable* Here
the Jfyuu riyer». at 13,300 feet foama along in dreadfiil turbu<
leiK^ 9gd ra|adil7fL the ooiaeof the tonrent being astpunding*
I>e<»p Ww lakea were paaaedfw alo«g the preeipicea akkting
wbi^ iiot<^e» 1^ tft be enl with a hat^iedt to eiuihk thei
traT^l^iai to ireo4 tbeiv weavy, dAOgerona reute* Vast fields
of sj^Qff at 7»000 feet elevatioa, md hea^y rain and sl^et prs"
Tinted ihm iwrthesr pn^iess in ibs diireetion ef the KimUd
pasSf but the Ch4rdng pass was craised^ at 7,348 feet ele«
vatiopb to the YsUey of the iVJai^ofti rivec* The snowpassed
was oA^i cf a tedduk ooloai^ 80 feefc thicks with teirific
fiasurea^ and the descent £«r half a mile o/S^eia at w angle Qf
fieom 33* to 37, over gra^l and snqwi with hese and there a
ahwrp pointed rock pngeating throngh'it At KiuMctfif on
the \MffkA of the Nai^gaitii^ (lS,4iOO feet high) there was an
enclosure for cattle, and there wero afew» cross bred between
the ^ToA (Tartar boU) and oonunon cow, feeding in th^ glen on
a few hundred yaid» of grassy slope of odorifesoos herbs and
juniper bnshea, surrounded' by. craggy ohffs of horrid fenna-

The Tidu$ig at its junction with the Nawgidii when Tisited>
presented a furious rapid stream of great dediidty, for six or
seven milea the fall being 300 feet per mile, and in scHne
plaees double ; huge rocks were whirled aios^ with firightful
^dasi^ nothing visiUe but an endtire sheet of foam and spray,
thlDwn up and showered upon the snnfounding rocks with
loud eononsakuiA and re»echoed from bank to hank with the
Boiae of the londest dunder ; around the hhie slate monntains
tewts 18,000 &et in sharp detached groups or pinnacles,
covered anther wkh vegetation ner with snow, and exhihiling
decay and barrenness in its most frightful aspect. (A Tartar
TiUegn was found here called Hund^ Where the dell was
narrowest, there was so little space for the river that the road
continued but for a small distance on the same side, and over
this frightful torrent the English travellera had j^peatedly to
cross on ropes, or ung^s^ loosely hung from rock to rock on
either side ; one of these sangas was inclined at an angle of

108 RIBE.---VEGETATIOM.

15. MessiB. Gerard one while picked their way u:pon smooth
surfaces of granite sloping to the raging torrent; at another
time the route led among huge masses, and angular blocks
of rock> farming spacious caves where 60 persons might rest;
here the bank was composed of rough gravel steeply inclined
to the TiyeTy^^here the path was narrow with precipioes of
SOO or 600 feet below, whilst the naked towering peaks and
mural rocks rent in every direction, threatened the passenger
with ruin from above. In some parts of the roads there were
flights of steps, in others frame work or rude staircases
opening to the gulph below. In. one instance, the passage
consisted of six posts driven horizontally into clefts of the
rocks about 30 feet distant from each other and secured by
wedges. Upon this giddy frame a staircase of fir spars was
erected of the. rudest nature ; twigs and slabs of stone only
connected them together, — no support on the outer side,
which was deep and overhung. the terrific torrent of the
Tidung; the rapid rolling and noise of which was enough to
shake the stoutest nerves. Some of these kind of passages
were swept away and new ones had to be prepared for the
British adventurers.

From the confluence of the Tidung with the Sude^j* the
town of BibS or Ridaing has a channing appearance, yellow
fields, extensive vineyards, groves of apricot and large well
built stone houses contrast with the neighbouring gigantic
mountains.* Nature thus carefully adapts vegetation to* this
extraordinary country, for did it extend no higher than on the
Southern face of the Himalaya Mountains, Tartary would be
uninhabitable by either man or beast* On the Southern
slope of the range, the extreme height of cultivation is 10,000
feet, and evai there green crops are frequently cut, the
highest habitation is 9,500 feet, 11,800 may be reckoned the

. * All the British travellers who have visited these lofty regions have
expressed deep regret at returning again to the plains, notwithstanding
the hardships endured and the rudeness of the climate ; it is to be hoped
we may soon be enabled to open a trade with Tartary through these passes,
which will lead to new commercial intercourse.

DIFFERXNCE BETWEEN N. AND S: SLOPE OF THE HIMALAYA. 109

upper limit of forest, and 12>000 that of bushes, and in some
sheltered ravines dwarf bushes are found at 13,000 feet high.
Mark the contrast on the Northern side, in the valley of
the Baspa river, there is a village 11,400 feet, cultivation
reaches the same level ; forests extent to at least 13,000, but
advancing yet further, villages are foimd at 13,000 feet! —
cultivation at 18,600, fine birch trees at 14,000, and i6md
bushes (which furnish excellent fire wood) at 17,000 feet
above the level of the sea. To the eastward towards Lake
MAnassardwar^ according to Tartar accounts, crops, forests,
and bushes thrive at a still greater height. At Zinchin,
(sixteen thousand one hundred and thirty-six feet above the
seOf) where our travellers were stopped by the Chinese
guards, about 200 wild horses were seen galloping about and
feeding on the very tops of the heights ; kites and eagles were
soaring into the deep blue aether, large flocks of small birds
like linnets flying about, and beautiful locusts jumping among
the bushes. At times the sun shone like an orb of fire with-
out the least haze, the stars and planets with a brilliancy only
to be seen from such an elevation, and the part of the horiaon
where the moon was expected to rise, could scarcely be dis-
tinguished before the limb touched it ; the atmosphere some-
times exhibiting that remarkable dark appearance witnessed
in Polar latitudes. With a transit telescope of 30 inches,
and a power of 80, stars of the ^fifih magnitude were distinct
in broad day. Thermometer 60. in the shade, at sunset 4^.,
and before sunrise 30. in July.

As every thing important relating to these gigantic moun-
tains will, doubtless, be acceptable to the readers of this
history, and probably at no very distant period advantageous
in a mercantile point of view, no apology will be requisite for
giving the elevations, — ^lat. and long, of the principal peaks
and river sources in the Himalaya mountains, between lat.
30*38.10. and 30.18.30. N. long. 77.34.40. and 79.57.22. E.
aa surveyed by Captain Hodgson and Lieutenant Herbert,
and which I believe has never been published in Europe.*

* The Asiatic Society of Bengal printed the whole survey in their
nloable ' Transactions' in Oslcntta.

1 19 6E0GRAPHTCAL FOSITiaK OF THE ifillAUATA FBAXS, VmXB, &C.

"ttS."

SalutfwipMr >
ChMlfmMteil

Jcytrk

Chitr
UlttoPMk

Uchalatfe

Cbuigthll
Wkurta (fort)

IPedi
Sdluo
S ditto
SriKnU

VaftoMPaaki

liOU

7<ltt
4/B4

14,M

U,871

aoMsl77H»J«

1
SJI7

16,982

to
t9#tt

%••«••

»f7 10

a0 3S 2S

ao»2ou

80M64

nOiOR

8109 10

SI 14 to

^iS

77 19 ID

1Ua«lR

tbmMdiii*

Sinaoor

77S«MDl«AaiMlMl
77 SB 08 DUto

TlMtiOktfwal

TMnaiMtte

77M 10

aoisao
3oni9

77 S» IB Ditto

79ttM

79 67 a

80 ao 49,79 fl 88' )

Wawmliir)

80 07l:t

81 14 18

78 47 n OhcrwAl

78 98 8C

to I lo

81 1102 77 It 49

lniaMherl

ii^»**i* »**»■ I i f ■ ■»— ^i».

ikntmw^itit&t

P«ak 41 rMfo Mpuotinir tto ^
cloT ilata. oad bwo or trMo.
Dlito bitvcm cho /(MHTo Md

^ ^>ie«itrfg Mi BA^fifWCM voUIm, Wf

Dlltal _ _

miles direct firom Dfcecrm t feunaili, of a doll gmjisk
oeackotdalfrMtiir«.aea>MMid. Aboodpf of galdi »kwo— ml

F<M betwoea tho Jmmm aid fftatk «fe7>M* «M taH*

Ditto, ozticnolT rteoe, fet Imott craaoo were inggod ap by Ao
Wiillrt to 1IH4 fog to »*iwfc. cW«i«M.

PMk, ilg^Mt OMtnd point Ittlowett nag* of mooatolos
•od mmiAcatloBa* visible all nvnd, gnake, trewt
voter vrocMablo froskooovi J«4lpw MA M« cwru
and Itt N. K. fhee sbaded bf forwU of tbo cedar pii
steep and rooky, with few trees,
ridgo of/

S.W,

ooli.

forest

JWhMM Odd BUgHmikIt ^bdM AM
; Umit, whleb la IIJBOO feet above the sea level, 00)7 a pelcb of
left la Sopteabor*
Ditto TWr and Ammo, Quels, loat all saov ta Aofftwc
Ditto bofwoea ftawbi and FmUr, Gaola oad wblie Qoaita* ao grsallBk

■ be n i» n e > Uik»blglww f Tnt m H h^ hiMfc comygr '
Peak of Tumgru nmge. connected wllb tbe Ckmr rMgo t
fom, tbrowlog of on the coacavo side the GhM aa4 othfr
oniieeottvetlMslbe(l«lkf»aM. Otaels dad loaeb taAond vi
qoaiti, wooded to the very enstmit, where the wIM etnwbt

These peaks are far to tbe E. ; so fsr as we kaow No. S Is the hjgW*
Monnlota oa thia gtobo*

The BkagiratM winds round tbe western foot of tbh peak, where h

bfcaka throwh the bane of the Hloiahija chala, chaagiag Ita eoorss

froa W. If . W, 4o 8. B. W.
6. or hither HimaUva sbntUng In to the N. tbe B«tp« aad SmOtif,

givtog rtoe oa tho a. to brMwtoa ofjW J>i<%>o>oi» fcff . Variaas

paeaoaovwtiieiUgefrdBlStolVmfiMrMgi.

poiHTt OK soxi o» VBs Biv«ms, iMotntmra tbbir totnibcis, ooimiyftvcfes, Am tbx

PLACES WHERE TBST ENTER THE PLAIN.

BheglrathI

Sokhl

Hindi
iwmmmui

Teas or Lopla
Lari daCboEpM

Sfaala

SobbotfiOO .
Ramghar Fort
Jaka Station .

ShalU
MalovB

GonaeePass •

ditto
rhlMtaf KoM
BriGcrb
ChaaslFort .
PaariVUh^

1I4I)0{30S4M
8,889

i,ioe4

IMBB

30&9 65

29M16

78 09 40
J)<9 18lfB»or

»<7M
110148

.19 04 82

7f 04 00 Gherwal
78 41 18

;ftil WlHtlo
78 »H Ditto
78 Si 4b

Ditto

Doab
Ohirwhl

Poht where the BhsKlnthl Itst inorges fr

tdbatU

ethe Hli
lUii^ •r

from the last mnv bed er
VallefM

the Himalaya ptopsri
thossa

sgli
lacier, meaenrlncS? fcet wido, aad
let wMe, aifd 1 aRle ktag .
The Oanges nay be here said to break throo
the ■ '

TVR
aaaoa enters Hludoetan plains.

of Ao rivor Jamaot • 9iiw ^f fllKttMgih boil|i« oprfaftt
temperatnre of the water 191.7 which for the elr9mHmm htn givai is
nearly the heat at which water Is coBvoried hto tttmm t
Sap^oBOd soareo, hot o*co hers a hago itroan, croaHa o« a ■oi a rsl
hriigtnf Jntm mow / the real source about 3 ■dies higher Aem
the 8. W. foot of the giuat pMwr peak Jfeadr^acA.
iFltat eih from euow had, 81 Mt wMo mad haoe deooi l»r aevetal
miles nothing bat snow oereeptlble 1 origin from the a. fsco of Ae
■amo oIuMer of i^ialBe oe Vbe Anaiu

liege here 1 climate eo dry that the hooeee are built of brtcfes
•oArd in <ik< fiM/ the houeee belog , '
^oaathyofaDowlhlU. nMnrlgMM

>r«f tooM

7H88 81 08 IS|77 08 20

4.U&4

81 OS IS|77

lao IB ttlTis

WNoit sTATiom Of survey.

Kyoothal

88 37

Barenu

81 06 081 7S 46 69 Indus

8490 81 08 M177 10 00

Nako

BkalkerPort
Loser ha Pass

•[

13J980
8,4M

10,744
M«

»,«8
14J10

17 JW
11,97s

10,373

n U 16178 41 l7)Bogl
81 Itai'TB 4t 98

KfoMbal

Now a delightful British stalloai tIow of tbo saovy

thesct, k%h^lB«B«Rti|:.
Btltieh eantonmcnt, romaailcally sllaale*

Strong fort captured from Ghoorhae,
~ t of SWU raago, top dav
clothed with pine foreete oa the N. side

I lit S. wen

CmH,

31 38 ;8|78 08 n

81 87 Ml*
81 14 17 ~
SI »tM

Sin 07

81 40 SB
81 47 84

3148 38
31 18 31

3S 00 03

78 08 32

I8 9S7

78* 10

78 38 47
7B10 44

7BS6 17
7B30fiO

79 06M
78 83 81

78:9 18

BIssaher

Ditto

IMMa

KuUu

Buk-bot

BISMbcr

Ditto

Coaaected with the Cbur raagp,

liar shape, wooden ieoi|le on

(and are said to be so etlUI oflhrrd to the HladiM
A nwp ddfs wtei mmg lui i mi w pio n i l bt tbo 1

PASSES.

Pass over the outer rfdge of tbo Himalaya, leadiae fTom the valley ef
thoRnafalhtolhatalthoBaapa. CroaeedSI Soft. 1819, failksef
laad oVor atwr, mrf ioftla aomo Tdfc oi a, of whiei flie gea l ml death
was from 8 to 6 feet, but on the saoimlt of the pass not fathomeW e
wllh etlete 9 fMiloag. Ttar. at-p^nsei ^ttT, turn NlKd « W*
No graalto on tko ffldge, uothloghnt gnels.

from tke vaHoy oflhe Po*ar Into that of tbo SMM/.

CUooeo
llwtary
BIssaher

Ditto.

83 92 8«P8 K 08 Ditto.

Port on the right bank of tlie SutMJ.

Ditto ditto, there afo other forts oqAOly Ugh.

OoodvHlaga oa aHHtdj, BBS Jbet ab««) tto tI

be had here.
Sqbetaatlid viUMe on dlttb, 100 ibet abova Ike fivveh *ii«|0M apples,
oad grapes lo An

iMntam 1 summ^
la aetobor,t hmBh oflnr hi

if of «■#•
-" telsM

undeoce.
B e t wee n 'Humg and finite

eleacf not * "

In patches.
Ridge croised oa the road from Sblpkl to Gani; few

Tartar vlllago In Hm^fmrmmr en the left banh of the tpWi
grow* eomo huudrrd feet higher than tbo TlllagOt oalere aad
are vielble near the village.

Fort, bolder of Blahar, rMt baak of SpM,

Pass from Mtmlktr/vrt to Avnao village ; no eaow la October, but lafc
froK at 10 A.M.!

borhy

GEOLOOY A^D BOIL <VF mHM^TAN. lit

Geology and Soil. — It cannot of course be etpectei that
much accurate inftmnation should be extant relative to the
geological structure of the Hindostan peninsula ; the crust
of the territory has in several isolated places been exptoted,
but it will require years of extensive scietitifiC research t6
form a just idea of the nature of the rocks and soil ; my duty,
therefore^ in this as in other sections, is to regi0ter facts as
far as they have been noticed, so that in time the materials fbr
a connected view may be obtained. Primitive formations if»
which granitic rocks bear the principal proportions, occupy^
it is thought, not only the great Himalaya northern chain^
but also three-fourths of the entire peninsula, from th« vaBey
of the Ganges below Patna to Cape Comorin ; although these
rocks are frequently overlaid by a thin crust of laterite, a
ferruginous clay considered as associated with the trap forma*
tion. The transition formations have not as yet been clearly
distinguished ; the secondary formations described are^-^

I. The Carboniferous group: coal occurs extensively ill
the grits bounding the southern slope of the Himalaya, but It
has been questioned whether this formation is the older coal
or only lignite associated with nagelflue, (as on the stop^
of the Alps), it has been particularly described, however,
where the river Tista issues from this chain, (88«35. E. long.)
and there, undoubtedly, bears all the characters of the older
formation ; its strata are highly inclined, whereas the tertiary
beds and even most of the secondary in this part of Ihdia are
horiiontal. The coal district on the river Damiida (100 miles
N.W. of "Calcutta) extends on the banks of the river 60 miles^
and appears from its fossil lycopodia to be undoubtedly the
older coal; it reposes apparently on the surrounding prittii<^
tive rocks, but it is not improbable that it extends across the
delta of the Granges to Sylhet 806 miles, at the eastern ex-
tremity of Bengal. Tertiary i*ocks prevail m Sylhet, and it li
dotibtlul whether the Sylhet coal be not really modem lignite.
I believe no carboniferous limestone has been discovered.

U. Next to coal u a great sandstone formation, which
beginning at the Ganges on the £• first shews itself, sup*

113 SECONDARY FORMATIONS.

porting basalt on the Raj-Mahal hills; it again prevails
throughout the interval between the confluence of the river
Soanci and of the Jumna with the Granges, and then stretches
across the W.S.W* through the Bundlecund district to the
banks of the Nerbudda, (which flows into the Gulph of
Cambay as far as 79« £. long.) where it is overlaid by the
extremity of the great basaltic district, of north western
India, near Sag&r; the red sandstone shews itself again
emerging from beneath the N. W. edge of this basaltic district,
at Neemuch, near the W. source of the Chumbul, and at
Bang in the valley of the Nerbudda.

In both places, as also along the central portion of the
platform before described, stretching through Malwa it is
frequently co^iered with a thin crust of grey argillaceous lime-
stone, supposed to represent English lias but nearly destitute
of organic remains, the general absence of which in the secon-
dary rocks of India is remarkable. A primitive range ex-
lending from near Delhi to the head of the gulf of Cambay
separates the secondary rocks of Malwa from those of the great
basin of the Indus, but on the W. border of this ridge
through Ajmeer the redstone again shews itself, containing
rock salt and gypsum. (The diamond mines of Panna in
Bundlecund and of the Golconda District, are situate in this
formation, the matrix being a conglomerate bed with
quartzose pebbles.)

III. Tertiary rocks are found at the foot of the first rise of
of the primitive rocks of the Himalaya ; in the N. W. of
Bengal where the Brahmaputra issues from them at the
passes of the Garrow hills: Cerithue turritelli, remains of
crocodiles, sharks, lobsters, &c. are here found, and further
£• nummulite limestone* prevails at Sylhet.

The great basaltic district of the N. W. of India extends
from Nagpur in the very centre of India to the W. coasts,
]i>etween Goa and Bombay, occupying the whole of that ooast

* The soil throughout: Bengal is often occupied by deposits of clay,
containing concretionary lumps of limestone, called kankar, probably of
very recent origin ; it affords the principal supply of lime in India.

STRATA IN LOWER BENGAL. 113

to its termination at the gulf of Cambay, thence penetrating
northward as far as the S4th parallel of N. lat.

So far with regard to the general view of the peninsula ; I
subjoin, however, some detached observations made in dif-
ferent parts of the country, beginning with Bengal, where
m the neighbourhood of Calcutta we have ascertained, the
alluvial strata in consequence of a series of boring experi-
ments which have been at intervals carried on between 1804
and 1833, for the purposes of obtaining water ; the results of
those experiments are thus summed up in the report of the
committee appointed by government.

* After penetrating through the artificial soil of the surface,
a Hght blue or grey-coloured sandy clay occurs, becoming
gradually darker, as we descend, from impregnation with
decayed vegetable matter, until it passes into a stratum of
black peat, about two feet in thickness, at a depth, in Fort
William, of 50 feet below the surface. This peat stratum
has all the appearance of having been formed by the debris
of Sundurban vegetation, once on the surface of the Delta,
but gradually lowered by the compression of the sandy strata
below. Assuming that the salt-water lake is five feet above
the average height of the ocean, the peat stratum is about as
much more below the present level of the sea. In the grey
or black clay above and immediately below the peat, logs and
branches of a red* and of a yeUowf wood are foimd imbedded,
in a more or less decayed state. In only one instance have
bones been met with (at 28 feet), and they appear, from the
report of the workmen, to belong to deer, though they were
unfortunately lost before examination. A stratum of sand
occurs generally above the peat clay, at from 15 to 30 feet
deep, from which the wells in the town are chiefly supplied
with brackish water.

' Under the blue clays, at from 50 to 70 feet deep, the no-
dular Ume-stone concretions, known by the name of IcankaVj
occur, sometimes in small grains (called bajri in upper India),
with the appearance of small land-shells : sometimes in thin

* The common stindri of the Sundurbans.

t The root of some climbing tree, resembling the briedclia, N. Wallich.

VOL. I. I

114 GEOLOGY OF BAUAR.

Strata of great hardness, and sometimes in the usual nodular
shape. At 70 feet occurs a second seam of loose reddish
sandy which yields water plentifully. It was reached also in
the perforation under the lock gates at Chitpore, and there
(as Mr. Jones had previously asserted from his own experi-
ment across the river) the supply of water was proved to be
derived direct from the river. From 75 to 125 feet> beds, of
yellow clay predominate, frequently stiff and pure, like pot-
ter's clay, but generally mixed with sand and mica. Hori-
zontal seams of kankar also run through it, resembling ex-
actly those of Midnapur, or of the Gangetic basin. Below
128 feet, a more sandy yellow clay prevails, which gradually
changes to a grey loose sand, extending to the lowest depth
yet penetrated, and becoming coarser in quality until, at 170
— 176 feet, it may rather be termed a quartzy gravel, con-
taining angular fragments of quartz and felspar larger than
peas, such as are met with near the foot of a granitic range
of hills. This stratum has hitherto arrested the progress of
the auger; the greatest depth attained by Dr. Strong, near
St. Peter's Church, being 176 feet.'

On leaving the low and level delta of the Ganges, and ap-
proaching the Rajemhal hills in the neighbourhood of Bogli-
poor, we find primitive mountains composed of black whin-
stone in large masses. The hills at the foot of the mountains
produce flint, nodules, iron ore, beautiful agates of various
descriptions, quartz, crystallizations, and hard bolderstoiies
fit for paving. The Currackpore hills are mostly composed
of quartz, from which issue many hot springs, which con-
stantly retain their heat in all seasons of the year. * About
Monghyr the rocks are quartz, except a few which are com-
posed of a slaty stone of a bluish colour ; the hills in Ghidore,
near Mallypore, produce good lime-stone ; and at Milkee the
quartz is so pure that it might profitably be manufactured
into glass. The Rev. Mr. Everest, in a journey from Calcutta
to Ghazeepore, thus describes the geology of a part of the
country he passed through : — ' The isolated appearance of
the hills on the new road, with the flat plains of sand, or dis-
integrated granite between them, forcibly suggest that, at one

GEOLOGY OF THE VALLEY OF THE GANGES. 115

time, the former were islets in an ocean, in which were preci-
pitated beds of their debris, and subsequently of the vegeta-
bles which grew upon them. The coal beds on the Dham^
moodu abound with impressions of a reed which is not found
in Europe, and may be deemed characteristic of the Indian
coal. Between Bancoora and the Soane there are observable
not less than four protrusions of trap, not cutting through
like dykes, but pushed and spread from between the strata
of sandstone and gneiss, as if forced upwards under enormous
pressure. The evanescent gradations between the primitive
rocks, granite, gneiss, greenstone, basalt, and sandstone, sug-
gest the idea of their having been kept long in contact
together while in a state of igneous fusion : the direction also
of the trap protrusions, which, at first, dip to the N., then
are vertical, and, towards Kutcumsandy, dip to the S., render
it probable that they have all a common focus under the
earth, and that the whole granitic plateau of Hazareebagh,
and perhaps the whole range of the Vindhya mountains, has
been upheaved by their instrumentality. The granite in the
neighbourhood of the trap evinces, by its crumbling state,
the extensive " maladie," as the French call it, to which it
-has been subjected.'

The same series of rocks occurs on both sides of the cen-
tral plateau, extending in opposite directions — both to the
vale of the Ganges and to the alluvium of Bengal : — coal is
found on both sides, as is proved at Palamoo and Boglipore.
The sandstones above the line are, however, more consolidated
and usefuL Mr. Everest supposes the hot springs, so fre-
quent in occurrence, to be indicative of gradual combustion
of the coal strata, of which there is further evidence in the
loads of cinders and burnt shale met with in the mines at
Ranigunj. The Rev. Gentleman ascribes the kankur for-
mation, to the action of calcareous springs. As the Ganges
is ascended towards Ghazeepore, the soil becomes more
granitic, and is then succeeded by a gravel of burnt clay,
argite, and cinders, resembling what is seen in other basaltic
countries.

1 16 GEOLOGY OF THE DECCAN*

Let us now examine the Western part of the peninsula :-^
the elevated table land of the Deccan is* exclusively com-
posed of rocks belonging to the flat trap formation ; the hiUs
which rise on the W. Ghauts as a base have conical or ta**
bular forms, and are sometimes distributed in long ridges or
terraces, which run E.N.E. Passing from the lower land of
the Conkan into the higher part of the Deccan these tabular
forms are grand and beautifiil ; they are generally triangular-
shaped, and insulated from each other by broad and deep
ravines, of which the perpendicular descent cannot be less
than 1,200 or 1,500 feet: the tables are a compact basalt of
a black colour, in which homeblende predominates. About
Poonah, and further S.E,, the rocks are generally amygda-
loidal, and become lighter in colour the farther they are re-
moved from the western entrance. This amygdaloid is in no
respect different from the sandstone of extra tropical climates ;
it shews embedded masses of calcedony, zoolites, and green
earth, and in the neighbourhood of water courses, at the
depth of S5 or 30 feet below the surface, contains drusy
cavities of chrystaUized quartz, the appearance of which in
digging weUs indicates that water is near ; a clayey iron ore
of a dark brown colour is found at this depth, and is some-
times penetrated by circular canals which have been pervious
to water ; the amygdaloid rock accompanying the iron ore is
similarly penetrated, but its canals are filled up by spiral
pieces of white calcedony. Calcareous carbonate, denomi-
nated chunam, abounds on the banks of the water courses,
and is seen occasionally in alternate strata with an impure
bole, called by the natives ' geruJ* Chunam is also found in
the form of calk-tuft in the beds of the nullas (ravines,) and
is seen venegenous in the basaltic and amygdaloid rocks at
the village of Lonud, where calcspar is also found in veins.
Greenstone, heliotrope, agate, and horn-stones, are also met
with, as is also rock crystal immediately on the surface of
amygdaloid, or below the soil. The amygdaloid runs through
the Deccan E. and W. corresponding with the hills of quartz

* According to Surgeon Bird.

GEOLOGY OF HYDRABAD. 117

rock met with in Padshapur. The basalt of the Decean
occurs both in columnar and globular forms, and varies in
colour from a blueish grey to a deep black, the latter ca*
pable of receiving a high degree of polish, and employed by
the Hindoos for the decoration of the interior of their
temples. A porphyritic aggregated rock, of a grey colour is
found in beds. On the N. bank of the Ghatpurba there are
entire hills having some likeness to sandstone, but in fact they
are aggregated quartz rock, the structure of which is extremely
hard, varying from a secondary sandstone to that of a pure
quartz. This structure extends to Belgaum, from whence to
Kittoor numerous pieces of iron ore (some bubbled as if sud-
denly cooled while in a state of iusion) are found scattered
over the country indiscriminately huddled together with quartz
and basalt. In Kittoor vicinity the structure of the rocks is
coarse slate, composed of alternate layers of quartz and iron
ore, varying in thickness up to an inch, and giving a striped
appearance to the rock, which is highly magnetic when cut
into a parallelogramical figure.

The geology of the country between the Kistnah and
Godavery is distinguished from most other countries of a
similar extent by the existence of only two formations, dif-
fering very widely in their characters, viz. granite andfloetz^
trap, both of which give a striking and separate character to
the scenery, cultivation, and vegetable productions.* After
quitting the limestone on the banks of the Kistnah, granite
alone is the base of the country, even to the Godavery ; the
principal characteristics as seen at Hydrabad (1,800 feet
above the level of the sea) Maidak, Banchapilly, Koulas, &c.
are — 1st. The great irregularity of extent, and direction of
the ranges. 2nd. The narrow but lengthened veins or dykes
of trap with which it is intersected (all running nearly in the
tame direction), and the masses of micaceous and sienitic
granite with which it is intermixed. 3rd. The predominance
of the red colour arising from the red felspar which is fre-

* See Joarnal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 18, for June, 18d3, for
Dr. Vaysey's Geological Report of Hydrabad.

1 18 GEOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

quently in large crystals, giving the granite a porphyriti<$
appearance. 4th. The concentric lamellar and distant con-
crete structure, the greater facility of decomposition, and the
rounded appearance of decomposed masses, logging-stones,
and tors. 5th. The numerous lakes or tanks spread all over
the country, some of which are of very large dimensions ;
within 20 miles radius from the station of Suldapir on a
misty morning 33 lakes were counted, most of them of consi-
derable dimensions, — they are partly natural — partly arti-
ficial, and used for irrigating the surrounding lower grounds.

The other geological divisions of the country consisting of
basaltic trap,"* are interesting: — 1st. From its appearance on
the upper half or summit only of some of the granite hills.
Snd. Its transition from a highly chrystalline compound of
felspar and homeblende (the greenstone of Werner) to coarse
and fine basalt, to wacken, and to iron clay. 3rd. The direc-
tion and pecuUar form of the ranges, the waving form of the
land in some instances, and in others its flatness and conical
peaks. 4th. Its intermixture of carbonate of lime with the
wacken, the basalt, and even with some of the granite in the
neighbourhood of the trap. 5th. Black cotton soil, arising
generally from the decomposition of the basaltic trap forming
the banks of rivers, and covering their neighbouring plains.
This soil is rich, and peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of dry
grains, such as maize, zea, different species of panicum, &c.

The vast Himalaya mountains are at a considerable angle ;
the dip of the strata is to the E. of N., and their abutment
to the W. of S. The formations are primary ; the first to-
wards the plains consists of vast strata of limestone lying on
clay slate, crowned by slate, grey wacken, or sandstone. Be-
yond the Umestone tract gneis, clay slate, and other schistose

* The rock in which, the caves of EUora are excavated is sud to be a
btualtic trap, which, from its green tinge and its different stages firom
hardness to disintegration, is supposed by natives to be full of vegetable
matter, in a greater or less advance to petrifaction ; the crumbling rock
affords a natural green colour, which is ground up and employed by the
natives in painting on wet chunam.

TRACES OF A DBLUGB. 119

rocka occur; granite, I believe, has not been found in the
outer ridges — ^it occurs in the mountains near the snowy
range: the igneous rocks which have been concerned in the
upheavement of the outer tracts are of the greenstone trap
series, and are very generally dykes intersecting and rising
through the regukr strata. The formation of the Himalaya
have a remarkable feature, — ^the strata are in all directions
fractured or comminuted; the slaty rocks are broken into
small fragments as if they had been crushed, and the lime-
stone rocks are vesicular or cavernous, and broken into
masses* The soil is principally accumulated on the N. sides,
and that lying under the vegetable mould is clayey and cal-
careous, or limestone gravel, and from the humidity of the
climate vegetation is exuberant.

Captain Gerard in crossing the Charang Pass, (17,348 feet
high,) describes the neighbouring mountains to be all of blue
slate naked to their tops, and exhibiting decay and barren-
ness in their most frightful form ; in other parts the moun-
tains are of granite, with a great mixture of white quartz
both in the veins and nodules ; gneis however is the only
extensive rock to characterise the Himalaya formation ; va^
rious mineral productions, including iron, gold, plumbago,
copper, lead, antimony, sulphur, &c. have been found.

That volcanoes exist in the regions of perpetual snow is in
some measure proved by the earthquake which recently
occurred, as detailed at page 96 ; but it is remarkable that
over so vast an extent of territory as Hindostan there should
be so very few indications of the effects of subterranean
fires ; — on the contrary, traces of a universal deluge are most
striking, not merely in the appearance of the land, its waving
outline, and stupendous water courses, but in the fossil re-
mains now being daily discovered ; and the extensive beds
of shells found on the highest grounds.

Dr. Gerard, in a letter to the Asiatic Society, describes
some extensive tracts of shell formations, discovered by him
in the Himalaya range at 15,000 feet above the sea; The
principal shells comprised cockles, muscles, and pearl fish.

120 TH£ SOILS or HINDOSTAN.

univalves^ and long cylindrical productions^ which are most
singular objects. He found them lying upon the high land at
15,500 feet, in a bed of granite and pulverized state; the
adjacent rocks being at the same time of shell limestone. All
the shells were turned into carbonate of lime, and many were
crystallized like marble ; the larger blocks, composed of a
multitude of shells of different sizes, imbedded in a matrix
of calcareous tufa, was broken off from a solid mass of 150
cubic feet, apparently all of the same structure : four daaaes
of shell formation were distinguished; in particular 9k f re A
f(;afer bivalve, resembling the unio, which exists in great
abundance at the foot of the lower hills throughout the plains
of the Doab.

In the Neermal hills,* lying N. of the Godaveri river, on
the road from Hydrabad to Naghpur, many very perfect
fossil shells, mostly bivalves, and evidently marine, have
been recently discovered embedded in a volcanic rock, toge-
ther with the head and vertebras of a fish. The formations rest
every where on granite, and have the usual characters of this
class of bills. A series of hot springs occur holding lime in
solution*

The Soils of Hindostan vary of course with the geological
characters of the country — in the deltas of rivers, consisting
of a rich alluvium — ^and in countries of a trap formation; a
stiff clayey and tenacious surface, highly fertile when irrigated,
prevails. In Lower Bengal the fertility of the soil seems to be
inexhaustible, owing perhaps to its saline quaUties; for
several centuries it has been in unceasing cultivation as the
granary of India, rudely tilled, without the application of
scientific principles to agriculture, and yet there seems to be

* The Neermal Hills belong to Sehia range, extending from S.E. to
N.W. several hundred miles. The Lunar Lake is 40 miles from Saolna,
and is a vast crater, 500 feet deep and from four to five miles round the
margin ; its waters are green and bitter, supersaturated with alkaline car-
bonate, and containing silex in solution, as well as some iron. The mud
is black, and abounding in sulphuretted hydrogen ; nevertheless the water
is pure, and without smell.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 121

no diminution in its fertility ; as we ascend the Ganges the
qnality of the earth of course varies.

The following is an analysis of three spedmens of soil from
sugar cane fields ; the fir%i was from a Tillage on the Sarju,
10 nules N. of the Ganges, at Buxar; the other two from the
S. of the Granges near the same place* Numbers one and two
require irrigation^ three was sufficiently retentive of moisture
to render it unnecessary ; there is a substratum of Kankur
throughout the whole of that part of the country, and to
some mixture of this earthy limestone with the surface of the
soil the fertility of the latter is ascribed ; the sugar cane
grown yielded a rich juice.

No.1. No^. Mo A

HygTometric mouture on drying at 212° . . 2.5 2.1 3.6

Carbonaceous and vegetable matter on calcination . 1.8 2.1 4.0

Garb, lime from digestion in nitric acid and precipitation^
by carb. pot. (No. 3 alone effervesced) . .1.6 0.6 3.9

Alkaline salt dissolfed 1.0 1.1 0.3

SUex and alumina 94.124.188.2

100 100 100

The earths were not farther examined, but the two first
consisted chiefly of sand ; the third somewhat argillaceous.
All were of a soft, fine ground alluvium, without pebbles,
the analysis confirmed the quantities ascribed to each speci-
men.

Taking another country of different formation as a speci-
men, I close this section. The soils vary of the Hydrabad
district, with the facility with which the rock of which they
are formed decomposes; it is generally silicious. The
analysis of a garden soil at the cantonment of Secundarabad
which had not received much manure, shewed specific
gravity 1.70. Four hundred and eighty grains contained
water of absorption, 10 grains ; stones consisting of quarts
and felspar, 255 grains; vegetable fibre, 2; silicious sand
154c=431 grains. Of minutely divided matter separated by
infiltnition, viz. carbonate of lime, 7 ; vegetable matter, 7 ;
oxide of iron, 2. 5. ; salt, 4; silica, SO; alumina, 8 ; loss, 10. 5.
TotaL 4S0. The richest soil in this district, and the most

122 CXIMATB OF BRITISH INDIA.

spontaneously productive is that arising from the decomposi-
tion of the clay slate.

The soil of Bengal is extremely shallow, and a compound
of saltish mud and sand, the former derired from die innnda*'
tions of the rivers washing down the richest particles of the
surface in the upper provinces, and the sand probably being
the reliquies of the ocean which is here retreating from the
land. The Regur or cotton ground, which extends over the
greatest part of central India, is supposed to be a disintegra-
tion of trap rocks ; it require neither manure nor rest, slowly
absorbs moisture, and retains it long, and it has produced
the most exhausting crops in yearly succession for centuries.
The salpetre or nitrous soil is general in Bahar. All the
soils of India have in general a powerAil absorbing quality;
hence, their fertile properties.

Climate. — ^The temperature of so wide an extent of country
as British India, and of such different degrees of elevation is,
of course, very varied ; for its exposition I shall, therefore,
adopt the division pursued in the preceding sections.

Bengal Proper. — ^No tract of country inhabited by man
possesses a more damp, climate than this flat province, where
nearly one half the year it rains incessantly, and during the
other half the dews are most penetrating. (For its effects
see Population Chapter), Mr. Hamilton thinks the damp*
ness of the climate cannot be ascribed to any inherent
moisture of the earth, but that it must originate from the
want of a general system of drainage, from luxuriant vegeta-
tion and deficient ventilation ; but I think it evident that the
saline quality of the earth and of the plants which grow in it
peculiarly fit it for the retention of the vast quantity of rain,
(amounting to 70 or 80 inches) which falls in the rainy seaaon,
coming in with June and continuing to the middle or end of
October. During this humid period, the range of the ther-
mometer affords no indication of the climate, or more pro-
perly speaking oppressiveness, of the weather ; it may ascend
to 88. or 90. F., or descend to 79. or even 7S., but the ex-
haustion of the European bodily frame still remains unchanged.

EFFECTS OF MOISTURE ON HEAT.

128

I have felt more sinking — more prostration of strength in
Bengal, lying on a couch, beneath r punka with the thermo*
meter at 77. or 80., than in riding throngh the forests of New
Holland during the blowing of a hot wind, with the thermo*
meter at 110. F. The reason was, that in the former the
atmosphere was saturated with moisture, and in the latter
afanost painfully constrictive with dryness. To judge, there«
fore, of the effects of heat on the animal frame merely by
referring to the height of the mercury in Fahrenheit's bulb,
is exceedingly fallacious.

The rainy season* in Bengal is succeeded by what is termed
tibie cold season, which lasts from November to the middle of
February, when the hot season begins, and continues to the
middle of June. During the cold season the air is clear,
sharp and bracing in some degrees. Tber. 65. to 84. mean
72.; Bar. medium 29.96.

The commencement of the hot season in the lower parts of
the province is almost intolerable even to a native of the
country ; men and beasts have been known to fall dead in
the streets of Calcutta in April and May, the sun's fi^rid
rays, so advantageous to the farmer and shepherd, seem to
penetrate to the very marrow, while not a cloud appears in
the heavens to check his burning beams. When the mon-
soon is on the eve of changing, the very air feels as it were

* lufluence of the moon in producing rain (Calcutta) in each year.

Flxit4nontlw
in each year.

1S25
1827
;828
18S8

ine

28S1

tit

1833
Total

For each year.

>^a

IS9

0.68

l.d3

1.00

0.16

1.83

1.73

0.00

0^8

0.74

5.AS

1.86

48<

336

8.10

1.00

35^1

9.34

8
6

3
9
8
6
6

III

4
3
6

3
4
3
3

N.B. I give this table as fUaji-

trative of facU addaced in

refereDce to the same sabject

io the Southern Hemisphere.

(See Vol. IV.)

From ttiese obserrations, as
well as othexv, made by the Rev.
R. Everest, it appears that rain
"fell most abQodantly on the 3od*
6th, 6th, and 7th days before the
new moon, and the 6th day after
it.

124 METEOROLOGICAL BBGI8TER FOB CALCUTTA.

thick, respiration is laboriouB and all animated nature lan-
guishes, the oppressiTeneas of the night being neariy as gteat
as that of the day. The following is a —
Meteorological Regiiter for Calcutta daring the Year 1833 (Asuy Office).

On the N. E. frontier of Bengal, where the country begins
to be elevated above the level of the eea, the climate, when
the land is cleared, is described to be very fine : indeed a sa^
natarium has been established at Churra Foonjee in the
KoBsya hills, situated about four marches distant from Syl-
het, and the same N. from Assam;- a detachment of ^ck ar-
tillery sent thither speedily recovered health, and the station
has the advantage of being an important military position as
well as a delightful sanatarium; two spots are described ai
exceedingly eligible for cantonments. One a fine plain, ex-
tending fi'om the bill Chillingdes eastward to Nongkreem, and
presenting a surface of about four or five square miles, ua-
broken by any undulation which could not be easily rendered
practicable for wheeled carriages. The altitude is probably
about 6,800 feet, and the climate so moderate, that in May
woollen clothes are worn by all the Europeans from choice.
In winter there are frosts, but it does not appear that snow
ever fiills. The second spot is the plain, about three miles S.
of Nogundee, crossed by the road between that place and
Sunareem. This possesses all the advantages of the former.

CLIMATE OF ARRACAN AND BAHAR. 125

bat 18 probably a little lower, though not so much so as to be
perceptibly wanner ; and the access from this spot to Pundua
18 easier, besides enjoying obvious advantages of health and
comfort, as crops in either of these positions would be pre-
pared on emergency to afford a speedy and effectual support
to any part of the N.E. frontier.

Nuncklow station in the Kossya hills (the climate of which
is now so much appreciated) is in N. lat. S5.40.30., £• long.
91.30., and 4,550 feet above the level of the sea ; it is described
to be one of the loveliest spots in the world — ^more like a
gentleman's demesne in England than what India is so errone-
ously supposed to be — all swamps or sand* The thermometer
m May ranges from 67. to 75., in June from 68. to 72. and
frost and ice exist in winter.

Arracan. — ^The prevailing winds are two monsoons as in
Bengal, but owing to local circumstances the S. W. blows
more frequently from the S., and the N. E. more to the W.
of N* The changes of the monsoon are also not so distinctly
marked ; the S. W. is of the longest duration, beginning in
April and ending in November. Our troops suffered much
in Arracan during the Burmese war, but there is no doubt
that as cultivation extends, the cUmate of Arracan will be
found far superior to that of Lower Bengal. The principal
rainy months are May, June, and July — ^70 inches fall in June
and 59 in July.

Bahar. — ^The climate is divided into three seasons as in
Bengal, but the intensity of the heat and moisture is consi-
derably mitigated ; from its elevation above the level of the
tea, the cold season is more extended in duration and more
frigid*

Tirhoot, a district of Bahar, between 27® and 28® N. lat.
extending in a S. E. direction 160 miles, and bounded to the
N. by a lofty chain of mountains separating it from the alpine
kmgdom of Nepaul, is placed in a happy medium free from
the fogs of Bengal and the dry parching winds of the N. W.
provinces. The soil is luxuriantly fertile, and almost every

126 BAROMETRICAL PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE AT TIRHOOT.

European fruit and vegetable is produced in perfection and
in abundance in Tirhoot. The foUowingr shews the —

Barometrical Pk-essure and Temperature at Tirhoot.

Barometer, at 32^^
(inches.)

Thermometer (degrees.)

Ayerage
Monthly
Altitude.

•

^d i

S V a
«-o g

Mean
MonthlT

dlttinail
Oscillation.

height in
the house.

Mean
of daily
extremes In
open air.

Mean
diamal range.

Wind.

January ...

29.698

+.308

.111

60.6

60.4

—17.6

19.0

E. and W.

February. .

.676

+.166

.101

66.4

65.7

—11.3

23.2

March ....

.479

+.089

.087

76.3

76.1

— 1.9

23.9

April

.369

—.021

.089

81.6

86.2

+ 7.2

24.1

W.aad£.

May

.622

—.138

.071

86.3

89.2

+ 7.3

19.6

£.

June

.146

—.244

.068

86.0

86.7

+ 11.2

19.1

fi.

July ..••..

.126

—.266

.060

?4.6

84.6

+ 8.7

12.3

August ....

.173

—.217

.070

83.2

86.0

+ 6.6

9.8

September

.237

—.163

.0d6J 84.3

81.6

+ 7.0

10.6

October . . .

.446

+ .056

.093

81.6

73.8

+ 3.6

14.7

NoTember

.670

+ .080

.090[ 78.4

— 4.2

21.9

£.

December

.614

+.224

.080

63.6

61.6

—16.4

17 7

Mean . .

29.390

range

.673

.084

77.6

78.0

range

28.8

17.9

The Western promnces under the Bengal Presidency, viz.
Allahabad^ Agra^ Delhi, &c. are temperate, but hot winds
blow during a part of the warm season, when the wealthier
natives sometimes resort to underground habitations to
escape their torrifying effects.

The climate of central India is mild, and approaches much
to that of the S. parts of Europe, or to the table land of
Spain ; although the mercury may rise to 100. during the day,
the nights are bland and invigorating.

* The climate of Benares is pretty similar to that of Tirhoot

MSAN TEMPERATURE OF SEHARUNPOOR AND MUSSOORI. 1S7

The Snglisb dominionfi among the hills and along the Kur
maon province are blessed with a delicious climate^ the rigours
of the winter solstice being moderated by great solar ra-
diation, while the summer heats are tempered by the contigu-
ous eternal snow-topped Himalaya. . Indeed, during the sum-
mer season, the vicinity of the frozen regions causes a con-
tinued current of atmosphere, which sets in daily as regularly
as a sea breeze on a tropical shore, and with a nearly similar
invigorating freshness. At Saharunpoor, in 30® lat, and 1,000
feet above the sea, the climate is similar to the southern parts
of Europe ; the mean temperature throughout the year is
about 73., and monthly mean temperature at Seharunpoor,
(1,000 feet above the sea).

52°

Fob.

66°

March

67°

April May Jane July Anr* Sept.

78° 86° 90° 86° 83° 79°

Oct.

74°

Not.
64°

Dee.
66°

At Mussoorri (7,000 feet high).
60 72 73 66 66 61

Mr* Trail thus describes the chmate of the Bhot mehala
(districts) of the Kumaon territory. — ' During full half the
year, the surface is wholly covered vnth snow, beginning to
fiiD about the end of September, and continuing to accumulate
to the beginning of April. In open and level situations,
where the bed of snow is in some years IS feet deep, it is
dissipated early in June ; in the hollows not till the middle of
July. During the five months of absence of snow, the ther-
mometer ranges at sun-rise from 40. to 55., and at mid-day
firom 65. to 75. in the shade, and from 90. to 110. in the sun.
At HawU Bagh in Kumaon, 3,887 feet above the sea, the
range of the thermometer during the year was

7 A.M. SP.M. 7 A.M. 2 P.M. 7 A.M. 2 P.M. 7A.M. 2 P.M.

Jan. 36° 47** April 64° 66° July 72° 78° Oct. 66° 69**
Feb. 37 66 May 67 73 Aug. 72 79 Nov. 42 60
MMch46 61 June 73 76 Sep. 66 67 Dec. 34 62

The heat of course diminishes as the height increases, and
at Almora town in 39.30. (5,400 feet high) the difference is 2.
or 8. less than the above average. During the cold season,
on the contrary, from the greater evaporation, the thermo-

1S8 BBRAR— ORISSA.

meter before sunrise is always lowest in the Tallies, and the
firost more intense than on the hills of moderate height (that
is below 7,000 feet) while at noon the sun is more powerful.
The extremes in 24 hours have been known 18. and 51. The
snow does not fall equally every year ; the natives fix on every
third year as one of heavy snow, but in general it does not
lie long, except on the mountain tops and ridges. On the
Ghagar range between Almora and the plains, snow remains
so late as the month of May. At Masuri, 6 to 7,000 feet
high, the mean animal heat is only 57. F.; indeed at 4,000
feet elevation the hot winds cease, and vegetation assumes a
European character. The quantity of rain falling at Almora
is from 40 to 50 inches per annum.

Of the British territories in Berar we know as I have be*
fore said, little or nothing certain ; dense jungles and foaming
cataracts impede the steps of the meteorological inquirer.

Orissa, or more properly speaking Cuttack, enjoys in the
neighbourhood of the sea a refreshing breeze. Pooree on
the coast is considered by Dr. Brander the Montpellier of
Bengal, the climate being less moist, and a refreshing sea-
breeze blowing continually from March to July; it is thus
also with the Ultra Gangetic territories, viz. Assam, Tavoy,
Ye, Tenasserinf, &c., where the high lands are cool and not
unsuited even to European constitutions, when the jungle has
been cleared. The Cachar territory recently acquired is
much praised by Captain Fisher, who says — ' It is as sweet
a country as I can well imagine, and it exceeds in fertility
almost any country in India, although enjo3ring the very great
advantage of being above inundations ; it is therefore not only
adapted to a rice crop, but to almost all other species of
produce, and I should specify sugar as the one best adapted
to the soil and climate. I have traversed the greater part of
the cultivated grounds, or rather seen portions of the culti-
vation in all parts, and I cannot speak too highly of the
standing rice crop, which is luxuriant and heavy, standing in
most parts ^r^ feet above the ground, which is perfectly dry.
Any one possessed of half a dozen thousand rupees, would

CLIMATE OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 129

here acquire for himself a princely domain, and before long
would secure for his fSEunily a Tery handsome income. I have
been out the greater part of every day, and find the climate
vexy delightful ; the heat is bearable, and the cold never in-
tokraUe* I am persuaded that, with good sense and better
culture, these hills would yield an abundant crop of cotton.;
and it is here, if any wbere^ that the coffee would succeed^ as
there are neither hot winds nor inundation. I have procured
the Naga receipt for rice-beer, which is regularly malted ; the
Nagas 9peak ci the beer as both meat and drink. The mouiH
tttns are favourable to the growth, not only of cotton, but of
various plants and grams. Perhaps no country in Aaia
presents greater variety of vegetable productions ; ftota. the
oak and vine to the rattan and strawberry ; such, indeed, is
the fertility of the soil at every altitude, that it seems likely
every plant, whether of European or Asiatic origin, could be
successfully liaised on the Cachar hills.'

Southern Inpia. — ^The climate is influenced by the N. E.
and S« W« monsoons, and by. the elevation of the country, the
low lands being extremely hot, with dense exhalations, and
the upper dry, cool and healthy, as on the Mysore table land.
The thermometer ranges in the Carnatic higher than in Beiv-
gal (to 100. and 106. F.), but the moisture or evaporation not
being so great, the heat is less severely felt; but on the
other hand, the cold season is of very short duration.

Thb setting in of th£ Monsoon at Ma«>ras has been
often deecfibed. On the 15th of October, the flag-staff is
struck, as a signal for all vessels to leave the roads, lest they
should be overtaken by the monsoon. The premonitory
symptom0 of the approaching ^ war of elements' are small
fleecy clouds appearing, at intervals, to rise from the horizon,
and to dissipate, in a thin and almost impex:ceptible vapour,
over the deep blue of the still bright sky. A slight haze
upon the distant waters, seems gradually to thicken, although
not to a d^isity sufficient to refract the rays of the sun,
which still flood the broad sea, with one unvarying mass of
glowing light. A sensation of suffocating heat in the at-

VOL. I. K

ISO CHANGE OF THE MONSOON IN INDIA.

mosphere, oppresses the lungs and saddens the spirits.
Towards the afternoon^ the aspect of the sky begins to change;
the horizon gathers blackness, — ^masses of heavy clouds ap-
pear to rise from the sea, black and portentous, accom-
panied by sudden gusts of wind, succeeded by an intense,
death-like stillness, as if the air were in a state of utter stag-
nation, and its vital properties arrested. Meanwhile, the
lower circle of the Heavens are of a deep brassy red ; from
the partial reflection of the setting sunbeams upon the thick
clouds, which every where overspread it. The atmosphere
becomes condensed almost to the thickness of a mist — ^in-
creased by the thin spray scattered over the land, from the
sea, by the violence of the increasing gales. The rain now
begins to faU in sheeted masses, and the wind to howl
more continuously ; which, mingling with the roaring of the
surf, produces a tumultuous union of sounds, perfectly dea-
fening. The pale lightning streaming from the clouds in
broad sheets of flame, appears to encircle the Heavens,
as if every element had been converted into fire, and the
world was on the eve of a general conflagration; whilst
the thunder peal instantly following, is like the explosion
of a gunpowder magazine, or the discharge of artiUery in
the gorge of a mountain, where the repercussion of surround-
ing hills multiplies, with terrific energy, its deep and astound-
ing echoes. The Heavens seem to be one va^ reservoir of
flame, propelled from its voluminous bed by some invisible but
omnipotent agency, and threatening to flfeg its fiery ruin upon
every thing ai^ound. In some parts, however, of the pitchy
vapour by which the skies are completely overspread, the
Ughtning is seen only occasionally to glimmer in faint streaks
of light, as if struggling, but unable to escape from its prison,
igniting, but too weak to burst, the impervious bosom of those
capacious magazines, in which it was at once engendered and
pent up. So heavy and continuous is the rain, that scarcely
any thing, save those vivid bursts of light which nothing can
arrest or resist, is perceptible through it The surf, raised
by the wind, and scattered in thin billows of foam, over the

DELICIOUS CLIMATE OF THE NEILOHERRY HILLS. 131

esplanade^ extends several hundred yards from the beach.
Fish upwards of three inches long, are found upon the flat
roofs of houses in the town, during the prevalence of the
monsoon — either blown from the sea, by the violence of the
gales, or taken up in the water spouts, which are very preva-
lent in this tempestuous season. It is, however, by these
violent conflicts of the aerial elements that a tropical atmos-
phere is purified and rendered, not merely respirable, but
absolutely delicious when the storm has subsided.

In Travancore, owing to the proximity of the oceufi, and
the waters on either side of the peninsular promontory, the
climate is moist but not oppressive, as the sea breeze blows
from one quarter or another the whole year round.

The climate of the Neilgherry hills resembles in the higher
parts that of the great intertropical plateaus of America, which
have become the centres of civilization in the new hemisphere,
with the additional advantage, that it is not subject to an in-
convenience attending the latter, namely, the sudden changes,
and cold piercing winds occasioned by the variety of lo{);y
mountains. The mean temperature at Ootocamund is rather
more than that of London, but the annual range is very small,
and the heat never sufficient to bring the more delicate Eu-
ropean fruits to perfection. At the height of that station.
Dr. Christie observes, the cultivation of corn and vegetables,
can alone be expected to succeed ; but lower down, at an
elevation of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet, the valleys enjoy the
delicious climate of Italy. It may here be reckoned, as ap-
pHcable to all India, that the climate of the eastern as well as
of the western hemisphere, is undergoing a remarkable
change, one of the proofs of which is the length of twilight
now visible and increasing in India, where none was formerly
observed. Indian twilights are, however, now nearly as dis-
tinct as the European interval between sunset and darkness.

At Coimbatore the temperature during the cold season is
minimum 31. F. maximum 69. F. ; in April 65. in May 64.
(a fiiOer detail is given at page 133) there are no sultry nights,
a blanket being agreeable at all seasons of the year, the Neil-
^lerries are indeed remarkable, not merely for the mildness

132 CLIMATE OF BANGALORE^ MALABAR, DECCAN, &C.

of the climate, but aho for its equability ; the air is at all
times perfectly clear, being beyond the zone of clouds and
mists, yet the influence of both monsoons is felt; the elasticity
of the atmosphere is evidenced by the remarkable distance
within which sound is heard, and the lightness and buoyancy
of the animal spirits, indeed it is an ordinary custom with the
natives, when any thing tickles their fancy, to retire to a
sequestered spot, cast themselves on a verdant bank, and diere
yield to the delightful enjoyment of a long continued burst oi
laughter, which we sombre mortals would find it difficult to
rival, even with Momus Matthews before us.

Bangalore Qat. 12.57. N. long. 77.S8. £.) is one of the
healthiest and gayest stations in India, andrenfarkablefor the
wholesomeness of its atmosphere. The thermometer seldom
rises above 82. or falls below 56. F. The vine and cypress
grow luxuriantly ; apple and peach trees yield delicious fruit,
and strawberries are raised in the principal gardens. The
monsoons, which sometimes deluge the Malabar and Coro
mandel coasts, have their force broken by the lofty Ghauts^
and the tableau of Mysore (on which Bangalore is situate) is
constantly refreshed by genial showers, which preserve the
temperature of the air, and the lovely verdure of the fields
throughout the entire year.

The Malabar and Canara coasts are not unhealthy (tropically
speaking) except in the marshes beneath the Ghauts, where
the miasm, as in all similarly situated places, is very delete-
rious.

In the Mahratta country, the N. western parts towards the
Ghaut mountains, which attract the clouds from the Indian
ocean, are visited with profuse rain, which sometimes continues
three or four weeks vdthout intermission, while to the S. and
E., perhaps not 30 miles distant, not a drop of rain has fallen
during the same period.

As we proceed to the N. and W. peninsula, the climate
approaches to that described under the western provinoea of
the Bengal Presidency, except in the neighbourhood of the sea.
In Guzerat the westerly winds are burning hot in May, June
and July : — Candeish has a luxurious climate like Mahrah ;

TEMP. OE GAtCUTTAs MADRAS^ BOMBAY^ LONDON^ &C. 133

and Poonab, a central station in Upper India^ S^SOO feet above
the level of the sea,. 100 miles from Bombay and 75 miles
from the nearest sea eoast^ is d^ghtfuUy situate within 30
uales of the Ghauts.

. On the i^hole it may be said^ that tha climate of the British
poasesaions on the continent of Asiftj is essentially of a tro-
pical nature, though varying in intensity, and sometimes
^^^^g into that of the temperate »>ne, either by reason of
the peculiarities of the s<mI, or its elevation above the level
of the sea. The following .table affords a comparative view
of the monthly and yearly mean temperature of the air of
Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and the Neilghery mountains,
(8,000 feet high) compared with the temperature of th^ city of
Lcmdon, and the fall of rain in England.

■

Calcvtta.

Bombaj.

MadTM.

]

N'eilgberlet.

London.

Mno

Meiin

MlB.

Mom
Mas.

Mean
Mis.

Mem
Max.

Mean
Mia.

Montkly'^aMM.

AverafB
of rain fbr

tWOJCVI.

Mean
Max.

Mean
Mln.

ArtracF
of rain Tor

tirojcan.

6 A.M.

SP.M.

3 P.M.

flA.M.

4 P.M.

lU.M.

lochM.

Incbea.

Jaa....

7A.1

08.

;•

88.9

74.\

45}

451

1.17

39.6

82.6

1.483

Feb ....

80.

67.

84.5

73.8

42.4

33.7

.740

Mtnli. ,

88.1

(to.

87.6

78.7

3.47

ftO.l

83.7

1.440

Ainfl...

95.1

79.1

98.

84.1

63|

3.10

57.7

42.2

1.786

Mar...

97.1

88.1

8ft

94.8

86.1

es*

5.81

62.9

45.1

1.858

Jane...

88.

78.

90.5

84.S

6.25

69.4

48.1

1.830

Joir...

86.1

78.1

98.6

85.3

53j|

6l|

10.87

69.2

52.2

2.516

Aagvat.

86.2

79.8

89.9

83.1

60i

11.77

70.1

58.9

1.488

Bcyt • «a

80.

78.

89.7

83.3

54i

60^

2.40

65.6

50.1

2.193

Oett^ber

89.S

76.1

87.8

88.4

50i

7.41

55.7

42.1

2.073

Not....

78.

65.8

8ft

84.3

80.1

ftOi

6li

10.86

47.5

38.8

2.400

Dec....

7».

69.

80.8

7«.

46i

8.87

42.2

85.4

2.420

AmumX

•

Meuw.

85.S

73.4

83.4

81.ft

67.9

80.8

52|

63.88

56.1

42.5

VkobtabIiB Kingdom. — ^Vegetation partakes of the gene-
ral features of a country, so varied in aspect as that just
How described, and it is so extensive, beautiful, indeed mag-
nificent, as to baffle attempts at a brief delineation. The sea
coast border of our Indian territoriea, as in other parts of the
tropical world, is covered with the graceful and ahnost indis-
pensable cocoa palm, which fortunately for man, grows to
luxuriance in sandy and barren spots, where scarcely any
other valuable plant would thrive. The forest trees of India

134 VEGETABLE KINGDOM OF HINBOSTAN.

are not to be surpassed in any country, for superbness and
number ; their diversity and worth is as yet but little known-
in England, and they cover a great part of the country, firom
Cape Comorin to the Himalaya. Among them are oak, teak,
pine, fir, walnut, jack, chesnut, cedar, ebony, sissoo, hornbeam,
saul, yew, poon, mango, jarrool, &c. On the Kumaon range^
the pine and arbor vitae trees are not unfreqaently seen with
trunks of S5 feet in circumference, and ISO feet high, without
a branch ! The chief rice country of India is Bengal, which
produces a surplus of this staple of Ufe ; but there are smaller
quantities of rice cultivated in othei^ parts (particularly in the
western provinces) which are far superior in quality to that
of Bengal. The Madras territories do not produce sufllcient
rice for home consumption, a great extent of waste land
is now, however, being brought into cultivation, and the
inferior sorts of grain are giving place to rice. The wheat
grown in the northern and western provinces is of excellent
quality, and a trade is now springing up between Liverpool
and Calcutta, in the exportation of flour from the latter place,
which is used and preferred in England for various manu-
factures.* The wheat of Bareilly is particularly fine, and the
bread made therefrom, equal, if not superior to any met with
in England. The seed was originally introduced (it is said),
by Mr. Hawkins, and it is now generally cultivated. Wheat,
the produce of the midland district of Kumaon, seUs at Al-
mora, at the rate of one rupee the 25 seirs, or 2s. fw fifty
pounds weight The barley of the N.W. provinces is also
good, and the Hindoos of the Himalaya range distil from it a
spirit, not much inferior to Irish potheen.

The cultivation of potatoes (hot the sweet potatoe found
in almost every tropical country) is proceeding with miex*
ampled rapidity ; they are much liked by the natives, even
small and watery, as was their produce in Bengal until of late,
when more care was adopted in the use of fresh Eiuropean

* I1ie quantity of wheat and wheat flour exported from India to Eng-
land, in 1832, was 9,853 quarters.

CUUNABY PRODUCTIONS AND FRUITS. 135

seed ; and at no distant period^ this wonderful root bids fair
to effect a singular revolution in the cultivation of the soil of
Hindostan.

In the more Eastern and Southern provinces, the firuits are
principally tropical ; but in the N. W. provinces apples, pears,
grapes, walnuts, strawberries, raspberries, and other fruits of
temperate clin^tes, are now being reared in abundance (the
grapes of Malwa have long been celebrated) ; since the forma-
tion of agricultural societies at Calcutta, Bombay, Agra, &c. a
marked improvement has taken place among the culinary ve-
getables ; and turnips, parsnips, onions, carrots, peas, beans,
brocoli, spinage, radishes, cabbage of every variety, cauli-
flowers, artichokes, cucumbers, &c., now crowd the bazars
during their respective seasons : a spirit of emulation has also
grown up among the native gardeners, which promises much
improvement A witness before Parliament, in 1832, thus
speaks of the desire of the native to improve and extend cul-
tivation, when encouraged by the natural and wholesome
stimulus of individual profit : —

' You have only to insure a profit to the cultivator, what-
ever may be the crop, and the cultivation will be imdertaken ;
for instance, that of the potatoe, in which, extraordinary as it
may appear, the first experiments by the Europeans failed,
but those by the natives were successful. The cultivation of
the potatoe is now in the district of Furrackabad, carried to
an extent that is scarcely to be beheved. I may state as an
example in proof, that the fine class of cultivators alluded to,
grow on the same land a crop of indigo, which they cut early
in the rains, and then prepare the lands for potatoes, and
that the two crops wiU give a return of about 87 rupees per
e<»mion begah of the country.* I think the men I now allude
to would do anything possible in respect to cultivation. They

* A btgah is about one-third of an acre, so that taking three times
87 rupees at 2«. the rupee, it would be a return of produce from one acre
•f ground to the amount of £26» This simple fact shews how British
In& would prosper If encouragement were given to its agricultural
products.

136 EUROPEAI^ PLANTS, FRUITS, AMD FLOWERS IN INDIA.

will give any price for the manure from the stable : it is with
the greatest difficulty that people m • the toihi keep maiiiire
from them.'

On the Neilgheries, European plants and flowers j yiaJ —
the red and white honeysuckle, white and red jasmki, myrde,
▼iolet, balsam, marygold, geranium, and daisy are in fine pcas
fection ; as are also red and white raspberries, strawberries,
hill-gooseberries, and currants, &c. The indigenous fruita <xf
the Kumaon country are pears, gooseberries, currants (red
and white), raspberries, and strawberries, none of which re^
ceive culture ; on the Kossya, or Cossya Hills, in the neigh^
bourhood of Sylhet, apples, pears, pliukis, straw, rasp, and
blackberries abound ; and the ever verdant sod is carpeted
with daisies — the whole country presenting the appearance
of an undulating park of extremely beautiful scenery. In
Kumaon, the apple, pear, apricot, cherry, walnut, pomegra*
nate, mulberry, peach, mango, guava, orange, lemon, citron,
plantain, vine, strawberry (tree and herb), rasp, black, barb-
berry, currants, gooseberries, &c. &c., all arrive at perfection,
as also all European vegetables and flowers.

The sugar cane grows luxuriandy in most parts, bat the
manufacture of sugar is principally confined to Bengal and
Benares : the grain of the latter sugar is large, bright, and
sparkling, like the Mauritius sugar: that of Bengal has a
whitish, sandy appearance, and a delicate, rather sickly, fla-
vour, in consequence of the repeated fermentations which it
undergoes in the tedious process of native manufacture ; it
is, however, preferred by the French confectioners in Europe,
by reason of its possessing but htde acidity.

The coffee of the Southern parts of the peninsula ^ower
Bengal is perhaps unsuited for it*) is excellent, and it might

* Coffee thrives best in a mild and moist temperature, in black, deep»
arable ground, which retains the humidity wdl, and in the vicinity of
forests and rivulets, rather shaded from the too intense heat of the sun.
Cold and hard argillaceous earths, and also the sandy clay that lies on a
bed of marl, docs not suit the coffee plant, which requires a light and nou-
rLihing soil, free light and air, without too much exposure to the son.

SVGAKf GOFf BE, OPItrM, INDIGO, &C. 137

be sent in the greatest abundance to Engkind, but for the
extra duties leyied on it for the support of the West India
interest ; even the tobacco of Hindostan which grows every
where luxuriantly, and in many places has an exquisite aroma,
is shut out from the home market by prohibitory duties.
Opium forms one of the most valuable productions of Bengal,
Behar and Malwa, and its yearly extending consumption in
China (vide Chapter an Commerce), render it as valuable in a
financial as in a mercantile or agricultural point of view.

Indigo is only cultivated for manufacture to any extent in
Bengal, Behar, and the N« W. provinces, viz. Chide, Allahabad,
Agra, &c.* The Bengal is the finest, probably not owing
to any superior skill in the manufacture (for Europeans are
employed in the upper as well as in the lower provinces), but
to the superior richness, and perhaps saline quality of the
soil in which the plant delights most to vegetate.

The tobacco lands of Guzerat, are stated by English wit-
nesses to be ' the cleanest and best farmed lands they ever
saw.* Some sorts cultivated have a fine aroma.

Cotton, whether of the creeper, perennnial or forest tree,
(Bombax Ceiba) every where abounds, but sufficient care
faas not been bestowed on the growth, so as to render it a
triennial instead of an annual, or in the picking and cleaning
of it for exportation, although the natives sedulously attend
to the same when poreparing it for their own manufacture.
E. L cotton receives a brighter dye and retains it longer
than American cotton ; the Swiss and German cottons (so

* The different parts of the country in which the plant is caltivated may
be seen by the foUowbfi^ return of the indigo brought into Calcutta for the
MMon of 1833:«^FhKiiFnrnickabad and Western Provinces, maunds, 3,748 ;
AlUabad, Mirsapore^ and Benares, 2,281 ; Juanpore, 4d3 ; Qhaaeepore,
\MS ; Chopra and Tirhoot, 15,264 ; Patna, Bnzar, and Dinapoor, 3,024 ;
Pwneah, 3,741; Monghyr and Boglipoor, 3,181; Malda, 1,919; Rajis-
hye, Nattore, IMnajipore. 3,930$ Rungpore, 616; Mymensing, 296;
Dacca and Jelapore, 1,696 ; Jessore and Furridpore, 20,449 ; Moorsheda-
bad, 598; Nuddea and Kishnagur, 16,426; Burdwan, Bancoorah, and
Bufbhoin^ 4,788 ; Hooghly, and 24 Pergunnahs, 3,348 ; Balasore, Mldna-
pore and Cuttack, 156. Total, 93,180 maunds.

138 COTTON — DACCA MUSLINS — ROAES*

superior to the Lancashire cloths) are made from E. I. cotton
chiefly. The Dacca cotton is unequalled^* and the ^ sea
island cotton' from Saugur island at the mouth of the
Hooghly^ promises to be a valuable article of export.

The E. I. Company's Government have of late years made
several attempts for the extensive introduction of the cotton
plant into Guzerat, which seems well adapted for its culture.
A farm has been estabUshed by the Company at the town of
Broach, and the benefits resulting from improved cultivation,
and greater care in the gathering and cleaning of the cotton
demonstrated to the people.

Roses are cultivated to an immense extent at Ghazeepore
and other places, for the purpose of manufacturing rose-
water, (a sovereign remedy for ills with the natives) and
otto or attar of roses« which requires 200,000 roses to produce
the weight of a single rupee in attar.

Mr. Forbes Royle in the interesting and valuable Botanical
Indian work which he is now preparing justly observes, — In
the peninsula of India and in the neighbouring island of
Ceylon, we have a climate capable of producing cinnamon,
cassia, pepper, and cardamoms. The coffee grown on the
Malabar coast is of so superior a quaUty as to be taken to

* Tlie mode of manufacturing very fine Dacca muslins ia thus minutely
described by Mr. Walters. 'The division of labour was carried to a great
extent in the manufacture of fine muslins. In spinning the very fine
thready more especially, a great degree of skill was attuned. It was
spun with the fingers on a tuhMh^ or fine steel spindle, by young women,
who could only work during the early part of the morning, while the dew
was on the ground ; for such was the extreme tenuity of the fibre, that it
would not bear manipulation after the sun had risen. One mttee of cotton
could thus be spun into a thread 80 cubits long, which was sold by the
spinners at one rupee eight annas per sicca weight. The rufbagkur^j or
darners, were also particularly skilful. They could remove an entire
thread from a piece of muslin, and replace it by one of a finer texture.
The cotton used for the finest thread was grown in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Dacca ; more especially about Sunergong. Its fibre is too
short, however, to admit of its being worked up by any except that most
wonderful of all machines — ^the human hand. Hie art of making the very
fine muslin fabrics is now lost,— and pity it is that it should be so.*

VARIED AND VALUABLE PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. IS3

Arabia and re-exported as Mocha coffee. The Tinnivelly
senna brings the highest price in the London market, and
there is little doubt that many other valuable products of
tropical countries may be acclimated, particularly as several
are already in a flourishing condition in the Botanic Garden
at Calcutta, such as the cocoa and nutmeg, as well as the
camphor, pimento^ cajeput, and cashew nut trees. In the
Neilgheries a favourite site might, without doubt, be found
for the Cinchona (Peruvian bark) as well as for the different
kinds of Ipecacuanhay and as the potatoe has been introduced
into almost every part of India, equal success and consider-
able benefit would probably result from introducing the
several kinds of arracacha^ so much prized for their roots as
food by the natives of South America.

Along the coast of the Bay of Bengal the cocoa and areca
nut palms flourish and abound, and the continent every where
produces indigo, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and opium. The first
hardly of any note as an Indian product 30 years ago, is now
imported in the largest quantities into England ; the cotton is
indigenous to India, many provinces seem peculiarly adapted
for its culture, particularly Malwa and those to the N.W.
The tobacco brought home by Dr. Wallich from Martaban,
was pronounced by competent judges to be equal to the best
from America : Patna opium is preferred in China, and that
of Malwa bids fair to rival Turkey opium in the European
market. The sugar cane is cultivated in every part of India,
but very inferior sugar has hitherto been produced : lately,
however, a manufactory has been established near Calna,
(Burdwan) a new mine opened in the Burdwan coal formation,
and very superior specimens of sugar sent home. Here the
occurrence of sugar at the surface of the soil, and coal only a
few feet below it, in a country where labour is so cheap,
ought to be attended with decidedly favourable results. If from
these we turn our attention to other products we shall still see
that there are great capabilities every where, we should at
least expect them, for though India is generally looked upon
as a rice country, wheat is imported into and sold at a profit

140 MEDICINAL DRUGS, EESINS, GUMS, AND OILS.

in England, from the nordiem provinces, and flour for maki]
starch, is now one of the annual exports from Calcutta. Of
dyes, medicinal drugs, resins, and gums, and oils,* there are
great varieties, and more might be successfully introduced.
Timber of every kind is every where abundant, the coasts
producing teak, ebony, and many others ; the interior sauI,
sissoo, bamboos, and rattans, while a great variety of plants
yield excellent materials for cordage. The northern and hill
provinces grow at one season European grains, and at ano-
ther those which are peculiar to the tropics, and many peren-
nials of both these climates succeed equally well in the N.

* A receot Dumber of the Asiatic Journal contains the following notice
of a new vej^etable oil, which has appeared in the Calcutta market, and
which promises to prove a valuable article of trade : —

' This oil is in general use among the natives for mixing with colours,
and is chiefly imported from Chittagong ; but it would appear, on Migor
Burney's authority, to be still more abundantly produced in theTavoy
district, and at much less cost; the bazaar price in Calcutta averaging
about nine or ten rupees per maud (82 lbs.) ; whereas, at Tavoy, it may
be procured at about one-fourth that price. Both in India and in England
it has been found to be a good substitute for linseed oil for outside work,
especially in light colours, being worth for this purpose about ^12 to j£15
per ton. Mr. Dowie, a currier of Edinburgh, read a paper before the
Edinburgh Society of Arts, on the mode of applying this vegetable oil
alone, or mixed with tallow, to the preparation of leather for shoes, and
he considers it as preferable to fish oil. This application is quite new ; and
at Mr. Swinton's suggestions, some similar trials have since been made in
Calcutta, by Mackenzie and Macfarlan, with success. The leather absorbs
a great deal of the oil, and the specimens presented to the Society appear
to be very soft and tough.

* Major Buraey describes the tree whence the gargan oil is extracted as
forming large forests in Tavoy, growing to a great height and size ; its
native name is kaniyen. The flag-staif at Moulmein, 92 feet high, ia
formed of a single kaniyen tree. Mr. Maingy says, that the oil is much
improved by boiling, which gives it drying properties ; he has often used
it for boots, and has found it excellent in preparing tarpauling. The
inhabitants of Tavoy and Mergui do not burn earth oil like other Burmese,
but torches made of this wood-oil and touch-wood. The imports into
Calcutta for the last three years were as follow : — In 1829-30, Bn mds.
759, average price, 7 8. 1830-31, 914, 6 4. 1831^, 1,708, 7 2.'

NATURALIZATION OF DIFFERENT PLANTS^ &C. 141

provinces. In the hill provinces the forests are formed of oaks
and pines ;* the hill-men make their strongest ropes for cros-
sing rivers with hemp which every where abounds^ and is of
the finest quality. Opium, rhubarb, and turpentine^ form
articles of commerce as well as musk, Thibet wool, and borax,
from the other kingdoms of Nature. Somewhere in the vallies
at the foot of these hills, or at moderate elevations, the more
generally useful productions of European countries might be
successfully introduced, as the olive and hop^ the latter would
be particularly beneficial, as a brewery has been estabUshed
in the hills, where the climate is excellent. Here also there
is considerable prospect of success in the cultivation of the
ieaplaiUn*

' In the cold seasons,* Mr. Royle continues, ' there are cul-
tivated (about Saharunpore) of gramina, wheat, barley, oats,
and millet; of the legunUna, peas, beans, vetch, tares, chick,
and pigeon-peas ; of erucifera, a species of sinapis (mustard)
and allied genera cultivated for oil seeds, and of the umbeU'
fercBf the carrot, coriander, cummin, a species of ptychotis
nnd ftenmculUum pannoriumf as well as of other tribes, to-
bacco, flax, saf-flower, and succory. Almost all the esculent ve-
getables of Europe succeed remarkably well in the cold season
m India. In the rainy season, a totally different set of plants
engage the agriculturist's attention, as rice, cotton, indigo,
maize : holcus sorghum^ species of panicum, paspalum, and
ebuhuBy of legumina, species of phaseolus and dolichos.
Many of the eucurbitacete as well as sepanum and the species
ofsolanum for their esculent fruit.' In another place this
scientific Botanist observes, * as we have seen with perennials
of other kinds so is it with those yielding fruit of an edible
nature ; many^ both of tropical and temperate climes succeed^
nearly equally well in the northern parts of India; so that
taking Saharunpoor garden (lat. SO. N. long. 77.32. elevation

* The vegetation of the Komaon ridge of the Himalayan Mountains is
cf coOTse very different from that of the plains of Hindostan ; the agricul-
tnralprodacta are— back-wheat^ barley and wheat, and a species of amaraA-

142 CULTIVATION AT SAHARUNPOOR.

above the sea 1,000 feet, and 1,000 miles N.W. of Calcutta)
as an example, we have collected in one place and naturalised
in the open air the various fruit trees of very different coun-
tries, as of India and China, Caubul, Europe, and America.
Of those belonging to hot countries we have the plantain,
custard apple, shaddock, orange, lemon, guava, mango, tama-
rind, and others, which are common to every part of India. Of
Chinese iruits, the lechee, loqucdy longaro, wampee^ flat peach,
and digitated citron, are perfectly naturalized. Of fruit trees
from more northern countries, as Caubul and Cashmere, and
from the hills of Europe, there are the almond, peach, necta-
rine, and apricot, plum, pomegranate, grape-vine, apple, pear,
quince, mulberry, fig, and walnut : of useful trees of cold coun-
tries which thrive in what is at some seasons so hot a climate ;
pines, oaky maple y dog-woody service tree, holly y juniper, and
box. Of American trees, besides those first enumerated, the
logwoody mahogany, parkinsonia aculeata, and acer negundo,
may be instanced as perfectly naturalized.*

In order to demonstrate the variety of timber in our E. I.
Possessions, and the advantages of lowering the duty on its
importation into Great Britain, I subjoin a description of a
few of the principal trees out of 500 specimens collected by
the active and intelligent Dr. Wallich, of Calcutta, by the
late Dr. Francis Hamilton (late Buchanan) and A. Maingy,

thus ; the crop of the two latter being uncertain and in many seasons never
reaching maturity : the only vegetables raised are turnips and leeks, but
many useful herbs grow spontaneously, amongftt which is rhubarb. The
Bhot villages are all situated on the northern side of the great chdn, and
are in some degree subject to the influence of its snows and shade. By any
unusual accumulation of snow on the summit, the inferior bed is forced
down, and with it the influence of the line of perpetual congelation, if not
the line itself, descends, and it sometimes requires the heat of more than
one summer to throw back the snow to its former level. In the southern
and least elevated part of the ghat, oaks and pines flourish ; but with the
increase of elevation a gradual change in the forests takes place, from these
trees down to the birch, which is found on the very verge of perpetual
snow : the bark of this free is highly useful as a substitute for paper and
other domestic purposes.

INDIAN WOODS. 143

Esq. and submitted for examination by the Hon. E. I. Com-
pany to the London Society of Arts, who reported as follows :
— [It should be premised that the annexed list includes only
same of the woods of Nipaul, and the Ultra Gangetic country.]

Acacia mollU, from Nipal.

A UiYe tree : wood TeUowtoh white, 8hininir> coarae, rather soft.— Sp.* 9 Inch. diam.
Tihree and rays of the same colour, the latter very distinct : tabes large.

AcacmfiNtgram^ is. Nipal.

A large tree.--8p. s inch. diam. Wood glossy, coarse : a bad specimen.
Acacia. Joolchumahl, N.f fr. Nipal.
IVee TC17 large : wood ezceHent for chests and boxes.

Acacia, Popeeah, B.{ fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree : the wood osed for posts, bows, and rollers for ginning cotton.
Acacia odoratimma. Jatikorai, fr. Gualpara.§
lYonk very lofty, bnt not straight ; often 6 feet in girth : wood hard, and osed in fhrni-

Acacia marginaia, Komi, fr. Oualpara.
S eoblts in glith. , Makes good planks.

Acer Immgaium, Suslendiy N. Cherouoi, P.|| fr. Nipal.

90 to 4« feet high : 8 to 4 inches in diameter ; of alow growth }. used far rafters, beams,
and other building porposes.— Sp. 8'ft inches in diam. Wood varied brown and cream
eoloor, with a wavy lostre.

Acer stereuHaceum, fr. Nipal.

A very large tree, 8 feet in diameter. — Sp. 9'5 inch. diam. Wood light : fibre pale cream
cokmr, with considerable lostre : rays In distinct brown ribands : tnbes large, giving a
ooavse appearance to the wood.

Acer odlongum, fr. Nipal.

A very large tree. Wood moderately hard and compact.— 6p. fibre cream brown, with
eoBsiderable lostre : rays in narrow ribands of a flesh ooloor : tnbes small.

Ahmmn^ fr. Tavoy.

S to Ihthoms long 1 IS to ift inches diameter. Tldds good crooked timber, the stro n gest
and most durable of any in Tavoy 1 used for anehocs to the largest boats.

Almis nepaieniie, fr. Nipal.

Wood as firm as XngUdi Urch, and of a deeper ooioor 1 very hard, and dttkmlt to cot ;
hntre considerable.— Sp. 8 inch. diam. 90 layers in 17 ineh (bat in another opedmen ft
layers in 1*8 inch.) Heart pale brownish red : fibre ^ossy ; rays reddish brown, very dis.
tlack. Bailc fibraos, rather thick, conqiosed of many tbin laminK.

Aktania lEchiies) scholaris. Chatiyan» fr. Oualpara.
A biautlfhl tree, often 8cablts in girth, used for ooaise fomitore.

Altimua antkfyienterica (Nerium antidpsJ) Dudkhnri, fr. Goalpara.

A largo tree, often 8 catatts in drcomference. Is considered apowerfol medicine. Beads
are made (rf It, to be worn roond the neck.

Anacardium lat^oiium, Bhela, fr. Gualpara.
Grows to a good sisej osed for making chests and couches.

* 8p. the iodtvldosl specimen examined.

t If. Ncwar, the huignagf of the Hinda oonqoeron of Nipal. t B. Tbe Burmese lansusge.

I la Assam. | l>arbBttea,tbe faugnace of the nailv et of Nipal.

144 INDIAN WOODS.

^nacardium f Thubbamboo, B. fr. Tavoy.

A Uurgpe tree, oied in boat-baildinp.

Andrachne trj/bliaia, Uriam, fr. Oualpara.
8 cobHa is firth, need for oowm fomitnre.

Andr&meda avait/olia. Angaree, P. ; Jnggooclialy N. ; fr. Nipal.

Grows 1 or s feet in diameter : wood soft and aponcy, aaed f6r fad. 8p. wood mode-
rately hard, compact, reddish brown, witli some loatre. Bark with layers of atiiagy llbrea.

Andromeda /imMta. Sheabo^, N. fr. Nipal.

A tree ci considerable size. Sp. 4*5 inch. diam. : wood pale toown, flne-grained mo-
derateLj hard : rays very distinct in the outer layers.

Andromeda cordata, fr. Nipal.
Sp. 4*6 inch. diam. : wood brown, nearly doll ; imyt distinet : baik flaky, not at ail ttringy.

Aniideema. Boro-belock, fr. Gualpara.

Grows in the mountains ) feet in glith } the wood used for ftimiture.

Aquilaria agallochum. Ag^r and Langchi, fr. Gualpara.

Attains a great size in the knMands of Assam, and on the lower hills of Oaalpaim ; but in
these situations the wood is white, and in no estlmitton. In the Gaxt> mountains certain
parts ci the heart of the wood become of a darlc brown colour, and are strongly Imiireg-
nated with a highly scented oil. When in this state it is usually called Sagle-wood.

Aralia v. Panaw, fr. Nipal.

Said to be excellent wood j used fat boxes and other articles. Sp. 4*5 inch, diam » light-
coloured, rather soft.

Artoearpue, Thounben or Thoun-pine, B. fr. Ta^oy.

A large tree ; used in boat-building. It produces a sort of caoutchouc, with which tfie
Burmese pay their boats.

Ariocarptut Chama. KaDgtali chama, fr. Gualpara.

The glory of the forests of Gorakpur, where it attains a very great size : used for canoes,
for which it is weU fitted, being both very buoyant and durable in tbe water.

Bah-nah-thoay fr. Tavoy.

Timber 4 to fathoms long i ift to S4 indies in diamrter : used in boat and house-
building.

Bnmbusa. Bamboo, fr. Pulo-Geun, in Martaban.

The largest and tallest sort known i the stem 100 feet high, and attaining at the base a
diameter 11 inches, with sides 1 indi thick.

Bauhinia T\uTa, Tukra, fr. Gualpara.

A dosegvained, soft, tough wood, of a ydlow oolaar.
Bauhinia Bncuria. Bakuri, fr. Gualpara.

An open.grained, soft, tough wood } 3 cubits in glttt : used for fyimiture.

Berheris pinnatifoUa, MTIkissee, N, ; Jumne-muDda, P. ; fr. Nipal.

Rarely exceeding a foot !n diameter. Sp. 3 inch. diam. } wood strong, dose, compact,
ydlow.

Berberis asiatica. Matekiase, N. ; Chitra, P. ; fr. Nipal.

Wood small. Sp. rays rather large, distinct} layers la inl'5 inch. : wood tough, com-
pact, greenish ydlow.

Betula leptoatachya, fr. Nipal.

Wood not to be dlstlnguisbed firom English birch. 8p, 9*8 inch. diam. i 3 layers ; rays in
numerous, straight, narrow, paralld, ribands ; bark thin, smooth, sported like common
alder.

Beiula cylindroitachyaj fr. Nipal.
Sp. 4'5 indi. diam. j wood shaky, of no Talue > layers not distinct enough to be counted;

INDIAN WOODS. 145

fibre white, glossy i raya dark nut-browo, in very distiDct, narrow ribands ; bark thick,
tnbercalar.

Betuia Bhqjpattra, N. fr. Nipal.

8p. 6*8 inch. diam. ; about SO layers ; wood moderately hard and compact ; cnticle nsed
for writings on, and also for covering the inside of the tube of the hookah and kallonn.

Bignonia. Thathee, B. fr. Tavoy.

A yery large tree.

Briedelia stipularU. Kohi> fr. (jnalpara.

Grows to a large size ; wood dose, hard, tough ) used for dieeta, stools, ftc.
BriedeUa? fr. Nipal.

Wood not very hard, but fine-grained, and fit for ornamental cabinet work. Sp. S*5 Inch,
diam. ; colour lighter than box ; no tubes nor rays visible.

Bvtea firondaa, Polash, fr Gualpara.

Sometimes feet in g^rth ; wood open, soft, and tough, but not strong } used in coarse
furniture.

Ctnalpinia Sappan, Sappan-wood.

A native both of the peninsnla of India, of the Burmese country, and of the Malayan
IsbUMls. A lanpe and valuable tree j the wood red ; nsed in dying.

Cahpkyiium. Thurappe, B. ; Ohoopee, N.| fr. Martaban.

A large tree, used for masts and spars, and for pestles for oil presses.

Caliicarpa arborea. Khoja, fr. Gualpara.
6 fleet in gfrtii ; used for mortars, pestles, and common furniture.

CalffpirafUhei. Saljam, fr. Gualpara.

Seldom more than 3 cubits in girth. A close, hard, tough wood, used for posts, beams,
and planks.

Camellia Kim. Kissi, fr. Nipal.

Wood doae-giained ; no sapwood. Sp. i'5 Ihch. diam. ) wood pale brown j baik very
tUn.

C^oparis, fr. Nipal.
8p. s Inch. diam. ; wood white, moderately hard, dulL

Carapa, Taila-ooD, B. fr. Tavoy.

Timber la to 16 cubits, 16 to 18 inch. diam. } used in honse-bnilding.

Careyu, Kombo, fr. Gualpara.

About 8 cubits in girth } wood close, hard, tough, and strong. Stocks of matchlocks are
made of it.

Carjnnus mminea, Chukisse, N. ; Konikath, B. ; fr. Nipal.

Wood eateemed by carpenters. Sp. pale purplish, with little lustre, hard, rather heavy ;
tabes small.

CotMur Fistula* SonaIa» fr. Gualpara.

6 fSeet in girtti ; an open, hard, tough wood, used for ploughs.

Catianea tri^Mdet. Cotoor and Chisee ; also Makoo Shingali, N. (Shin-
gali, is the general name for oak and chestnut.) fr. Nipal.

Used for large mortars and pestles for grinding grain in i becomes brown by steeping in
water. Wood hard and heavy. Sp. rays like English oak { that is, every 6th or 0th much
larger than the others. Another specimen, said to be of the same species, wants the large
vays.

Catianea, Nikari, fr. Gualpara.

Oak or chestnut i cup covered with strong prickles; leaves notched ; 6 cnUts in giith }
tiaiber close, hard, tough ; used for furniture and canoes.

Cedrela keamndra. Toon-wood^ fr. Nipal.
VOL. I. L

] 4G INDIAN WOODS.

Sp. the wood has a grmft general reeemUanee to taaras; the enter laTcn have whfte
g:lo8S7 flbres, with very distlact brown rays { the inner layers are brownish red, harder and
more compact } bark with white flbres.

Cedreht Tbona. Toon or Tungd ; Pbnm ; Jeea ; fr. Oualpora.

ft cvMts In gitth J a eioee, hardt bat rather brittle wood* of a brown red colon f { very
datable, and esteemed ftnr ftimitore. It has an agvecable smell. Tte wood» mmtm the
name ci Toon, is ertenslTidy nsed for chairs and other fomltore.

CelastnUf fr. Nipal.

An enormeoi ettmber* 8p. ttunk dee^y dkamieUed extamally } wood light, reddish
brown J tubes Urge and nnmeroos ) rays deep and very distinct, but Qftti« snaff eakar as
the rest of the wood i bark, outer, onnge yellewi inner, deep brown.

Cerasus* Puddom. Nipal cherry, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 8-s inch. diam. 14 layers : rays reddisk brown, distlact i wood rathct euft w Mli aoihe
lustre.

Cerbera Manghas, Kullooa, B. fr. Tavoy.

From the froit (probably the kernels) an oU is dnwn with whiah the Bannise anoint
their hair. Wood not nsed.

Champa, white, fr. NipaL

Sp. part of a plank: fc ft >e e » wotting wood, soft and light like deal ; flbre wwry wliiteraad
rery glossy : rays shallow and slender : layers very distinct, 38 in 4*A inches. Compare
Michelia.

Choaroii, N. fr. Nipal.

ATcry fine sort of wood, said to come flrom the norths

Ckrgso/^i^limn acitmmatumf^ Rojcb» IHthogarkh, fr. Gualpanu

8 cubits in girth { wood white, tough, nsed in fomiture.

Chung, fr. Gaalpara.

PiMhapB a speeiea of Ghiimaiin. It ipibwa TSiy laige^ and aAwda a doaa loagb wood
used in furniture.

Cinchona graiUsima, Wall. Tungnusiy N. and P. fr. NipaL

A natiye also of the mountains la Beagal, wharalt is oaHed llsekuli: nasd 1m Nipal for
poets and rafters. Sp. wood brown, light, ooarse-paftied t latk with naay conipfeflMd
coarse flbres.

Cardia Afysa f fr. Nipal.

Alai^etree.
Cwmus oblonga. Wall. Easee, N. and P. fr. Nipal.

A tree of middle aisew Spw 8 indi. dlam. Weed flae-valined father teit t flfaMwhMaaad
shining : rays ▼ery nameroas, reddish brown.

Coryhtaferoa, Wall. fr. Nipal.

Grows at the top of Sheopare,one of the Ugh^tt aaypatains Ia Mipal* flewer^ln Bo^
tember, and produces fruit in Deoember : shiU of the nut hard and thick. A tree 90 fret
high. 9 feet in girth \ wood light, compaet.

•Cw-iiiao,fr.Tavoy.

Timber 6 to ID fothmni long } 90 to 80 ibdhei ih gfrth ; 'ttaed In boaft and honse.boilding ;
not much iiiferior to nfifnen.

Ceati^gui arbuHflora, RooeSy N. fr. Nipal.
A small tree, cmt rather shrub ; wood exceedingly strong : used for walking sticks.

Croton oblongifolium, Roxb. P^oknpi, fr. QnalpaFa.
ftouMtalAglitfai adMe-gialnedfbtttmlharbrtttlewoodf osed for coaiae fomltimb

Croton, Lalpatuja, fr. Gualpara.
3 cubits in girth } a hard close-grained wood, used ftir small cinoct.

INDIAN WOODS. 14-7

Ddlbergia Mtmuita, Ham. Momsita, fr. Gualpara.

Attaint a oonsidenMe ilse : wood cI<m6, bard, and tougli } used in eoane ftunitnre.
Daphne catma6ina» Loureir, fir. Nipal.

A ahrob^ teem to i feet hi^ ; ffrowe on Hie most ei^ooed parts of the enowy nouotalnt
of Mipal. Paper made of the bark is strong, toai^fa, not liable to onek, nor to be e«bm by
the white ant or other in e eiti .

Decadia tpicata. Bongyera, fr. Qualpara.

3 cnbits in glitii. A close, hard, toogh wood, used by carpenter*.

DUleHh. Zimboon^ B. fir. Taroy.

Umber a to 6 fatliame lone, 8 to 10 inobe* diameter. Wood UMI ia ho«i»4»iiildlpf i tt
also affords small crooked timbers for boats.

DiUmia f^0ta, Roxb. Daioe-akai, fir. Gualpara.

Tnhk fiset in girth. Wood open, bnt hard and tamgh i ased for eanoes.

DiUenia spectMa, C]iaUta» fr Gnalpara.

iset in girth. Wood dose and hard, hot rather brittle.
Difkier^carfms gprandiflant, WalL Ain or Aintha, B. fir. Martobaa, on the
banks of the Atran $ also from Tavoy.

A e fp eadowa tree : «ae cf those whioh yield wood^yU and dammar.
Dubdubia. (See Rhus.) from Nipal.

8|p. 4-s inch. diam. i layers to } lays distinct) tabes few, rather large. Wood very white,
light and soft Bark thin.

Ehretia semUa, Ro3d>. Nalshimay N. fr. Nipal ; also fir. Gualpara*

5 cnblts in giith $ glTss planks from 19 to 18 iflehes wkle i wood soft and open-gnbied,
hot mUiev toogh} not durable ^ naed tat poets and other oommon porposes,

EUgagmui, fir. Nipal.

Wood steflartok bat wMlerthaik, common hawthoni, Sp»4ineh.diam.» lay«rs«7ia 1*7
indli : neither tobes nor rays visible in the cross section : bark thin.

EUgoearpui. Tbauma^ee, T. fr. Martaban.

Umber Teiy large, used Ibr masts and posts for honsce.

Erkb0ijfrki eli^tiea. Mihul, P. andN. fr. Nipal.

Wood eianamon.brown, hard, compact, and reckoned good. Sp. 7 inch. diem, t rings in-
dleMnct, about 90in S'l inches } tabes very small.

Euomfmus Hngent. Kuaoori, N. fr. Nipal.

Wood brown, compact, hard, Tery fine-grained, duU. 8p. tabes not vislUe i rays small
aadl n d l ai in et : bark» oatar, orangs yeUowi inner, brown with fine white fibres : the yel-
low baik is nsed for painting thefbrehead.

Ewya variMUi (probably the same aa the preeedio|^.) Chidcottiii, B. and
N. fr. Nfpal.

Qrows large ; wood compact, fine-grained, cinnamon-brown } good for tannery ware.
Ettrya f fr. Nipal.

8p. rs indi. diam. : tabes smell i imys distinct, red brown; fibre pale brown, wllh mo-
derate Instre : wood reddish brown, fine-grained, moderately hard.

Fagwra Jhriiunda, fr. Nipal.

8p. S-s inch. diam. : tabes many and large : wood coarse, and of remarkably open grain,
baft more compact near the axis } colour brownish yellow, neatly dull.

Fag^^Ba /ragrant, Roxb. Anaah-beogy B. fr. Martaban.

Timber not Urge; wood yellowish, compact and beaatiAd, bat very hard* and on this
accooot not moch osed by the Barmese.

Ftcus. I>oodae-kath, N. P. fr. Nipal.

148 INDIAN WOODS.

Used for water-coarscs, drains, and gutters. Sp. 4'5 Inch, diara. ; layers 63 In 9 indiet:
wood soft, free- working:^ closer than deal ; lustre considerable, satiny.

Fraxintu flmibunda, Lakkuree, N. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 17 layers in 3*1 inches } in coloor, gnXix, and toug^hness, Jost like English ash.

Freeiera ochnoides, fr. Nipal.

A middle-sized tree ; wood pale brown, close-grained, and moderately hard Sp. S*6 indi.
diam., I rays hardly distinguishable ; resembles pear-tree.

Gardenia, fr. Nipal.
Sp. wood cream-brown, fine-grained, hard, compact ; probably osed for tarnery ware.

Omelifkt arbarea. Oambhari, fr. Gualpara.

Wood light, but dorable, does not warp, and is not readily attacked by insects } used for
turnery ware of all kinds, and cylinders of a proper size are turned very thin for drums :
other musical instruments are also made of it.

Gordonia iniegri/olia. ChiUounea, P. ; Goechassee, N. ; fr. Nipal.

The bark contains white spiculse that produce violent itching when rubbed on the skin in
their recent state. The Burmese have a superstition, th^ one beam in a house should be
made of this wood. Wood brown, nearly dull, moderately hard and compact.

Heritiera Fames, Ham. (minor> Roxb.) Kunnazoo, B. fr. Tavoy, Soondree
of Bengal.

A very large tree; wood exceedingly hard and durable ; used for pestles for oil mills;
shafts of gigs, and spokes and naves are made of it : an excellent fuel for burning bricks }
grows to a much greater size on the Martaban coast than in bengal.

Hibiscus macrophyllus, Roxb. fr. Tavoy.

A middle-sized tree, used for common building purposes, bark tough and stringy i is
made into cordage.

Hopea odorata. Teogaun or Thaengong. CommoD on the Tenaaserim
and Martaban coasU.

Canoes are made of this tree, which grows to an enormous size : It also produces a valu-
able resin or dammar.

Ilea dipyrena. Wall. Karaput, P. ; Munasi and Gulsima, N. ; fr. Nipal.

Wood heavy, hard, fine-grained, and much like common holly, said to become black witti
age; used for various purposes of carpentry, Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; tubes very small; rays
distinct.

Jasminum chrpsanihum, Roxb.

Sp. 1*8 inch. diam. ; neither tubes nor rays visible ; wood white, fine-grained, moderately
hard ; brittle, hard concretions in the bark.

Julians pterococca, Roxb. from Nipal.

An exceeding large tree. Sp. 3*6 inch. diam. ; wood pale reddish brown, with consider-
able lustre, bat rather coarse-grained.

Jufiiperus eofcelsa, Bieb ? The Cedar of Himalaya.

Harder and less odorant than the West India cedar ; an excellent light wood.

Kaantha, B. fr. Tavoy.

8 to 5 fitthoms long, 12 to 15 inches in diameter. Yields a small but valuable timber for
oars and paddles.

Kalajipa, fr. Gualpara.

Common over all India; remarkable for the facility with which it grows from cutttngs*
and from truncheons ; yields much gum ; wood at no use,

KaunzQ-Kurro, B. fr. Tavoy.

6 to 7 Csthoms long, 15 to so inches diameter ; used in boat-building : see also Meliacea.
Keahnaun^ B. fr. Tavoy.

INDIAN WOODS. 149

15 to 90 feet long, 15 to 90 inch. diam. } strong crooked timber^ med lor mniket-etoclu :
aee alfo Xylocaipot.

Kuddooi-j^lamy B. fr. Tavoy.

Grows to a greet size} used by hooae end boet-bnilden.

Kuddooi^nee, B. fr. Tavoy.

6 to 8 teth. long, 15 to 90 inch. dIam. ; an inferior wood, lued in boat-baQding.

Kiffulsee P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Ttonk 9 feet in dlam. i wood strong and durable } need for door-posts.

Lagerstroemitt. Kuenmounee or Peema, B. fr. Ta^oy.

Used in hoose-bailding, and for oars.

LagerHroemia parvifiora, Rozb. Sida> fr. Gualpara.

A large tree, 6 feet in girth, and rery common } wood close, hard, and toogh, forming
exedlent timber.

Lager ai roemia Regnue, Jarul, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth, used in boat-boUding } but the wood is soft, and deficient in tooghaess.
It is eztanshrely need in Bengal under the name of Jarol.

Laurw.* Lumpatch> P. ; Chasepoo, N. ; fr. Nipal.

4 to 6 feet In diam. } wood soft and pale when yoong, hard and pale red when older )
used in carpenter's work, and for beams. Sp. 97 layers in 1*8 inches } lustre considerable ;
rays mostly distinct.

Launu, Kullowa or Korrowa, B. fr. Tavoy.

Frodnoea the sassafras-bark and camphor-wood of Martaban.

Laurtu. May then, B. fr. Tavoy.

6 to 6 Csth. long, 18 to 96 inch. diam. ; a very large tree ; wood osed for furniture, in
house carpentry, and for planks and upper decks for proas.

Lawrui, Phetpetta, N. ; Balukshee^ P. ; fr. Nipal.

Wood red-brown, of a fine grain, used for chests, &c. Sp. fibre and rays as other Lauri ;
tabes filled with a dark red-brown substance.

Laurus (or Tetranthera) very like T. pulcherrima. Bulooksee^ N. j Sen-
goulee and Tijpaut, P. j fr. Nipal.

Wood excellent, osed for spinning wheels. Sp. 3*5 inch. dlam. i fibre, tubes, and rays, as
other LanrL

Laurus, (Tethranthera bifaria> Wall.) Juttrunga, N. ; Pahelakath, P. ;
fr. Nipal.

Large and Tery useful timber s wood soft, rather spongy. 8p. inch. diam. j rotten at
hearts fibre pale ydlow, gioesy ; rays distinct, dirty brown.

Laurus saiicffolia, Horisongher, fr. Gualpara.

fifsetingirths wood has a strong smell of camphor} used for coarse articles of furniture.

LigttstruM fuqHilenae, BiUae or Bancha, N. and P. fr. Nipal.

Timber about a foot ot more in diameter ; used for building purposes. Sp. 4 inch. diam. >
hiycis about lO in an inch : wood heavy, hard, compact, tough, and very fine-grained ; for
tte porpooea of ttie engraTer will probably be found nearly as good as Mediterranean box )
bark with ooarae white fibres.

Umama. Kailkat, P. i Hakoobal, N. ; fr. Nipal.

Timber large ftar the genus ; wood white, soft, but close, strong, and tough ) fit for fine
tancry ware. Sp. 7 inch, diamj neither rays nor tubes visible } inner bark very fibroas.

Mmgnolkt hmgnis. Wall. fr. Nipal.
Sp. s inch. diam. } 19 layers ; wood rather soft, moderately fine-grained, and with some

« There arc 94 specimens of Lasrai.

1£0 INDIAN WOODi.

AMiaban, B. fr. Ta?oy.

atnembles lanoe-woodi mad for beuns, posti, and nAerts alio for UneM, bows, iword.
handles, ftc.

Mmf'tobek, fr. Tavoy.
Imported in lent planks, and used in preferenoe to teak i» fha boCtom ^talda of Alpt.

Meliacea, Tokor, fr. Gualpara.

A large tree, used for planks, canoes, and ooane fvnitMV*

Menupermum imr^olnm, Roxb. fr. N!|^l.

▲ large tree, rerj remarkable for the grain and irragvktr laytn Oflls wood*

Mhhelia Kuapa, De Cand. Champ or Chaump, P. ; Chobsse, N.

Hie wood mnch used for light works. 8p. idece of a plank, SO layers In 8*75 In<Jhe8 }
another sp. 9*5 inch. diam. 19 layers in 1*1 indh : rimOar to white Champa, No. 67. bat the
colonr is more yellow, and the rays less distinct.

MinuiopM, Thubbae, B. fr. Ta^oy.

Wood need for masts and spars } affords also good ero6ked wood.
Monu l^Bvigvia, Wall. fr. Nipal.

A large tree. Sp. 1*5 indi, diam.} wood coarse brownish yellow, wflh oonsidefahle
lottre.

Murraya, Maikay, B. fr. Ta^oy.

4toftfeet]ong, 8 too indk. diam.; used for han41e8 of daggers and of other weapons. A
rtrong, tooflrh wood, in grain like box.

Myrka lapida. Wall. ; Kaephul, P. ; Kobiui, N. : fr. Nipal.

Grain like birch, bat the colour darker. Sp. 9*8 inch. diam. ; fibre brownish whit% nearly
doll ; rays very distinct, dark brown in the outer layers ; the interior layers harder, heaTier,
and more compact. The fknlt is eaten.

Myrlstica, Jheruya, fr. Gualpara.

A sort <d nutm^, bnt neither the not nor maoe hare any arcmia : timber 8 cubits in
girth, used for fomitore.
Myraine semiserrata. Bireesee and KaUkaut, N. and P. fr. Nipal.

Wood excellent. Sp. 9*8 inch. diam. j rays lirge, deepflefeh-ooloor, and Tery ornamental.
Nauclea Cadamba, Rozb. Kodom^ fr. Gualpara.

A noble tree, d foet in girth ; wood yellow, oaed for coane ftonitare.

Nerium tomentoium, Adhkuri, fr. Gualpara.

scnbitaingirthi osed for fomitore.
Nikari, fr. Gualpara.

An oak or dieanat} cap covered with laisajpriokjeai iaayai notched ) S cahito In girth i
osed for canoes and fhmltnre.

Olea glandulifera, fr.' Nipal.

A large tree, Sp. 8 inch. diam.j raja Tery thin and indistinct » wood pale brown, very
hard, heavy, and compact.

Oleina, fr. Nipal.

A middle-sized tree. Sp. 3 Inch. diam. ; wood pale brown, with ^onaManbto lostre,
handsome grain, and very hard.

Oiyrit napalensis. Iboori, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Alarge dmber tree, the frait of which Is eatan, and the wood is In estlmaliOB. Bp. l«
inch. diam. } tubes Tery small } wood red-brown, rather hard, convact, and Tenr flna-
grained*
Panax, Lubtesee, N. fr. NipaL

Sp. aboat 9*8 Inch. diam. } wood soft, U^ht, spongy, with high lustre j bark with short
tliick tabercles or spines, brood at the baae.

INDIAN WOODS. 151

Ptuuis peiukiMtf fr. Nipal.

A mtddlB.rigert tree ; wood pale reddish browo, ligfat, modentely hards nja dietlnct,
fiTinff a handBome grsta.

PioTttM tntegr^ftdm, it* NipaL

Sp. in tach. dtan. : woitaftMljri aonewlMteQanet ooioar tuidMt bwwn, wMhaearoely
any lustre.

PkyUanthm EmUka^ it. NipaL

8p. s Inch. diam. % layers aboi^ % 'vary MMlptti i«Qr«4litl|icfct ahvndaviae nut taoww ,
gloaqTi hardaroQd*
Ptenmahne, fr. Ta^oy.

4 to ftitiioms long { 18 to 90 inches diameter; aflbrds th« halt apd «tnnceit eroolbed
timber, and is very durable ; used also in honse-bnilding.

Pmui eacelsa, fr. Nipal.

Wood leaarkable conipact Sp. inch. diam. i Ciayan.
Pimu longi/oiia, fr. NipaL

BiccHai* tjiBlier, fte Memal dfrt.
Pmut Brutumiana, fr. Nipal.

Wood soft, and of no Talae.

Pinus fFebbiana^ fr. Nipal.
i^. yindu diam.} exterior layers soAy and of no iralns i loteripr oms h awl e t tnd flae.

PinmsDammaraf fr. Tavoy.

▲ Tcry Jtarge tree, used for beams and lallers.
Pimti Deodara. Himalaya Cedar, fr. NipaL

Weod Tfliy f racraot

ffMmeriM alba, fr. Bot. G. ^

A West Indian tree.

Poljfpodmm gigatOe^m, A tree-fern, fr. NipaL
A^tt 41 isetin height, and ip i t^ wsttoMtalrtMck, yaaptasantedby the Jtoschiiaof the

Pongamk atropurpurea, WalL Laztm, B. ; Choo-kba^ T. : fr. Martaban.

A noUe forest tree { nathre of enrlrons of Amherst and Moulmein, on the Martaban
coast : the wood osed in boat and honse-bollding ; flower ci a dart: porple coloor.

Premna Mnina. Chikagambhari, fr. Oualpanu

fa often found feet In girth j the wood has a strong odour like the mosk nA ; it Is used
for making musical instruBMnts» and for other uses. It is said that no insect wUl eat it.

PruMus adenopkpiia. Aroo, P. ; fr. NipaL

A large tree. Sp. 9*A Inch. diam. ; fibre white and gloasyi rays brown, distloct; tabes
alhcr sanUi wood light and soft, but harder and reddish brown near the centre.

P^choiria rotate, fr. Nipal.
8. 3'5 indi. diam. } axis rery eccentiifi$ wood pile taddldi brawii, dan, line grained.

Pterocarput f Puddow, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree $ wood used for furniture and musical hutraments.

Pprui Indica, Rozb ? Mehul, P. ; Pass!, N. ; fr. Nipal.

8p. V6 inch. diam. wood brown, compact, moderately hard, very fine-grained ; tubes ex-
ceedingly snBaUs bark very thin, composed of 9 brown layers alternating with as many
white ones : tiie thickness of the whole scarcely one-eighth of an inch.

(taercvs ipicaia, f r. Nipal.

152 INDIAN WOODS.

A Ttrj larfe tne ; wood Tery like EngUah oak i ererf 7tb or SChnty much thicktf than
the ofhen.

Quercus semecarpi/olia, Ghese and Cusroo, N. fr. Nipal.

A very large tree, from U to 18 feet in glith, at 5 feet above the groond} dear trank from
80 to 100 feet. 8p. a*6 layen Id s*4 inchee j wood li|^t pale brown i rays email, uailonn.

Quercus lameUosa. Shulshee and Phrarat, N. fr. Nipal.

Wood fery bard, ttralKbt-f rained, aad good, of a pale brown coloar; rays aalform.

Quercus. Bmiaroo» P. ; Gomulsee, N. fr. Nipal.

Wood soft, worki as easily as deal ; fibre grey, with considerable Instre ; rays nnlfoim, red-
dish brown, Tery distinct ; layers indistinct; heart reddish brown.

Quercus lanata, fr. Natal.

A very large tree. 8p. bad.

Quercus. Tlma, fr. Oualpara.

Leaves entire ; aeomt covered entirely by la nnarmed cap formed of conceatric rings ;
timber not more than 8 cablts In girth ; nsed for coarse ftamltare.

Quercus Amherstiana, Wall. Tirbbae, B. ; Ryakle^ T. ; fr. MarUban.

Grows to a large siie ; wood nsed In boat-bnildlng, ftc.

Rhamnea, BuD{(la» fr. Galapara.

6 cablts In girth ; nsed for chests, stools, and other coarse famltnre.

Rhumnus virgaius, fr. Nipal.

Wood very hard and heavy ; the heart a brlght-red brown, not nnllke English yew. Sp. 3*5
Inch. diam. ; tnbes very Irregular ; rajrs scarcely visible.

Rhododendron arbor eum, Oborans or Gbonas, P. ; Tuggoo, N. ; fr. Nipal.

The wood resembles plam-tree; nsed for gnn-stocks.

Rhus Buhkiameh, Rozb. Subucbunsee, N. ; Bukkiamela, P.; fr. Nipal.

Timber good and large. Sp. 8*5 Inch. diam. ; greyish white with considerable loitre, soft,
light.

Rhusjug-hndi/oiium, Wall Cbose, N. ; Bbalaeo, P. ; fr. Nipal

Very like the Japan varnish tree. 8p. 8*5 Inch. diam. ; heart red.brown, the tnbes being
filled with a snbetaoce of this coloar ; wood soft, bean a considerable resemblance to the
Lanrl, with Indistinct rays.

Rondeleiia coriacea. Wall. Kongeea, P. j Julsi, N. ; fr. Nipal.

Wood close-grained, and becomes of the colour of mahogany some time after it has been
cat ; layen very Indistinct: used for rafters, tools, Ac A red dye is also prepared ttom It.

Rotilera, (perhaps tinctoria) fr. Nipal.
Wood pale brown, compact, hard, finegrained ; bark very thin.

Salia babplonica, Tissee and Bhosee^ N. and P. fr. Nipal.

Attains an enormons siie.

Sapoiea f Pblaepean, B. fr. Tavoy.

Leaves most beantlfuUy silky and gold colour beneath. A very large tree : wood used In
building.

Schinus Niara, Ham. Niyor, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; a bard, close-grained rather brittle wood, with a resinous scent ; preferred
by the natives to almost any other for furniture.

Shorea robusta, Saul or S&l.

This Is the staple timber of Hindostan for building purposes : vast quantities of dammar, or
resin, are extracted from It, as well as from Dipterocarpus and Hopea, all of which belong to
one flunily, the DIpterocarpeae.

Sierculia f Kuneenee, B. fr. Tavoy.

Attains an enormous sixe. An oil i» extracted from the wood by incision, which is used for
torches.

INDIAN WOODS. 153

SyndesmU Tavoyana, Wall. Kee-tha, B. ; red-wood ; fr. Tavoy.

A very large tre« ; ased in balidfiiK, and for boxes, &c.
Spmpiocos flaribunda, ft*. Nipal.
A large tree, wood flne-gralned.

Symplocos f Kalikath, P. ; P^unlah> N. ; fr. Nipal.

A large tree. Sp. wood white, compact of a very fine-grain, and as soft as deal ; no tubes
visible ; rays indistinct ; bark as thin as paper.

Taxus virgata. Wall. Dheyri, P. ; LfOlsi, N. ; fr. Nipal.

Grows to a large siie : the green branches are used to adorn houses during certain festivals ;
timber strong and good. 8p. 0*9 inch. diam. Axis very eccentric, 6 1 1*9 ; all the layers
cannot be counted. On the widest side of the axis are 37 layers in 0.89 inch, beginning fk-om
the axis ; near the ontslde are 18 layers in 0*0 inch. ; wood softer, of paler colour, and less
Instre than Bngilsh yew.

Tedona grandis. Teak, fr. M artaban.

Several specimens of various qualities.
Terminalia Catappa, fr. Bot. 6.

A noble and most ornamental tree : wood very good.
Teiradium ? fr. Nipal.

A vary large tree.
Tetrantkera caduca, Pangch-Petiya, fr. Gualpara.

8 feet in girth ; used for chests and common carpentry.
J%au-baun-thau-lay, fr. Tavoy.

6 to 19 fktboms long, 13 to 20 inches diam. Wood very pliant ; little inferior to Hopea, but
does not saw so kindly.

Thymboo, B, Thau-bann-po, fr. Tavoy.

9 to 10 faih. long. 19 to 20 inches diam. Good strong durable light wood ; used in boat-
bnilding ; does not saw kindly.

Tmtm^ine, fr. Tavoy.

7 to 8 flUhoms long, 18 to 30 inches thick ; used in boat«bulldlng ; reckoned little inferior to

Turpinia pamifera. (Dalrymplea,) Phurasee and Signa, N. fr. Nipal.

A large tree ; wood of a dull grey colour, light, soft, compact, free-working, splits easily ; not
applied to any particular use, Sp. 3*2 inch. diam. \ rays indistinct ; tubes very small ; bark thin,
and the Inner layers almost black.

Ulderoo, fr. Bombay.

Very little liable to split, and therefore used for fuses for bomb-shells.

Uvaria. Thubboo, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree used In boat building.
Femonia, Magor, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits In girth ; used for coarse furniture. The only one of the numerous tribe of corymbi-
feroos plants that grows to be a timber tree.

PTtejp acumiiMta. Angchhui, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth. A very close, hard, brittle wood ; used for mortars of oil mills, feet of
bedsteads, &c.

yitex Leucojpplon, Bhodiya, fr. Gualpara.

8 cubits In girth ; ased in making ploughs ; will grow on land that is inundated for weeks
together.

yitis or CUsus, fr. Nipal.
Sp. 4*9 Inch, diam. ; wood spongy and very coarse-grained ; fibre very small in proportion

151< ZOOLOGY OF INDIA.

to the tubes, wklcli are waanj sad larfe ; ray* ^^n dtotlact, of a redtisb browa colour, rominf
a bandsome waved flgare ; bark BtrinKy.

fTrightia tinctoria, (Lndi^o tree.)

The leaves yield indigo. The wood is ' betotifBlly white, dose-grained, oomlng nearer to
ivory than any other known to me,'^Rosb.

XarUhaphyllum. Saphevv, B. ; Choo-muna, T. 5 fr. Martaban.

Very large wood used for posts and rafters.

Xantkoaplon alatum* TimbhaSy P. and N. fr. NipaL
Xyloearpui. Keanoan, B. fr. TaToy.

Timber ttam It to SO lieet long ; very darable ; aaed for fnrnitnre, and in honje-bntlding.
Ziifiphui tneurva, Hsrobaer, P. ; Kadabnsi, N. ; fr. Nipal.

Wood In eonsideraMe estlmatkni. 8p. 8*S inch. diam. ; fibre brownish white, with IttHe
losCre ; rays in the outer layers distinct, bnt of the same coioor as the flhre; bark eoanely
flbrons.

These statements demonstrate in some degree the varied
and useful staples which Hindostan presents :

Indeed the British possessions in India are rich to over-
flowing with every product of vegetable life, which an all-wise
and ever beneficent Providence could bestow to gratify the
sight, — ^and contribute to the comfort and happiness of hit
creatures ; that they are not used to the extent they ought,
is the fault of perverse man, who would seem to take delight
in thwarting the benignity of the unseen Being whose most
bounteous blessings are too often ungratefully spumed or
mischievously used.

The Zoology of India is no less extensive than the vege-
table kingdom ; ^ every beast of the earth af);er his kind, and
cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth on the
earth after its kind,* teems in abundance on the Asiatic
plains: and the hunter and the hawker, the fowler and
the fisher, as well as the farmer and shepherd, all find ample
scope for their respective pursuits. The gigantic and gre-
garious elephant usurps the dominion of the forests, while
the lonely and ferocious tiger infests every jungle, from the
embouchures of the sacred Ganges* to the Himalaya moun-

* Two reverend Gentlemen (Missionaries) while recendy passing through
the Sunderbuns or Delta of the Ganges, witnessed a fearful contest between
a tiger and an alligator, which they thus describe : — ' About an 100 yards
from us, an alligator came up out of the river to enjoy his noontide sleep
in the rays of the sun. After remaining there half an hour, and being afh
parently in a sound sleep, we observed an immense tiger emerging from the

FIGUT BETWESV A TIGSA AND AN ALLIGATOR. 155

tains. During the last four years, about 1,000 children have
been devoured by wolves in the vicinity of the city of Agra.
The natives can with gveat difficulty be induced to Idll a
wolf in Upper India, from a betief that if ita blood be spQt,
die common people would desert the village, which would be
haunted by the ghoetB of the children aiain: when a wolf is

jaBgie, and bendii^ hi« steps toward the plsee where the alligator lay« In
sise the i%er eaceeded libe Ivfspu whiph ^ve had eyer seeni and his
hraad rooad face^ when uuraeil towards va, striped with white, his fierce
eyes, together with the amazing apparent strenjrth of his limbs, made the
stootest heart on board to tremble at the thought of encountering such a
dreadful foe, with the most cautious pace imaginable, the tiger approached
the alligator : his nused foot remained some seconds before he replaced it
on the gpoond ; and so he proceeded till he came within the power of his
leap, when, exerting all his strength and bounding from the earth, he de-
scended immediately upon the alligator's back and seized it by its throat.
The monster of the deep, roused from its slumber, opened its tremendous
jaws, and slashed its terrific tail ; and, while the conflict lasted each seemed
to exert Its utmost strength. The tiger, however, had the advantage, for
he had grasped the alligator in a part of the neck which entirely prevented
bfan from taming his head sufficiently round to seize his aatagonisti and
though many severe blows were inflicted on the body of the tiger by its
'Saw- like tail, the noble beast of the forest, when the battle was over, shook
his brawny sides, and seemed unconscious of any pain. Having overcome
the alfigator, he dragged it a little farther on the shore, and sat over it
exactly in the attitude of a cat over a captive mouse. He then took the
creature in his mouth, and gently walked with it into the jungles. About
ten minutes afterward we saw the tiger emerge from the forest ; and after
gazing on us for a few moments, and perhaps imagining that we were al-
most too far from the shore to allow him to add us to hU trophies of vic-
tory and blood, he slowly pursued his course in a different direction to
where he had left his prey, and we saw him no more. In less than an hour
afterward, the alligator, who had been stunned but not killed, crept out
of the jungle, and though evidently much injured* yet with some difficulty
Kached the river, and escaped his sanguinary foe ; he, however, was too
moch lacerated to remain long in the water, and soon came again to land ;
but took the precaution of exposing but apart of his body, and keeping his
face toward the shore ; he continued but a very short time and then
laaached into the deep, repeating his visits to the beach almost every
MMiter of an boor wyist we remained. The sight was certainly dreadfully
magnificent.

156 HAWKING IN INDIA.

caught^ therefore, he is only punished by having a bell hung
round his neck, for the purpose of giving warning to Uttle
children. Animated nature here luxuriates in all its primitive
grandeur, whether we regard the magnitude, the multitude,
or the beauty which every where fills and adorns the earth,
air, and water: happily however for man, the Creator has
wisely ordained that his creatures should prey on each other,
were it not so, the present evergreen surface of India must
soon become a desert. To particularize the animals of the
country, would in a work of this nature be supererogatory,
suffice it to say, that no where may the epicibre or the gour-
mand have his palate gratified, or his taste satiated, at less
expense, and with greater variety than in British India, where
it must be admitted, the reputed (but erroneously entertained
idea of the) Pythagoranism of the Hindoos is iully atoned
for by the carnivorousness of the Europeans and their
descendants.

I am tempted to give here the following interesting descrip-
tion by Miss Emma Roberts,* in which the feudal game of
hawking, as practised by Anglo-Indian ladies, is delightfully
depicted, as also some of the wild sports of the East : —

* To ladies, hog-hunting is of course quite out of the question, and there
are very few whose nerves could stand against the terror and carnage of an
expedition against tigers, to say nothing of the fatigue to be encountered
in a chase which frequently lasts for hours under a burning sun. Hawking',
where there is less excitement, may be relinquished at pleasure, and the
pursuit of game leads the party into wildernesses far removed from the
dwellings of man. The sylvan denizens of the soil are seen in their native
haunts ; the majestic nylghau, roused at the approach of intruders, scours
across the plain, or crashes through the boughs of a neighbouring thicket ;
herds of antelopes are seen grazing, and at every step the elephant puts up
some beautiful bird or some strange and interesting animal ; wolves and
bears may be detected stealing off to a more secluded covert, whilst the
porcupine utters its shrill cry of alarm, and the monkey gibbers at the
passing pageant.

• hidia is much indebted to Miss Roberts for the fascinating manner in
which the highly gifted Authoress has brought its picturesque scenery and
singular people before the British public

SPORTING IN INDIA. 157

' Wild geese afford the best sport ; they soar exceedingly hijj^h, and ftv-
qnently bid de6ance to the falcon's adventurous wing*. Smaller birds, par-
tridges especially, have no chance of escape, and when appearing on the
edge of those bason-like valleys, which so frequently diversify the plains of
India, their capture is seen to great advantage from the back of an ele-
phant, as the spectator can look down upon the whole scene ; and follow-
ing the flight of the hawk along the steep, where the frightened partridge
hurries for shelter, observe the fatal precision of his aim, and see him
pounce directly on 'the victim, which he bears to the falconer in his claw.
In some parts of the country, the lai^^rest description of the hawk is trained
to the chase, and itd murderous talons are directed against antelopes and
the smaller kinds of deer -, it darts at the head of the quarry, blinds and
confuses it with its flapping wings, tears it with its beak and claws, and
finally succeeds in depriring it of life. This is not, however, a common
exhibition, and is seldom witnessed except at the courts of native princes.
Hunting" with cheetahs Oeopards) is more commonly practised ; but though
the manceuvres of the cat-like pursuer are excee<Ungly curious and inter-
esting, aa they develope the nature and habits of the animal, there is no-
thing noble, generous, or exciting in the sport. The cheetahs, hooded like
hawks, are secured by a slight harness to a platform fastened on a bullock
cart ; their keeper holds the beasts in his hand, and those who wish to ob-
tain a good view of the chase, take a seat beside the driver. Antelopes
accustomed to the sight of bullocks will permit them to make a much
nearer approach than any less familiar animal. When the carts have
arrived at a prudent distance from the herd, the driver halts, the cheetahs
are unloosed, and espying the prey, they drop silently off the vehicle, tak-
ing care to choose the contrary side from that on which the deer are feed-
ing. They steal crouching, along the ground, screening themselves behind
every bush, lullockor tuft of grass, which may occur in their way, pausing
occasionally when there seems to be any danger of a premature alarm ;
each has singled out his victim, and measuring the distance with an ex-
perienced eye, they dart forward with a sudden bound. Two or three
springs ensure success or disappo^itment ; the victor alights upon his
prey. But if a threatened antelope should have the good fortune to escape
the first attempt, no second effort is made ; the cheetah returns growling
and in ill-humour to his keeper ; he has lost his advantage, and sullenly re-
linquishes a field which must be won fairly by strength and speed. The
poorer class of natives, who take up the occupation of hunters for their own
subsistence or pecuniary emolument, sometimes avail themselves of the
services of a bullock in approaching within shot of a herd of antelopes.
Thein is a matter of business, not of excitement, and they have no idea of
aQowing a chance to the object of their pursuit. The bullock is carefully
tnuned for the purpose, and when his education is completed, he makes a

158 SPORTING IN INDIA.

quiet entnoce into tbe jungles^ followed closely by his master, who con-
trives to screen himself completely b^nd the animal. The bullock graces
carelemly as he advances^ making circuitous and apparently unprenedi-
tated movements ; at last he arrives at a convenient (fistance without hav-
ing disturbed tbe unconscious herd, he then stands still, the Mkare or
hunter fixes his clumsy matchlock along the back of the animal, and aliU
unseen takes unerring aim: down drop« the devoted antelope, and away
(ly the rest of the herd, dispersed and out of sight in an instant. Euro*
peans rarely witness this kind of sport, if such it may be called ; but it soma*
times falls to the lot of a solitary traveDer, who ivom some devatioB d^
tMAS an extensive view over a wide plmn, to have an opportunity of watcb-
!ng the singular manceuvres employed by the hunter and his uncouth
agent. Where the weapons at hand are inefficieat for open warfare, atra-
tagems must supply the place of more generous hostility $ and even Anglo-
Indians are sometimes compelled to adopt native art^ and when the aa-
sistanee of elephants cannot be procured, they will condescend to lay a
bait for a tiger, and sit patiently in a tree until the fierce animal shall
pair to Ids evening repast, and they can shoot him wlule, in fancied
cnrity, he is indulging his appetite; others, disdaining such uawarlike
defences, will encounter a tiger singly on horseback. This is of coune a
very difficult and dangerous enterprize ; few steeds, however noble, can be
brought to face an enemy of which they entertain an instinctive dread. The
vicinity of a tiger is often discovered by the distress and terror exhibited by
horses, who even in theit stables have been known to fall into fits of trem-
bling and perspiration, occasioned by their secret convietSon that their ia^
is at hand^ and when a horse is found sufficiently courageous to en-
counter 80 terrible a savage, the nsost extraonHoary activity, coolness, pre-
sence of mind, accoracy of ejre and strength of arm, are necessary to en-
sure the victory. The hunter, after putting up the tiger, wheels round
him in a circle at fall speed, never permitting, in the rapidity of his move-
ments, a single moment for the fatal spring, and when the tiger, bewil-
dered and daazled, offeraan unguarded front, pins him to the earth with the
thruat of a spear.' ^

The quadrupeds which appear to characterise more parti-
cularly the regions of continental India are the followmg.*
They are arranged under those divisions of the peninsula
where naturalists inform us they are chiefly found : —

Gaoetta fluctata. Bftxuled geaett. Rhinoocrcw lodteoi. Indbm chlaocerot.

Mas giganteiu. Gigaatlerat. Pteropaa pallUitus. Mottled tiat.

Cercoccbas nuUatus. Radiated monkoy. Unua malayanos. Malay bear.

Papioapedia. Thumbless baboon. Unas laflytatas. Thi(A-Up|wd bear.

* From Murray's Geography. Article, y/n<i.

QUADRUPEDS OF CONTINENTAL INDIA.' 150

Bfrnnguta mmgoe. IndSan fetaneviiKm. Bos Gftunu. Chuor bnflMo.

Prionodon ? albifrons. White fronted P. Bos GaTeos. Gayal baflUo.

Leo adatlcat. Swahu, Aiiatlc Hon.

Mlitlcrta. Bo7»Ltl8«r. >- Bmigal,

Fdis renatlca. Maaeless hunting leopwd. Cerocebos cynoennu. Tlie nudbroiick.

Cenrus pordnitt. Brown stsff. Nrcticebos bengiktensLi. Slowlemnr.

SqikloenM acntloornte. Bliax>>1ionied ante- Nycttnomns bengaleneiBb Bengal bat.

lope. Pteropus marginatas. Bordered bat.

Antilope oenrioapfa« OomBiOB antelope* Qenetta bondar. Sondar geuett*

BapUcerae sabnlata. Awl-homed antdope^ VlTerra prehettsOis. Prehensile viverra.

GerbiUfts indlcns. In(Uan gerbil. Manis crassicandata. Short>taUed manis.

Hyitrfac CsslcQhEta. Pendl-talled porcttplne. Cerma faippelaphtn. Chreat rosea.

Byatrtx maatomnu Usng-taikfA IndiaA per- Cemis aiUtoteHe. Blaok tta^.

ci^ine.
TetraceroB ChJeaim (H. Smith). Chlcara an. *• i'****^^^.

tdope. Pteropns teschenaaltli. Spotted bat.

TeCraoenai qnadriooniU. Four-homed ante. Borex indlcns. Indian shrew.

lopeu Latranair. FondidiefiT otter.

NfiBBorhedva dttvaocelS (H. ArM). D«v«a- Vlyerra typns. Coaunoo viTeixa.

ceVs antelope. Mas indlcns. Indian rat.

Boebabalaa. OoDunon bniUo. HnsPerdial. Farehalrat.

Mineral Kingdom* — ^The Britisli possessions in India
abound 'with iron,* copper,f lead, antimony^ plumbago, zinc,
sulphur, silver, and gold, together with inexhaustible supplies
of coal, in various parts of the country. Coal (see Geology)
is now raised in Burdwan in considerable quantities, and it is
preferred for the steam vessels at Calcutta, to European or
New South Wales coal, in consequence of its not so soon
filling the flues, owing to the pureness of the bitumen and the
superior quality of the gas.

In Sylhet a fine coal mine has been found ; the coal mine
now working at Chirra Poonjee produces a mineral, which
does not leave one fourth as much ashes as the Burdwan
coal; the strata are nearly horizontal* requiring no pumps or
machinery for drainage ; it is delivered at the Sanatarium at
400 lbs. weight for Is. The coal now worked is of the slaty

* Bofufipoor district is pecaliarly rich in iron $ and about Pointy and
Siecary GiiUy, wry lai^ mines have been worked in former times : the
Qte is nodakr, and yields from 20 to 25 per cent. iron. The Syihet hiHs
produce in the ((reatast abundance fine gmnular iron ore like sand.

t At a meeting of the Bengal Asiatic Society, 20th Febniary^ 1833,
specimens of copper ore from Nellore were presented on the part of Mr.
Keir. The mines i^pear to lie to the northward of the Pennar river, 36
miles N.N.W. oC Nellorti; and 37 W. from the sea, near a village caUed
Qanypenta in Arroivsmith's map.

160 MINERAL KINGDOM COAL, &C.

kind, specific gravity 1.447., containing volatile matter, 36, ;
carbon, 41 ; and a copious white ash, ^=100; seams of a
superior coal, from two to four feet thick, have been more
recently discovered contiguous to abundance of excellent iron
ore. Coal has been recently discovered at Fatehpur (Ser-
budda) which shewed near the surface; water separated
on a sand heat, 3.5 ; volatile matter not inflammable, 10*5 ;
charcoal fixed, 22; earthy residue red 64=100. Specific
gravity of coal worked at the mines on the Kosya or Cossyah
hiUs^ 1.^5; composition volatile matter or gas, 38.5; car-
bon or coke, 60.7 ; earthy impurities, 0.8=100, (the ash is
exceedingly small). The coal found near Hardwar in the
Himalaya mountains, has a specific gravity of 1.968, compost--
/fo» volatile matter, 35.4; carbon 50. ; ferruginous ash, 14.6=
100; coal found in Arracan, specific gravity, 1,308 ; gives out
bitumen and gas on ignition ; composition^ volatile matter, much
66.4; carbon, 33; ash, 0.6=100.

Mr. Wildey, late paymaster of His Majesty's Fourth Light
Dragoons, who was stationed in Cutch, thus describes the
coal found there. The best coal of the mine contains char-
coal 70 per cent, bitumen 20 per cent., sulphur 5 per cent.,
iron 3 per cent., and calcareous earths 2 per cent. The
second sort, charcoal 60, bitumen 15, oxyd of iron, 9 earths
10, sulphur 4, hydrogen and carbon acids 2 per cent.*

Rich iron ore is abundant in Cutch, and is gathered
m baskets on the surface of the earth, and possesses 22
per cent, of iron, and is from 10 to \2 per cent, more than
the common iron ore. The natives of Cutch make steel chain
armour, sabres, pikes, and various sharp-edged tools ; they
are the best blacksmiths in Asia ; their horseshoes are par-
ticularly fine, the iron being more malleable and soft, and
not so likely to break. The veterinary surgeon of the fourth
Dragoons said they were the finest shoes he ever saw, and
far preferable to those made in England. The iron ore found
in the S. of India is equally good. Mr. Heath is now pro-

* Some recent accounts state that Cutch does not possess any extensive
coal mines ; I give however Mr. Wilde3r's stcrtement in order to induce
further enquiry.

COPPER ORES IN INDIA. 161

ducing excellent iron near Madras. The Himalaya mines
supply, chiefly, varieties of red iron ore, affording from 30 to
60 per cent of metal : near Kalsi, on the Jumna, there is an
extensive bed of specular iron ore ; red hematite, associated
with micaceous iron ore, occurs in a large bed in gneis at
Dhaniakat: at Rhamghur, on the road from Bhamouri to
Almorah, there are beds of the scaly red iron ore, also in
gneis : compact red iron ore occurs in clay-slate, containing
beds of limestone at Katsari, on the Rhamganga: in some
places a brown ore of the hydadit species, containing man-
ganese, and affording a superior steel, is found. Boglipoor
district is peculiarly rich in iron, and about Pointy and
Siccary Gully, very large iron mines have been worked in
former times : the ore is nodular, and yields from 20 to ^5
per cent. iron. The Sylhet hills produce in the greatest
abundance fine granular iron ore like sand. Copper mines
are worked at Dhanpur, Dhobri, GangoU, Sira, Pokri, Khari,
and Shor Gurang. The ore found in the Dhanpur mine is
grey copper ore, which affords from 30 to 50 per cent, of
copper ; it is associated with malachite, or green carbonate
of copper. The ores are contained in a compact red-coloured
dolomite ; hence mining operations can be carried on without
the expense of wooden frame-work, or masonry. The Pokri
mine, or mines, are situated in talc slate of a loose texture ;
and hence the working is more difficult. The ores are vitre-
ous and purple copper, both of them rich in copper. The
waters flowing from the mine are impregnated with sulphate
of copper or blue vitriol. The Sira and Gangoli mines are
situated in beds of indurated talc, which are enclosed in dolo-
mite. Sometimes the one, sometimes the other rock, form
the walls of the mine. The iron is yellow copper or copper
pyrites, mixed with iron pyrites and smaller portions of grey
copper ore. The Khari and Shor Gurang mines are simi-
liarly situated, the ores are grey copper, yellow copper or
copper pyrites,^and carbonate of copper. Mines exist to the
northward of the Pennar river, 36 miles N.N.W. of Nellore,
and 37 W. from the sea, near a village called Ganypenta in

VOL. I. M

162 COPPER ORES IN INDIA.

Arrowsmith's map. The copper ore prevails over a consi-
derable tract of country ; it consists of malachite, and of black
anhydrous oxide of copper, with red and yellow ochre im-
bedded in micaceous schist. The ore differs from the Eng-
lish coppers essentially, in being firee from iron pyrites and
other deteriorating ingredients, as lead, antimony, sulphur,
&c., which make that ore difficult to puriiy, whereas the
Nellore ore becomes quite pure by simple smelting. A spe-
cimen of reduced metal sent with the ores to the Asiatic
Society, is of a very fine colour and highly malleable. On
analyzing the ore, it was found to contain, carbonic acid,
16-8; black oxide copper, 60-76; red oxide iron, 19-4; silica
and loss, 8-06 — 100. Four different varieties examined by the
secretary contained from 18 to 47 per cent, of red oxide of
iron and silex. Lead. — The most productive of these mines
are situated on the River Tonse, near the Deyrah Doon ;
the ore (a fine granular galena) is found in clay-slate and
clay-limestone. It would be tedious to particularize other
productions ; two have been recently discovered. A native
sulphate of alumina obtained from the aluminous rocks of
'Nepal (used by the native doctors to cure green wounds or
bruises), yielding on analysis, sulphate of alumina, 96 ; pe-
roxide of iron, 8; silex, 1; loss, 1 — 100; and a native sul-
phate of iron is procured from the hills of Behar, and used
by the dyers of Patna, yielding sulphate of iron, 89 ; peroxide
of iron, 86; magnesia, 2S\ loss, 2 — 100. These two mine-
rals, the natural productions of Nepal and Behar, may be
had in the largest quantities, and would be found extremely
useful in the manufacture of Prussian blue, calico printing,
and dying. Common salt (muriat of soda). — Carbonate of
soda and nitrate of potash occur in many districts forming
the salt, soda, and nitre soils. A salt lake, 20 miles long by
1^ broad, is situate near Samber at Rajpoot Town, in lat.
S6.68. and long. 74.67. ; it supplies a great portion of the
neighbouring country with salt on the drying up of the lake
afl;er the rains. In Berar there is a salt lake, called Loonar,
lying in a sort of cauldron of rocks ; it contains in the 100

SILVER — GOLD. 163

parts, muriat of soda SO, muriat of lime lO, muriat of mag-
nesia 6. Natron and soda lakes are said to occur in the
Himalaya range ; towards the sources of the Indus salt lakes
were observed by Mr. Gerard, at 16,000 feet elevation above
the sea ; and there is an extensive salt mine in the Punjaub.
The valuable diamonds and other precious stones found in
Golconda, in Orissa, Bundlecund, &c. require no detailed
notice ; silver ore, of a rich quality, is obtained in different
places. Gold is found in the beds of most rivers, particularly
in Nielgherries ; but it exists in abundance in the state of ore
in Malabar. This precious metal has been discovered not
only in Coimbatore, but throughout that tract of the country
lying W. and S. of the Nielgherry mountains and Koondanad.
It is found here in great quantities. The whole of the
country W. of the Nielgherry mountains, in the taloogs of
Parakameetil, especially at Nelliala, Cherangote, Koonyote,
Kotah, Nambolacota, Daraloor, &c. &c. also the adjoining
Koondanad and Ghaut mountains, and all the rivers and
cholas (watercourses) down as {ax W. as Nellambore, and
S.W. as Caladicota, Karimpure, Aliparamba, &c. the whole
tract, including the mountains, perhaps comprising 2000
square miles, is impregnated with gold. Even the very stones
in the beds of rivers, when pounded, have been found to con-
tain particles of that valuable metal. It is found in solid
pieces, but generally it is in extremely small particles, ob-
tained in washing the sand of all the rivers as far as Nellam-
bore, Karimpure, &c. as well as in the soil. Gold dust \8
procured in considerable quantities in every river in the Bhot
Mehals of Kumaon, and is abundant in the multitude of rivers
and streams in Assam. According to native statements, there
is a valuable gold mine called Pakerguri, at the junction of
Che Dousiri, or Douhiri river, with the Brahmaputra, about
8S miles from Gohati^ In 1809, it was estimated that 1,000
men were employed in collecting gold, and that the State an-
miaDy received 1,600 rupees weight in gold. There can be
no doubt that when the riches of India begin to be appre-
ciated in England, the precious metals will flow in abundance
from the eastern to the western hemisphere.

164 POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA (PBOM ALL EXISTIKO RETUass.)*

ill

165

CHAPTER ni.

POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA.

THEIR NUMERICAL AMOUNT UNDER THE BENGAL, MADRAS, AND BOMBAY
PRESIDENCIES — CHARACTER — BRAVERY — LANGUAGES — ^APPEARANCE —
COSTUMES— ^DWELLINGS — FOOD AND DRINK — LITERATURE, ARCHITEC-
TURE, SCULPTURE, PAINTING, MUSIC, DOMESTIC ARTS, AND SOCIAL
IMFROTEMENT, &C.

The numerical amount of the population of British India it is
very difficult to ascertain : in my first edition were given all
the details which I could either obtain myself in India, or
procure in print, or manuscript, at the E. I. House, Board of
Controul, or House of Commons* Library. But little addi-
tional statistics have since been received at the public offices.*
Yet, in the hope that attention will be turned to the subject,
I give the annexed table, leaving the several blank columns
to be filled up in India, so as to fiurnish more complete mate-
rials for another edition.

The following return of the number of villages, houses and
population of each district in the permanently settled pro-
rinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, I brought with me firom
India. For details in each district, as since furnished me
firom the E. I. House, see Appendix.

* In the fonner edition, the talile which I gave of the Madras popula-
tion was for 1822, which I obtained, in manuscript, at the India House
iiom Mr. Fisher as the latest record ; I have now, however, the pleasure
of adding a Madras return, dated in 1833, for 1827 and 1831, and, though
differently prepared from that of 1822, it is valuable ; I give it in the
oppodte table. For Bengal and Bahar, the materials on which the census
is based, namely, on the number of villages and houses in each (tistrict,
win be found in the Appendix ; for Western India there are no returns of
lay separate district ; and for Bombay the returns are of different dates,.
and compiled in different forms. The complete returns of Moorshedabad
and Allahabad are derived from private censuses given in the monthly
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta.

166 FOPVLATIOM, VILLAGES, HOtSES, OF BENGAL^ BAHAR, &C,

ProviDces, Districts, square MUes, Villages, Houses, and Populatiou of the
permanently settled Provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa.

Pro.
Tince*

DMitoti.

■3

SuboitiB of ditto

%i PerganuBB

Hookey .^

Naddea

Jestore

Cutteck

Midnapore

Bard wan

Jung^lemehavls

Ramghttr ,.

Behar

Tirhoot

Sanin

Shahabad

Patna ..

Bbanfolpore

Pomeah

Dinaifepore

Rungpoor ..

Rajeshabye

Beerbhoom

Moonbedabad

Sylbet

Tipperab ..

Cbittagony

Backeri^tmge

Daooa

Ditto ( Jdalpore)

■ •

Sqaare
llUes,

■ •

• ■

Total ..

7
1,105
3,010
S,260
3,105
6,180
9.040
8,260
2,000
6,990
92.430
5,235
7.732
5.760
4,650

667
7,270
7,460
5,920
7,856
8,950
8,870
1.870
6,988
3,532
6.830
2,980
2,780
1,870
2,585

ViUaces.

153.792

710

2,891
3,987
4,648
6,239
10,511
8,536

6,576
6,492

12,364
6,312

10.976
6,118
4,185
1,098
3,667
6,966

12,240
4,231

9,170

5.287
2.342
7.904
ft,7l7
7,529
1,108
2,454
2,5d)»
2,543

Boniet.

53,005

73,17»

129,919

267,430

254,629

345.796

S96,9S4

382,819

266,310

269.948

479,563

266,191

352,970

992,815

181,770

51,141

159.558

296,479

498,360

268,070

817,431

253,413

152,538

990.984

216,744

274.452

140,160

197,328

109,777

1x7.675

Fcipolatlon.

300,000
366,360
639,296
1,540,350
1,964,275
1,750,400
14^,690
14^14,060
1,487,263
1,394,740
2,825,699
1,940,610
1,968,720

1,494,179

908,859

965,705

797,790

I,560,9M

2,695,720

1,340,960

4,007.155

1,967.665

762,690

1,454,670

1,083,790

1,372,260

790.809

686,640

512,385

588,375

154,268 7.781,240 I 99.957,561

N. Western Provinces, — In the return of the populatkni
of India by districts^ as laid before Parliament in 1831^ there
are no data for ascertaining the inhabitants of each district in
the Upper or Western Provinces, under the Bengal Presi-
dency : Mr. Ewing, in his Police Report in 18S6» gives a
rough calculation of 3^,^06,806 for the Benares and BareSly
Provinces, the area of which (excluding Delhi, which is not
given,) is 66,510 square miles {the reader wiU find the area
of each province in the table prefixed to this chapter) but
besides this area, there are S9,800 square miles of ceded dis-
tricts on the Nerbudda, and 55,900 square miles of districts

* There has been (it is a shame to say so) no census of Calcutta for
several years Those who may consider that 1»000,000, or 1,600,000
mouths is an over estimate for Calcutta shon]d recollect that Cakulta, as
London, may be said to embrace both sides of the river; the mere city of
Calcutta (embraced within the limits of the Supreme Court) may be likened
to the City of London separate from Westmmster ;— yet even the Cii$ of
Calcutta contains half a million of inhabitants, if not more.

POPULATION OF THE CITY AND DISTRICT OF ALLAHABAD. 167

ceded by the Rajah of Berar in 18^» making a total of 85,700
square miles, of the population of which there are no returns.
I give the accompanying return, just received firom India,
as a simple form, which the Court of Directors ought to re-
quire from every CoUectorate in India; where more detail

were practicable it might be adopted, —

PopulatioQ of the City and District of Allahabad in 1831-32.

City.

City ,

Saborbs. .

Total

o
X

Moasolmans.*

Children.

0219
4747

5661
1388

13966 6999

6158
1446

S8S1
660

7604 2911

3518
637

16593
4076

HindooB.*

9850
5356

3155

206691 15203

9621
5388

15009

Children.

4061
2187

6298

4903

2603

7606

28433
15598

44116

45021
19764

64785

Mrtrictof Aliaha-l
tad, ezdoslye of V
the City j

•

MuBsnlmaos.

Hindoos.

•

148787

9053J

70678

161209

251789

802417

554206

T99199

Madras Presidency. — The population of the Madras
Presidency, is thus given in some returns furnished me from
the India House : it is acknowledged that the census of
some of the districts, was not correctly ascertained when the
first returns were made, owing to the unwillingness of the
zemindars to afford any information to Government: —

* The proportion of Musselmana to the Hindoos in Lower Bengal in the
principal Mahomedan City and District is thus shewn —

Population of the City and District of Moorshedabad for 1829.

No. of Houses

MfWon.

Otf,

Total

14281
70453

84/34

25837
97688

123495

40118
108111

208229

No. of Inhabitants.

56090

856710

413816

90066

465224

65S1IA

146176
821950

Fiopoition of sexes in tbe Citjr.

■i^les. feoMlM.
38442 37648
44488 4564f

Massnlmans
Hindoos

Do. in mstdct

Massnlmaqs
Hfindoos

968126'

188036 166696
341710 323514

Ratio of Inliabltsnts per
house 4.73.

168 POPULATION OF. THE MADRAS AND BOMBAY PRESIDENCIES.

Population and area* of the Provinces under the Madras Oorernment.

Dktricts.

Oanjamt

Vizagapatam ..
Ri^fttimandr^ ..
Masnllpatam ..

GuDtoor

Nellora

Bellary

Cnddapah

Cbinglepat .. \
N. DlTlslon . . J

S. ditto

Salem

Tanjore

Trlchinopolf . .
Madura, ftct ..
Shevagvoga ....
TlnneTelly ....
Coimbatore ....

Canara

Malabar

Madras City

Total

«l

Area in
Square
MUes.

Total of
A.D. 1822.

120

3700

882,016

6600

772,570

100

4690

788,308

100

4800

629,849
464,754

140

7478

439,467

280

264

12703

927.857

9(hi

160

12752

1.094,460

ISO

130

}8002

363,121
892,292

100

8500

456,020

194

7593

1,075,986

106

3872

901,353

3169

481,295

190

166

6932

601,293

1724

186,903

136

5690

664.967

i6a

8392

638,199

22)0

7477

657,594

118

4900

907.575

462,051

2669

11628

97864

14,006,918

Total Of
A.D. 1827.

}

468.047

1,008,644

660,906

519,125

47«.787

730,608

941,612

1,000,957

289,828

730,410

549J95

966,480

1,066,660

47«.720

1,122,979
766,746

854,050
666,652
1,003,66

Fiislf, 1240, A.D. ISaiHIl.

14,287*272

Males.

Females.

T6tal.

222,891

215,283

438,174

545,674

601,740

1,047.414

867,292

827.784

696,016

295,182

249,490

644,672

271.792

246,526

618,818

448,176

398,396

846,67*

690,831

688,008

1,128.899

668,300

504.864

1,068,164

171.699

160,122

831,821

397,866

876,113

77».96e

288,277

265,111

663.S8»

424.048

898,069

82S»107

678,112

660,618

1,128.730

274,161

262,646

636.607

678,379

557,032

1,135,411

430,142

420,749

860,891

425,170

429,664

864,834

867,691

839,880

707.671

661,172

652,326

1.113.407

^orns since 1822.)

700,000

7,796,834 1

7,298.260

15,090,064

The census of the Bombay Presidency is less to be de*
pended on than the foregoing ; combining Colonel Sykes's
information with the scanty intelligence laid before ParUament,
I make up the following return, as the nearest approximation
to truth which is at present attainable.

Divi.
slons.

CoUectorates.

^uare

iniles.

Bombay Isle. .

Poonah

8,281

Abmednanrur

9.910

Kbandelsh....

12,527

Dbarwar

9.132

S. Jagheerdars

2.978

Sattara, Ditto.

6,169

Concan, S

«.770

Coocan, N. .. .

5,600

Sorat, &c

M49

Broach

1,361

Ahmedabad.. .

4,072

Kaira

Total

1.827

66O74

^nilages Houses. | Popula-

tioti.

1.897
3,466
2,788
2,491
917
1,703
2,340

• •

656
400
728
679

I6912

90,786
114.887
136.273
120,822
187,932

108,166

65,649

175,996

127,281

104)68,53

Remarks.

280,000
558,318
666,376
478,467
838,757
778,183
736,284

656,867
387,264
464,481
289,527
528,073
484,736

6.940,277

In the Deckhan which Indodea
au area of 48,987 square miles,
aod a population of 8,286,986, the
arerage number of mouths to the
sq. mUe is 6,708, and the propor-
tion of msles to females, about
100 to 86 ) the Mnssnlmans form
only fjrom 6 to 8 per cent, of the
whole population ; the MahnO-
tas, fkom 60 to 70 per cent., the
Brahmins from 6 to 10 per cent.
Rajpoots, fh>m 8 to 6 per cent,
and outcasts, &c. from 9 to lo
percent.

* I give the area and population from separate Manuscripts mt the India
House which do not agree in the names of the districts.

t Qangam is exclusive of the Zemindaries, Jaradah,
and Daracote, in which no census appears to have been taken in that year,
thus accounting for the apparent decrease.

X Thb includes Rainoad 2,500 and Dindigul, 2,624 square miles*

POPULATION OF BOMBAY AND COLABAH.

169

Census of tbe Population of the Islands of Bombay and Colabah, taken
in the months of August, September, October, and November, 1826.

No. of
Hooses.

1.S10
520

5.467

4,311

031

S9«
1.309
S.595

M»196

Port ■ . . •
Colabah . .
Dongaree . .
BycuUah . .
MaIa]HurHi]l,ftc.
Gnrgaain . .
MtoMgoa . .
MahimEast .
Mabim Watt .

Total .
MaitaiytEsH-
FloatiAff/ mated

Grand Total.

488

859

176

418

1894

114

1448

810

1819

8380

938

8090

0803

124

1704

983

119

1074

804

70
labo

10738:1870

•

•a

1833

6089

148

• •

303

1368

304

• ■

18888

89054

613

• ■

9880

19070

1033

• ■

3180

619

9898

308

3060

148

• ■

868

4773

• ■

1141

7608

830

• •

86980

88598

3006

Total.

13011
8670

47369

31083

8498

13040

4090

0414

11899

18S670
10000
90000

103670

It is difficult to say how near any of the foregoing returns,
except those for Madras, approximate towards correctness ;
the estimated population of 42^,990 square miles here given is
89,577,206, leaving 91,200 square miles of British territory of
the population of which no accounts can he traced ; but if
we allow the low rate of 90 mouths to the square mile, it will
make the population of the British territories about one hunn
dred million ! Now to this vast number, we are to add the
inhabitants of the protected and allied states ; the area of
which is greater than that of the British territory by 100,000
square miles ; and allowing an equal amount of population
to the British territories, it will give a grand total of two
HUND&ED MILLION INHABITANTS,* directly and indirectly under
the sway of Great Britain, and subject to the Government of
the Hon. East India Company ! The number of whites, or

* The followiDg estimate has been made of the population of the allied
and Independent states :— Hydrabad 1 0,000,000 j Oude, 6,000,000 ; Nag-
poor, 3,000,000; Mysore, 3,000,000; Sattan, 1,500,000; Gaickivar,
2,000,000) Travancore and Cochin, 1,000,000; Rigpootana and vaiions
minor principalities 16,600,000; Sdndias territories, 4,000,000; tlieSeiks,
3,000,000; Nep&l, 2,000,000 ; Cashmere, &c. 1,000,000; Sinde, 1,000,000;
total 51,000,000. This, of course, is but a rough estimate by Hamilton.

1 70 INDIA, WHENCE PEOPLED ?

Europeans, does not, including all the military, amount to
100,000.*

It does not fall within the province of a work, the object of
which is to enable the British public to appreciate duly the
vast importance and actual condition of the Colonies of this
Empire, — it does not, I say, fall within the legitimate or ad-
visable scope of such an undertaking to speculate on abstract
questions, such, for instance, as the origin of the Hindoos, —
whether the earth was primitively peopled from the Polar
regions (as asserted by a French philosopher), or from the
lofty table land of Hindostan (as contended for by many), —
whether the Hindoos were originally migratory Scythian or
Tartar colonists, or emigrants from Egjrpt, or vice versa^ or
whether they are a nation of 1,000 or 12,000 years' antiquity;
all these disquisitions would be unsuited to work of this de-
scription, and as until the last 50 years little or nothing had
been known in Europe of peninsular Asia, probably more time
will be requisite for the just developement of important
truths ; I will, therefore, proceed to observe that a miscon-
ception has long prevailed that, the inhabitants of British
India, to the number of 100,000,000, are a primitive, simple
people, usually termed Hindoos, who abstain from eating
anything that ever breathed the breath of life, and are inva-
riably disciples of Menu. It would be as absurd to speak of
all the inhabitants of Europe as one race, because they wear
hats, shave, and are (at least) professedly Christians, as it
would be absurd to speak of the many millions who inhabit
our possessions on the Continent of Asia as one people be-
cause they, generally, wear turbans, do not shave their faces,!
and are nominally the worshippers of Brahma. In fact, there

• From Assam I have just received the following data : territory, 400
tniles loDg, and 65 broad at the broadest part; population^ 830,000 1
revenue, S. R. 3,60,000.

t The Hindoos shave the chin and cheeks, but not the upper lip, which
is nearly the reverse of the Mahomedans.

VARIETIES OF THE POPULATION OP HINDOSTAN. 171

is a greater diversity of character and language among the
natives of Hindostan than there is in all Europe.

Bishop Heber justly observed, ' it is a great mistake to
suppose that all India is peopled by a single race> or that
there is not as great a disparity between the inhabitants of
Gnzerat, Bengal, the DAab, and the Deckan both in language,
manners, and physiognomy, as between any four nations in
Europe;* and again, * the inhabitants of the Presidencies of
Madras and Bombay, and of the Deckhan, are as different
from those nations I have seen, and from each other, as the
French and Portuguese from the Greeks, Germans, and
Poles. Colonel Todd remarks that along the course of the
River Ckumbul (500 miles) may be found specimens of the
various Indian races of Soondees, Chunderawais, SeesoodiaSf
Aaras Gore, Jadoon, Sikerwal Goojur^ JaUt, Tt$ar, Chohan,
Bkadaria Kutchwahay Sengavy Boondelay &c., each in assO"*
ciations of various magnitudes, from the substantive state to
the little republic communes between the Chumbul and
Cohari. Mr, Crawford thinks that, ' in India there are at
least 80 nations, speaking as many distinct languages ;* and
that, these Indian nations are unknown to each other ; the
Mahrattas being as much strangers to the people of Bengal,
or to those of the Carnatic as we are; the Seiks are strangers
to the Mahrattas, and some 15,000,000 Mahomedans differ
from each other in nation, in sect, and often in language.
Bengal, Assam, Arracan, Behar, the upper Provinces Ku-
maon, the Sikh States, Rajpootana, and Bundlecund (to say
BOtUng of Southern or Western India) ccmtain respectively
a people as different from each other as Holland, France,
Spain, Portugal, England, Scotland, Germany, and Switzer-
land ; Madras, Bombay, and central India contain a popula-
tion as different from each other as the foregoing, and may
be likened to the Greeks, Austrians, Prussians, Poles, and
various Russian tribes.

The Mussulmans are divided into two chief sects — the
Soonee and the Shea, as different from each other as Protes-
tant and Catholic among the Christians ; and there are nu-*

172 DIVISION OF CASTES AND TENETS.

merous subdivisions (as various as those of the Reform faith)
whose tenets have more or less eflfect on their conduct in the
affairs of common life ; there are also Parsees^ Chinese, Ma-
lays, Armenians, Sjrrian, and Roman Catholic Christians, Por-
tuguese descendants, and thousands of other classes. But
even among the disciples of Bramah there is a great diversity.
The majority perhaps of the Hindoos of Bengal and Orissa do
not eat meat, and it has been ascribed to a religious precept
forbidding the destruction of animal life ; but almost every
Hindoo eats fishy several eat kid, and many birds : the absti-
nence from animal food was, in the first instance, owing to an
interdict of the priests, in consequence of its scarcity or
deamess. Many of the highest Rajpoots and Brahmins in
N. and Western India will eat goat's flesh, venison, and wild
hogs's flesh, while they abhor that of sheep, or domestic
swine ; some will eat the jungle cock (which is pretty similar
to our game cock except in size) who would think the touch
of a domestic fowl pollution ; very many castes will eat some
particular kind of food but refuse others : at Bikaneer, all
the Hindoos profess an abhorrence of fish ; at Kumaon they
will eat the short-tailed sheep of the hills, but will not touch
one with a long tail : many castes will eat bread baked by
people who would lose caste if they were to touch boiled lice
prepared by the same hands : an earthen pot is polluted past
redemption by being touched by an inferior caste, a metal
one suffers no such deterioration : some tribes allow a man to
smoke, through his hands, from the bowl (chUlum) which con-
tains the tobacco, but would not allow the same person. to
touch that part of the hookah which contains the water.
Instances such as these might be multiplied ad h^niium.

In points of greater importance there is as great a difference
between the various tribes of Hindoos, as among the different
sects of Christians ; even the religious holidays observed in
Bengal are different from those kept in. the Upper Provinces,
the barbarous ceremonies of Juggernaut's car, and the abo-
minations of Churruk Poonjah (where men are swung in the air
with hooks fastened through their loins) are utterly unknown

THE MAHRATTAS AND MUSSULMANS. 173

in Northern and Western India : in some parts of Hindostan
female infanticide is almost universal, in others it is held in
just abhorrence ; again in some parts polygamy prevails, in
others polyandria (as in the Himalaya districts, where one
woman is married to all the brothers in a family, for the pur-
pose of keeping property in the family) ; in some places the
marriage of a daughter is a cause of great expense to her
parents ; in others the source of profit, as the husband pays
a considerable sum for his wife, and has the power of selling
her again, or even of mortgaging her for a certain time in se-
curity for a debt which he is unable to pay. Even the Indian
Mussulmans have their castes, for which they are thoroughly
despised by a Persian or A£Pghan.

The different nations, classes, and sects of Hindostan may
be thus summarily distinguished, in order to mark their va-
riety. Insidious, cruel, and talented Brahmins, war-like Khe-
tries, industrious Shoodras, ambitious but sensual Moslems,*
war-like and cunning Mahrattas,f peaceftil money-changing

* The number of Moslems throughout British India has been estimated
at from ten to fifteen million ; in some places they do not form one-six-
teenth of the population.

t The Deccan is the principal country of the Mahrattas : the total po-
pulation of this division of Hindostan is about 3,285,986 souls, of whom
about 70 p^r ceat. are Mahrattas ; the remainder, aoeordiug to Lieut.-Gol
Sykes, consists of low caste Brahmins, Mussulmans, and Rigpoots. The
clear evidence of this talented officer before Parliament thus displays the
difference between the portion of the Hindoos called Mahrattas and those
who are not ; and he also draws a comparison between the Hindoos gene-
rally and the Mussulmans.

' The Mahrattas are a notion speaking a language peculiar to themselves.
The nation comprises Mahratta Brahmins, Mahratta low castes, and other
rarious castes of Hindoos ; but the genuine Mahratta belongs to that great
division of the Hindoos denominated Shoodrah, a division comprising an
infinity of distinctive groups or races, none of the members of which will
eat or intermarry with Shoodrahs not belonging to their own group or race.
There are certainly minute shades of difference amongst the Mahrattas, but
no distinction of caste. There are local circumstances that probably pre-
vent one family intermarrying with another ; but still every Mahratta can
cat with his neighbour Mahratta, unless the latter should have been
expelled from his caste, an event of no unusual occurrence.

174 JAINS, PARSEES, JEWS, THUOS, PHASINGARS, &C.

Jains,* feudatory and high-spirited Rajpoots, roving and
thieving Batties and Catties^f scrupuloudy honest Parsees,:]:
lynx*eyed Jews,§ heroic Goorkas, professionally murdering
Thugs and Phamngars,|| mercantile Armenians^f^ freebooting
Pindaries, vindictive but grateful Nairs, sedate Nestorians,**
filthy Mughsiff haughty Persians, actively commercial Chi-

' I think, on the whole> the minds of the Mussulmans are superior to the
Hindoos; the Mussubnans are men of greater ele?ation of sentiment,
grreater energ^y of purpose and dignity of character ; they are more luxu-
rious and dissipated, but they are decidedly more martial, manly and cul-
tivated, as a people, than the Hindoos : they are, however, great bigots,
which the Hindoos are not. Tliey harmonise, however, very wcii with tiie
Hindoos; the Hindoos even assist to celebrate some of their religious
festivals ; and it is very remarlcable that all the butchers' meat consomed
by the Hindoos (which is considerable), is prepared, as far as the slaughter
and cutting up of the animal goes, by Mussulman butchers only.

* The Jains are somewhat similar in features as well as in manners and
religion, to the Budhists of Ceylon and Siam

f These wandering outlaws worship the sun, and hold the moon in
great veneration.

X The Parsees (of whonr there are 10,738 in Bombay island) are one of
the finest races of people that are any where to be found ; although
descendants of the Guebers, or fire worshippers, whose heroism is so w^l
known, they are now generally engaged in traffic, in the details of which
they display an honesty, intelligence, and nobleness which is no where
surpassed.

§ The Jews are very numerous in India and in China, and many are to
be found in the ranks of the Bombay army, where they have behaved
bravely ; the Asiatic Jews are distinguished from those of Europe by im-
mense ' Roman' noses.

II The Phasingars of the S. of India are professional murderers, like the
Thugs ; the latter, however, are composed of men of all castes, and it is
remarkable that Brahmnt are the most numerous and the chief directois
of the horrid vocation of their sect.

% The Armenians in their manners and peaceful, honourable caUing as
merchants, bear no slight resemblance to the Parsees.

** The Nestorian Christians are very numerous in the S« of India» and
deservedly much admired for their peaceful, intelligent, and industrious
habits

ft The Mughs, or natives of Arracan, are a short muscular race, of a
copper colour, with round, flat features They possess more activity and

CHINESE, SINDEANS, SEIKS, ROMAN CATHOLICS, &C. 175

nese,* mercenary Sindeans, martial Seiks^f fanatical Roman
Catholics,:}: despotic Poligars, bigotted Gosseins, prescribed
Sontals, piratical Concanese, turbulent Mhairs and Meenas,
degraded Muniporeans, sanguinary and untameable Koolies,
dmid and apathetic Assamese,§ Quaker-like Kaits,|| wild Pu-
harees,^ pastoral Todawars,** maritime Cutch,ff usurious

natural courage than the Bengalees, but less than their late masters, the
Burmese. Their food is chiefly fish and rice, but they object not to a
dish of stewed rats or boiled snakes, or a fried section of the putrifying
carcase of an elephant; nothing, in fact, from a maggot to a mammoth*
comes amiss to a roracious Mugh. These ancient people form six-tenths
of a population of 100,000 in Arracan ; the Mussulmans the remaining
tliree-leiiths, and the Burmese one-tenth.

* Thia extraordinary race are colonizing themselves fast in Calcutta,
and by their superior skill as arcizans, are engrossing to themselves the
principal handicrafts of the city.

t The eagle eye, Roman nose and flowing beard, give the Seik cavaliers
a noble appearance ; and in horsemanship they are perhaps not excelled
by any other nation, European or Asiatic.

I The Roman Catholics (descendants from the Portuguese and French,
or converts to their faith) amount, it is said, to 600,000 ; they are sunk in
a state of idolatry not far removed from ifindooism. Ther^ are 50,000
Portuguese, or converts to their religion, assuming Portuguese names, in
die territories under the Bombay Presidency.

§ The population of Assam (400 miles long by 65 broad) is 830,000 ;
the inhabitants in general are remarkable for their timid submission and
apathetic character, and for their ordinary features, or it might be termed
ugliness, not even excepting the women ; there are a few hill tribes of a
more manly character and appearance, and the Camroop women are
spoken of as handsome. The Assamese are of the Brahminical faith,
but separated into an almost infinite variety of sects.

II The Kaits, like the Quakers, support each other ; — none are unedu-
cated, they are never seen in a state of indigence or in a menial capacity ;
they differ from the ' Quakers' in not being of a strictly moral character.

If The Puharees inhabit the hilly country between Burdwan and Bogli-
poor, and appear to be the aborigines of Bengal ; they have no castes,
care nothing for the Hindoo faith, and do not worship idols ; thdr lan-
guage, features and manners are alike distinct from the people of the
piaiiis.

** This manly race, who in features and independent feelings strongly
resemble the andent Romans, inhabit the table land of CJoimbatore.

ft Among the timid navigators of the East, the mariner of Cutch is

176 SOUCARS AND SHROFFS, PARIARS, MALAYS, &C.

Soucars and Shroffs,* outcast Pariars, ferocious Malays, in-
nocent Karians, dissolute M oguls,f peaceful Telingars^ ano-
malous Grassias, grasping Jauts or Jats, j: effeminate Ooriens,§

truly adventurous ; he voyages to Arabia, the Red Sea, and the coast of
Zanguebar in Africa, bravely stretching out on the ocean after quitting his
native shore. The ' moallim,' or pilot, determines his position by an alti-
tude at noon, or by the stars at night, with a rude quadrant. Coarse
charts depict to him the bearings of his destination, and, by long-tried
seamanship, he weathers, in an undecked boat with a huge lateen 8ail» the
dangers and tornadoes of the Indian Ocean. The use of the quadrant was
first learned by a native of Cutch, who made a voyage to Holland in the mid-
dle of the last century, and returned, ' in a green old age,' to enlighten tiia
, countrymen with the arts and sciences of Europe. The most substantial
advantages introduced by this improver of his country were the arts of
navigation and naval architecture, in which the inhabitants of Gutch excel.
For a trifling reward, a Cutch mariner will put to sea in the ndny season,
and the adventurous feeling is encouraged by the Hindoo merchants of
Mandavie, an enterprising and speculative body of men.

* Bankers and money changers, a tribe spread ail over India.

t The dingy white colour of the Moguls of the N. W. pro.vinces is as
displeasing to the eye as their filthy licentiousness is to the mind.

X The J&ts originally migrated from the province of Mooltan, on the
banks of the Indus, and subsisted partly by plunder and partly by com-
merce and agriculture. During the civil wars of Aurungzebe's successors^
the J its secured a large portion of the country between the Ganges and
Jumna, accumulated much treasure by pillage and spoil, and built several
forts, one of which was Bhurtpore ; the title of Rajah was then assumed
by their chiefs, the principal of whom reigns in Bhurtpore, the total area
of whose government is about 6,000 square miles. The Jftts thus alluded
to are descended from a low Sudra caste, having subsequently assumed
the title of Kketriy or military caste, and are distinct from the Jftts or old
Mahomedan peasantry of the Pkinjab. The Indus tribe are, however, weU
entitled to assume the appellation of Khetri, as they are a brave indepen-
dent race, and one of the most determined enemies which the British
forces have engaged with on the battle field.

§ The Oorians inhabit Orissa, and so feminine are they in appearance^
that it is difficult to distinguish them from women, both dressing exactly
alike. They are timid, but exceedingly dissolute and obscene ; they are
more versed in low cunning, dissimulation and subterfuge, than perhaps
any people in the E., and that is saying much for their character. Their
honesty and industry are two remarkable features in contrast with the
foregoing traits, with which Mr Stirling depicted the Oorians.

BUNNIAS; BYRAOIES9 CUARUNS, BHATS, MEWATTIES, &C. 177

keen-sighted Bunnias,* mendicant Byragies^ Jesuitical Cha-
runs and minstrel Bhats, avaricious Mewatties, restless and
depraved Soondies^f well-trained fighting Arabs and Patans^
commercial Bringaries and Loodanahs^l aboriginal Gonds^H
monkish Kapriyasf^ and in fine tribes of Sours^ Baugries^
Moghies, Googurs, Gwarriahs,** &c., too numerous and diver-
sified to depict^ and presenting, if not a similar number of
languages^ a corresponding diversity of dialects and a com-
plete distinction in manners, customs, and occupations.

Nothing is more natural than to expect among so many
millions of people spread over so varied a country a marked
distinction of character ; have we not endless variety in cli-
mates, in soils, in waters, in minerals, in vegetables, in fish,
in insects, in birds, and quadrupeds, subject to certain de-
fined laws of the Creator, and influenced by natural causes ?
Why should it be otherwise with the human race, who in
colour, physiognomy, stature, speech, gesture, habits, and
mental as well as physical peculiarities present, such an ex-
traordinary diversity, that no two persons were ever found

aKke?tt

* The retail and petty dealing in central India is in the hands of the
Bunnias.

t Illegitimate descendants of the Rajpoots, looked on by other tribes
with disgust for their numerous and halntual vices.

X The Arabs and Patans are mercenary soldiers, and> like their Euro-
pean Swiss brethren, ready to fight for those who pay them best.

§ These people live in tents, have no home, and trade generally in
grain, with which they travel from country to country, or follow the route
of armies, who in their fiercest contests, consider these valuable attendants
as neutrals : they preserve a marked separation and independence of other
races, and their dress and usages are peculiar.

II The Gonds, who may be considered the aborigines of the S. part of
India, and who bear a sinking resemblance to the AfY\can negro, still con-
tinue to offer human sacrifices where they are not subject to our control.

% Similar in habits and rules to the Dominician friars.

** The Gwarriahs live by stealing women and .children to sell.

ft While travelling in different countries, I made a collection of the
skulls of different nations (the greater part of the collection I had the
pleasure of presenting to the Asiatic Society Museupa, at Calcutta, where

VOL. I. N

178 DIYERSITT OF THE HUMAN RACE. — CRANIA.

Even in the same fknuly, we see no two individuals faafing
similar chaiacteristicsy notwithstanding all the efforts of edu-r

they may now be seen), snd it is exceedingly curious to observe what a
marked configuration the crania of diverse people exhibit, even among na-
tions with scarcely a perceptible natural boundary between them. The most
striking example noticed was Che difference between the Bengallee and the
Bnrmese : the dcall of thejbnner pocseases a greater occipital protubcnnes
than that qf any people I have ever met; it }», la fi^ct, send^globuUtr, find the
whole skull extraordinarily small, divested of any angular or nigged pro-
jections, and of remarkably thin laminss (these observations are founded
on the examination of hundreds of the Bengallee skulb) : the cranium of
the latter (Bnrmese) possesses what 1 have never found in any other nation
— a perfectly flat occipital bone $ so much so, that a Burmese skull will
rest on a broader and firmer base ndien placed with the face upwards^ thaa
ia any other position. As if to compensate £or the flatness of the ocid-
pital bone, the parietal or side walls of the skull bulge out in an extraor-
dinary manner ; the brain case (unlike the Hindoo's) is very large, and
the laminae extraordinarily thick. Among my Burmese specimens were
the mutilated skulls of Burmese soldiers, found near BangooUi some of
wfakh were clove in twain by the prowess of British soldieFS. On another
•ceaaian, I will tiace tine characlers of iMU&pns, as exemplified in the
mental shield. (For a measurement of the crania and skeletons of a male
and female New Hollander, see Vol. IV., New South Wales.)

Since the first edition of this volume went to press, that distingaislied
Brahmin, (or rather Hindoo) Rajah Rammohun Roy, died near Bristol
afar from the land pf his birth, and without kith or kin to hear his last
prayer. 1 knew the Rajah well, having lived for some months with him
at his Oardea House, near Calcutta. He had his faults (who has not ?} ;
but they were more than counterbalanced by his virtues. Immediately oo his
demise, a cast was taken of hia head (which was not only of a very unusual
else for a Hindoo, but even for the generality of Englishmen), for the pur-
pose of promoting phrenological inquiry. I give the details (as I have th^
ostrological measurement of the New Hollanders in my fourth volume), for
the purpose of stimulating to further inquiry on so interesting a i^ubject.

DIMENSIONS, IN INCHES, OF THE SKULL OF THE LATE aAHMOHUN ROT,
FROM A CAST TAKEN WHILE THE BODY WAS TBT WARM.*

Greatest circumference qf head, measuring horizontally over indivi-
duality, destructivenesQ, and philo-progenitiveness, 24ij from ^ccipttal

* la stating the actual dimensions of the head> allowance has been made
for the hair.

KAMUOHUN ROY's SKULL AND CHARACTER* 179

catioB we find a difiisrence in moral qualitiesy as well as in
mental capabilities ; in hand-writing even, in the intonation of
the Toice, in gait, in animal propensities, — and this distinction

iphe to individuality, over top of the head, 16 ; ear to ear, vertically over
top of the head, measnriii^ from upper marf^n of the meaius, 14| ; phila-
firo^enitiven&it to indtvidttaiiip, in a straight line, 8| ; concentraiiveneu to
e9mp9ri$0n, 71 ; ear to philo-progenitiveneu, 41 ; to indimduality, 51 ; to
benevolence, 6f ; to veneration, 61 ; to firmnea, 6i ; desiructiveneu to
desiructiveneu, 6i ; secreitceness to eecretiveneu, 6i ; cautiousness to cau-
tiousness, 5i ; ideality to ideality, 4i ; constructiveness to constructiveness,
5| ; mastoid process to mastoid process, 5|.

Devehpement. — (1) Amativeness very large ; (2) philo-progenitiveness
FRther large ; (3) concentrativeness ftill ; (4) adhesiveness large ; (6)
oombalivenesa large; (6) destmctiveness large; (7) secretiveness lai^e;
(8) acquisitiveness full ; (9) constructiveness rather full ; (10) self-esteem
rery large; (11) love of approbation ditto; (12) cautiousness large ; (13)
benevolence ditto ; (14) veneration full; (15) firmness very large; (16)
conscientiousness ditto; (17) hope full; (18) wonder rather full; (19)
ideality ditto ; (20) wit or mirthfulness ditto ; (21) imitation rather large ;
(22) individuality ditto ; (23) form full ; (24) size rather large ; (25)
weight ditto; (26) colouring full ; &7) locality rather large; (28) number
moderate; (29) order rather full; (30) eventuality full ; (31) time full;
(32) tone moderate ; (33) language rather large ; (34) comparison ditto ;
(35) causality ditto.

Having had an intimate acquuntance with Rammohun Roy, and posses-
sing, ftom his own lips and those of his confidents, a knowledge of cir-
CTuiitancps which, he did not think proper to reveal in the scanty materials
of his Ule that he furnished, I may with confidence state that phrenological
science is not in danger from the ' developemenf of the animal portion of
the brain ; but in the mental developement there are not only contradictions,
but positive negatives. From No. 1 to 6, his passions were powerful, on
occasion, in some instances, uncontrollable, and with difficulty subjected to
his extraordinary masculine understanding ; his benevolence was not merely
krge, but very largely in activity ; he had no order in any domestic coa-
eem, and the only symptom of it observable was in the construction of his
sentences in writing : language is described as * rather large;* in reality it
was very remarkable — ^he understood a variety of tongues thoroughly, and
acquired them with facility: caution is described only as large; if a deep
concealment of motives, not unfrequently degenerating into cunniDg, be
etm^on, no man possessed it more than Rammohun Roy, whose veneration
■everfteleas far a JSapieme Being was not merely /«//, but unbounded.

180 PHYSICAL CAUSES FOR VARIED NATIONAL CHARACTER.

becomes the more marked, if we compare two brothers with
the nation of which they form a part, while a wider line c^
demarcation is seen on comparing the people of a province
with those of other and distant climes. That I may the better
exemplify my assertion as to the variety of British subjects in
India, I request a moment's attention to Italy, where the cli-
mate and soil is so varied. In that classic land, we have the
descendants of a race of men as ancient in record as the Hin-
doos ; but (as in Hindostan) the inhabitants of the north, are
essentially different from those of the south, the former pro-
duces the best soldiers (Rajpoots) the latter the keenest poli-
ticians, (Bengallees) the people of the one are industrious,
peaceful, of tamer manners, or if I may so express my mean-
ing, domesticated; those of the other, of a wild and stormy
temper, generous but revengeful, capable of the most heroic as
well as the basest deeds, of an uncultivated genius, and im-
patient of discipline ; whence then this marked contrast in
Italy ? (a country so small compared with Hindostan) the po-
htical institutes, the rehgion, the language is common to all,
but the climate and soil are essentially different.

The N. of Italy is a fertile, champagne country, intersected
by numerous rivers, cultivated to an astonishing degree, co-
vered with wide and level roads, never ending avenues, and
thickly-populated towns and villages, with a highly luxuriant
but dull and sleepy landscape ; (this description might serve
for lower Bengal) the S. is crowned with purple tinged moun-
tains and golden edged clouds, diversified with stupendous
and sometimes inaccessible crags, foaming torrents, cashmer-
ian vales, wild but beautiful forests, and a scenery which pre-
sents the most splendid pictures at every step ; (those who
have visited many parts of the highlands of India will recog-
nise the same features as in southern Italy). Is it to be won-
dered that the character of men inhabiting such different
countries should be dissimilar ? Hence in the low, hot, and
damp swampy regions of India, we have a timid, pacific, com-
mercial, phlegmatic, and even servile race; educated, but

CHARACTER OF THE HINDOOS. 181

•

prone to superstition, tyrants over females, yet addicted to
compliments, and extravagant in all the littleness attending
on the ceremonials of behaviour ; while in the elevated, dry,
and cool regions of our possessions in Asia, the inhabitants
are fearlessly brave, filled with martial ardour, chivalrous to
women, courteous to strangers, glorying in deeds of heroism,
sanguine in their atchievements, desperate enemies and warm
friends, — as individuals, — serfs, yet proud, in the aggregate of
national independence, at all times ready to reject the pen and
the ploughshare for the sword and the war steed, and, as
justly expressed by the noble bard, —

** Who for itself can seek th* approaching fight.
And turn what some deem danger to delight ;
Who seek what cravens shun with more than zeal,
And where the feebler faint can only feel. —
Feel to the rising bosom's inmost core.
Their hopes awaken and their spirits soar ;
No dread of death if with them die their foes.
Save that it seems even duller than repose !"

Such in fact is the varied character of the nations of Hin-
dostan, hence the discrepant testimony of various witnesses
who have only judged of the portion of the people among
whom their avocations may have located them for a number
of years ; one party extolling them to the skies as exhibiting
patterns of every virtue which adorns man, — the other repre-
senting them as a slavish, lying, cruel, treacherous, unprin-
cipled and ungrateful race. Truth in this, as in most other
instances, lies between the extremes; the Hindoos (indepen-
dent of the effects of climate, soil, and food*) display the ter-
ribly demoralizing results which centuries of despotism are so
surely calculated to produce. 'Tis true they have not had iron
fetters on their wrists and ankles like the slaves in the West
Indies, but they have had for ages fetters on the mind far
more efficacious for the debasement of the immortal spirit
of man, —

* Those Hindoos who, though professing the religion of Menu, live in
some degree on animal food, are a very different class of people from
those who live principally on vegetables.

182 THE DESPOTISM OF VICE AND WICKBDNE8S OP LUXURY.

-'* U tkere no tyranny but that

Of blood and chains ? The despotism of vice —

The weakness and wickedness of luxury*-

The negligence, the apathy, the evils

Of sensual sloth produce ten thousand tyrants,

Whose delegated cruelty surpasses

The worst acts ot one energetic master.

However hard and harsh in his owa bearing/*

But those who have studied minutely and extensively the
characters of the Hindoos^ will admit that they have preju-
dices to be humoured^ affections to be won, passions to be
dreaded, and virtues to be cherished and developed.^ Since

* The contempt which most, if not aU, the different races in India
manifest for the ftors of death is very remarkable ; it may be sfud that
fanaticism is the exciting came; but it should be remembered that,
wherever a British officer leads, his Sepoy troops will follow, and (numer-
ous instances have occurred where the Hindoo artillerymen have been cut
down at their guns rather than desert them ; the gallant manner in which
the natives will, single-handed, and armed only with a long knife, attack
the most furious tiger fbr a trifling reward, has been often described, and
needs not recapitulation ; but their aglUty and bravery ia voluntarily ea-
countering a formidable shark in his native element, for the sake of a few
shillings, is not so well known. An illustration of this fact, as it occur*
red when I was in Calcutta, in 1830, may be here given : — ^The boat was on
its progress down theHooghly, when a huge shark was seen swimming round
it,— a Hindoo prepared to attack it on receiving a small reward for his dex-
terity ^ holding the rope, on which he had made a sort of running knot» in
one hand, and stretching out the other arm, as if already in the act of swim-
ming, stood in an attitude, truly picturesque, waiting the re-appearance of
the shark. At about 6 or 8 yards from the boat the animal rose near the sur-
face> when the native instantly plunged mto the water, a short distance from
the very jaws of the monster. The shark immediately tamed round, and
Bwam slowly towards the man, who, in his turn, nothing daunted, struck
out the arm that was at liberty, and approached hia foe. When within a
foot or two of the shark, the native dived beneath him — the animal going
down almost at the same instant. The bold assulant in this frightful con-
test soon re-appeared on the opposite side of the shark, swimming fear-
lessly with the hand he had at liberty, and holding the rope behind his back
with the other. The shark, which had also by this time made his appear-
ance again, immediately swam towards him ; and while the animal was
apparently in the act of lifting himself over the lower part of the native^

RESULTS Of BRITISH RULE TO THE HINDOOS. 183*

the conquest of India by England^ the British rulers have
been carefully annihilating a chain of feudalism which ever
marks an age of barbarism ; society which heretofore con-
sisted of only two classes, is now being levelled, by the re-
moval of the slavish dependence of the low upon the higher
castes, and millions of human beings are now for the first time
learning to know thef r own worth, and te be conscious that by
industry, talent, and integrity, they may elevate themselves to
the foremost rank in society ; human sacrifices have been abo-
lished, infanticide materially checked, and the horrid rite of
female cremation completely prohibited ; those palladiums of
liberty, the press and trial by jury «re being gradually es:«-
tended ; the natives nt on the judgment seat and fill the ma-
gisterial chair : and if common justice be done them in their
commercial dealings with England, (and no insane attempt be
made to interfere with thevt religious principles before couch-
ing them for the moral cataract which yet dims their mental
vision,) the fiiture may be looked forward to with glowing an-
ticipations ; but when we witness the powerful opposition that
even yet exists to the abolition of the diabolical rite of widow-
burning among the Hindoo population (remembermg that the
proportion of Europeans to Asiatics in India, is as om to Jive
thousand f and of Mahomedans to Hindoos as one to ten) let
us beware not to proceed too fast, let us temper benevolence

body, that he miglit seize upon hh prey, tbe man making a strong effort,
threw kiittMlf ftp perpendtCQlarly, and went down with his feet foremost —
the ahaik ibilowmg him so simultaaeonsly that we were fully impressed
with the idea that they had gone down grapplin^i; together. As far as
Gould be jndged, they remained nearly twenty seconds out of sight, while
we stood in breathless anxiety — and it may be added horror, waiting the
result of this fearful encounter. Suddenly the native Aaade his appearance
holding up both his hands over his head, and calling out with a voiee that
proclaimed the victory he hild won, while andemeath the wave,-*-' /«»—
t§m t* The people in the boat were all prepared — ^the rope was instantly
drawn tight, and the struggling victim, lashing the water in his wrath, was
dragged to the shore and dispatched. This truly intrepid man received
only a cat on thtf left arm, apparently from the fin of his formidable
enemy.

184 . SIR THOMAS MUNRO ON PRECIPITANCY.

with prudence, principle with poUcy> and justice with ^x-*
pediency.

Sir Thomas Munro has placed on record a minute which
has reference to the precipitancy of some of our measures. in
in 18249 he saysy ^ Our experience is too short to judge what
rules are best calculated for this puqpose. It is only within
the last 30 years that we have here begun to acquire any prac-
tical knowledge. A longer period must probably elapse be-
fore we can ascertain what is best. Such a period is as no-
thing in the existence of a people ; but we act as if this were
as limited as the Ufe of an individual." With regard to pre-
cipitation he has this observation : ^^ One great error in this
country, during a long course of years has been too much pre-
cipitatian in attempting to better the condition of the people
with hardly any knowledge of the means by which it was to be
accomplished, and indeed without seeming to think that any
other than good intentions were necessary. It is a dangerous
system of government, in a country of which our knowledge
is very imperfect, to be constantly urged by the desire of
settling everything permanently, to do everything in a hurry ^
and in consequence wron^ : and in our zeal for permanency,
to put the remedy out of our reach. The ruling vice of our
government is innovation, and its innovation has been so little
guided by a knowledge of the people, that although made
after what was thought by us to be mature discussion, must
appear to them as little better than the result of mere caprice.
We have in our anxiety to make. every thing as EngUsh as
possible, in a country which resembles England in nothing,
attempted to create at once, throughout extensive provinces,
a kind of landed property which had never existed in them."
These, indeed, are profound truths.

Language. — ^As may be expected among so great a variety
of people, several languages are in use ; the modem spoken
dialects are thus enumerated — Hindustany, Bengalese, Cash-
merian, Dogura, Ooch, Sindy, Cutch, Gugeratty, Concancese,
Punjaby, Bicanere, Marwar, Jeypoor, Odeypoor, Harowty,
Malwa, Broach, Bundlecundy, Mahratta, Magadha, Koshab,

FILIATION OF EASTERN AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 185

Maithala, Nepaulese, OrissayTelinga^Carnata and Tamul: but
in fact (m the upper provinces of Bengal for instance) the lan-
guages of the body of the population are so little settled that
it would be extremely difficult to translate the Regulations of
Government into any language that would be understbod by
them unless a separate translation were made for every dis-
trict

The celebrated Sanscrit is not enumerated in the fore-
going list^ it having long ceased to be a spoken tongue, from
the extraordinary perfection to which it has been matured.
That it is the parent of so many Eastern tongues or dialects
is not to be wondered at when we find that to all present ap-
pearance it is the parent of all the existing languages in the
worlds it being more readily decompounded — retraced to its
roots, or reduced to simple elements, and from its possessing
the unique feature of an absence of exotic terms. Colonel
Vans Kennedy, of the Bombay army, in his elaborate work
on the Origin and Affinity of the Languages of Asia and
Europe, thus assigns the

FILIATION OF LANOUAOBS.
Babtlonian or Sansobit.

hukgfomge of Ad* Minor.

Latin. Greek. fliracian, extinct,
I I

Ftaiidi. Ita^AD. 8iiiBiah,ae. AnglB-SaxoB. Genua. 8wedl8ii,fte.

Sybia ahd Ababia.
Pftfent atMncI.

Bebnw. Araoic. Syrlac, &c.

DttnWCT LAWOITAOBt WITHOUT AmNITIBS.

Pcnlan in Aria. Cdtic in Europe.

IlTDIA.

North 0/ ike Rher
Parent eattmet,

Manfttia. GwduMte. HindL BontalL Fu^abi.

Souik ^the Bher JTrMbM.
"Pturmki artimeL

! •

III II

Tuntt. MalBTalam. Telinga. Canara. Tolara.

186 PRINCIPAL LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

Tb6 Sanaerit apparently forms the basis of mosl of the dia*-
kcts ncfW spokdn in the northern parts of India, especially of
the BengaU, the Hindoostani, the Mahratti, &c ; but ti is
entirely distinct from the Taanul, or Tamlf which occupies
nearly as conspicuous a rank among the languages of the Dek-
kan as the Sanscrit does among those of the northern prO'
yinces. The Tamul language, spoken by a population of
more than four miUions, is current in the southern portion
of the peninsula of India, throughout the Jaghire, the districts
of South Arcot, Salem, Coimbatoor, Combaconum, Tanjore^
Trichinopoly, Madura, Dindigal, and Tinivelly, as well as in
many parts of the extensire kingdom of Mysore. It is said not
to be derrred from any language at present in existence, being
either itself the parent of the Teloogoo, Malay&lam^ uid
CJanarese languages ; or, more probaUy, having its origin in
eommon with these in some ancient tongue, which is now lost^
or only partially presenred in its ofipring^ In its more pi>
mitive words, such as the names of natural objects, die verbs
expressive of physical action or passion, the numerals, &c
it is quite unconnected with the Sanscrit ; and what is thence
so largely borrowed, when the Tatmils, by intercourse widi
the more enlightened people of the north, began to emerge
from barbarity, has reference to the expression of moral sen*
timents and abstract metaphysical notions, and is chiefly to
be found in the colloquial idiom. In this remarkable circnm-
stance, and also in the construction of its alphabet, the Ta-
mul differs much from other languages of the S. which are
found to admit Sanscrit more largely in literary compositions
than in conversation, and which adopt the arrangement of
the Sanscrit alphabet with little variation.

Bengali is spoken by about 90,000,000 people in lower
Bengal — and the Hindostani by about 20,000,000 in N. and
W. India.

The three principal languages of southern India are the
Teloogoo, the Tamul, and the Carnatica. The first is spoken
in the provinces to the northward of Madras ; the second to
the southward ; the third to the westward, or the table land

APPEARANCE AND STATURE OF THE HINDOOS. 187

above the passes of the mountains $ and also in some districts
below the Ghauts, on the western side of the Peninsula."

Efforts are now in progress in India, and in some instances
adopted by Government, of representing in Roman charae^
ters the principal Asiatic characters — ^such as Bengalleoy
Persian, Nagrie, &c. The different classes of letters (gut-
turals, nasals, &c.)are discriminated by distinctions and marks.
The Snglish language (see Education chapter) is now being
widely extended.

Appearance and stature of the Hindoos.* — The sta^
tnre, complexion, and physiognomy of the Hindoos are so
different that no general picture can represent the Tarioua
dissimilar races which compose the body of the people^
Among the Rajpoots and monntameers of the north are fre^
quently found men of gigantic stature and Herculean propor**
tions, who would be considered remarkable in any country in
Europe for their size and muscular power. Colonel Tod says,
* Gokul Das, the last chief (of Deogfanr) was one of the finest
men he erer beheld in feature and person. He was about six
feet six, perfectly erect, and a Hercules in bulk. His father
at twenty was much larger, and must have been nearly seven
feet high*' In general, the inhabitants of the plains are in*
ferior in height, and of a more slender make ; but both the lat*
ter and the former are in general of an agfle, graceful form,
and capable of enduring considerable fatigue. Few deformed
persons are seen, — ^but, from various causes, .bHndness is not
unconuBon. The complexion of the people, according to cli'*>
mate and circumstances, varies from a daric olive, approach*
ing to black, to a fight, transparent, beautiftil brown, with
an ofive tinge, resembling that of the natives of northern
Italy or Provence; but the mind being so well' disciplined,
the coantenance seldom betrays the fiery passions which
are at work within* The fiice of the Hindoo is oval; fore-
head moderately large and high ; eyes and hair black ; eye^
brows finely turned, and nose and mouth of an European
cast ; the look is cahn, placid, and prepossessing, with no-

* An iatcnsting popular little work, published by Mr. Knight, entitled
the Hindooig has furnished me with a several collected observations.

188 PHYSIOGNOMY OF THE HINDOOS,

thing of the sinister aspect of the Malay, or the impassioned
expression of the Persian or Arab. The women, when not ex-
posed to the air, or stunted by severe labour, are often posses-
sed of extraordinary beauty, the form being delicate and grace-
ful ; limbs finely tapered and rounded ; features mild ; eyes
dark and languishing ; hair fine and long ; and skins remark-
ably polished and soft. The Hindoo women of the Brahmini-
cal caste bear away the palm of loveliness, more particularly
those of the Canara and Malabar coasts. The beauties of
form attributed to their countrywomen in general are found
in a still higher degree of perfection in them. The contour
of the neck and shoulders is exceedingly lovely, the bosom
beautifully formed ; the limbs slender, but exquisitely mould-
ed: the feet and hands delicately small; their air and motions
easy, graceful, and dignified. Nor are the beauties of the
countenance inferior to those of the figure. The face is of
the finest oval, like the Greek ; the nose long and straight;
the lips ruddy, and the upper one beautifully curved; the
mouth rather small; the chin round, and, in most cases,
dimpled amoris digitulo. The eyes, shaded by long dark
lashes, and surmounted by finely. arched slender eyebrows,
are full, black, humid, sparkling with fire, yet neither wanton
nor petulant.* No women can be more attentive, says
Forbes, to cleanliness than the Hindoos, ^ they take every
method to render their persons delicate, soft, and attractive.'
Costume of the Hindoos. — Their dress is peculiarly be-
coming ; in the higher classes it consists of a long piece of silk
or cotton, tied round the waist, afterwards brought over the
body in negligent folds, and hanging in a graceful manner to
the feet ; under this they cover the bosom with a short waist-
coat of silk or satin, but wear no linen. Their long black
hair is adorned with jewels and wreaths of flowers ; their ears
are bored in many places, and loaded with pearls ; a variety
of gold chains, strings of pearl and precious stones fall firom
the neck over the bosom, and the arms are covered with
bracelets firom the wrists to the elbow ; they have ako gold

* Bory de Saint- Vincent, Essai Zoologique sur le Genre Humain, lorn. L
p. 226, 228.

COSTUME OP THE HINDOOS.-^— SOUTHERN INDIA. 189

and silver chains round the ancles, and abundance of rings
on their fingers and toes ; among the former is frequently a
small mirror. Forbes thinks the richer the dress the less be-
coming it appears, a Hindoo woman of distinction always ap-
pearing to be overloaded with finery ; while the village nymphs,
with fewer ornaments, but in the same elegant drapery, are
more captivating ; although there are very few women, even of
the lowest families, who have not some jewels at their marriage.*
The same writer, describing the village of Harasar, cele-
brated for the sanctity of its temple and the beauty of its
women, observes that their jetty locks were adorned with
jewels, while their garment, which consisted of a long single
piece of silk or muslin, put on in graceful folds, fell like
the drapery of a Grecian statue.f Various fashions pre-
vail, however, in different parts of India. In the king-
dom of Attinga, on the Malabar coast, the women go un*
covered from the waist upwards. It is thought indecent to
do otherwise ; and Grose tells a story, which was afterwards
confirmed to Forbes upon the spot, of a Malabar woman,
who, living with an English lady at Anjengo, to please her
mistress, dressed in the European fashion, but appearing af-
terwards in the queen of Attinga's presence with her breasts
covered, the barbarous despot ordered them to be cut off, for
what she was pleased to consider so signal a mark of disre-
spect.:{: It is not the inferior classes merely who dress thus
sparingly; the greatest princesses are clothed in the same
style, and only differ from their slaves by wearing a more
transparent mu^Un and a greater profusion of jewels. Even
where persons are accustomed, as they are in several of the
southern provinces of the Peninsula, to wear clothing on the
upper part of the body, the rules of politeness require, even
in women, that they shall uncover the shoulders and breast
when addressing any person whom they respect, whether

* Orienul Memoirs, vol. i. p. 74. f Ibid. p. 190, 191.

t Grose, Voyage to the East Indies ; Forbes, Oriental Memoirs, vol. i.
p. 391.

190 G08TUMB OF THE HINDOOS. — ^BBAHMIVI WOMEN.

male or female.* It was the breach of this rule of good-
breeding by the Malabar woman that roused the anger of the
female despot of Attinga.

The kind of tissue which, in the south, forms the sole gar-
voent of the Brahmini women, is only used in female dress^
It is usually from eight to ten yards in length, and about a
yard broad, of every variety of quaUty and colour, with a
border of different hue at each extremity. This is wrap-
ped twice or three times round the body, and forms a
kind of petticoat, which in front falls as low as the feet, but
behind does not reach lower than the calf of the leg, and
nometimes not so low. One end of this long web is fastened
at the waist, the other, in many districts, passes over the
head, shoulders, and breasts ; but this is an innovation. The
primitive fashion, throughout the Peninsula, required the wo^
men always to appear naked to the girdle.f

In Malabar the dress of the women is quite similar to that
of the men. Their black, glossy hair, tied in a knot on the
jniddle of the head, is copiously anointed with cocoa-nut oil,
and perfumed with the essence of sandal, mogrees, and cham-
pahs; their ears, loaded with rings and heavy jewels, reach
almost to their shoulders ; this ia esteemed a beauty. lur
atead of a small gold wire in the orifice, as is practised in
odier countries, the incision b filled with a filament from the
coeoa-nut leaf, rolled round ; the circles are increased untS
die orifice sometimes exceeds two inches in diameter, the ear
is then healed, and being stretched to the perfection of beauty,
is filled with rings and massy ornaments. Round the waist
they wear a loose piece of muslin, while the bosom is entirely
exposed ; this is the only drapery of the Malabar women : but
they are adorned with a profusion of gold and silver chuns
for necklaces, mixed with strings of Venetian and other gold
eoins ; they have also heavy bangles, or bracelets ; a silver
box, suspended by a chain on one side, forms a principal or-
nament, and contains the areca or betel-nut, with its appen-

* Dubois, DesoriptioR of the Manners, &c. of the People of India, p. 21 1.
t Ibid. p. 220, 221.

COSTUME OF THE HINDOOS. — NORTHERN INDIA. 191

dages of cliimam^ spice, and betel-leaf. Their skin is softeiir
ed by aromatic oilsi especially among the Nairs and Tetees,
who are peculiarly attentive to cleanliness in their persons.*

The female Portuguese Christians in Calcutta wear a petti-
coat and loose body made of mustin and silk, trimmed with
hee, while their long black hair is turned up A /a Grecque,
and fiistened with gold ornaments. The Malay girls' costume
is somewhat similar^ with scHuetimes the addition of long,
flowing, white veils.

In Northern India, where the power and example of the
Mohammedans have operated so many other changes in the
manners of the Hindoos, evei!L the national costume has un-
dergone various modifications. Here the dress of the women
consists of a close jacket with sleeves, which, in some m-
stances, reach no fSeurther than the elbow, in others, cover even
the tops of the fingers. This jacket, fitting tight to the shape,
and showing to advantage the beauty of the form, with wo-
men of rank is made of rich silk. Instead of drawers, some
ladies,' says Abul Fasel, wear a lengha^ stitched on both sides,
and fastened with a belt, which appears to be a short under^
petticoat ; no chenuse* Over the lengha is worn the common
shalice, or petticoat. Some ladies wear veils and long
drawers/f

The costume of a northern mountaineer, inhabiting those
parts of the Himalaya where the manners of the Hindoos and
Tatars appear to mingle and slide into each other, is of
course different. ^ An Uniya woman,' says Mr. Moorcrof^
' wife of one of the goatherds, very good-naturedly filled th^
water- vessels of those persons who came to the little well, and
did not take up her own part till the different candidates for
wi^er received the quantity which they asked for. She ha4
father a pleasing countenance, was of middle stature, and
about S5 years old« There was much of curiosity in her looks
at seeing us, but nothing of fear or impertinence. Her dress
was woollen, and of the same form with that of the oien. Her

* OiieaUd Memoirs, vol. i. p. 390.
t Ayeen Akberry, vol. ii. p. 621.

192 COSTUME OF THE HINDOOS. — HIMALAYA WOMEN.

boots were likewise woollen, and much diversified by patches
of various hues. Her hair, which was of a deep black, was
plaited in tresses from the forehead down to below the waist,
where the plaits, to the number of fifty, after each being
terminated by a cowrie shell, were assembled in a band of
leather, which was tipped with a tassel of red worsted thread.
Her head-lappet, if I may so name it, was of leather, and ex-
tended from the forehead down the back to the waist, but in
the latter part gradually ended in a point ; at the forehead it
was bordered with silver, and from this rim hung seven rows
of coral beads, each row consisting of five, which were termi-
nated by seven silver timdgkds, that played upon the fore-
head. The crown of the lappet was studded with small
pearls, distributed in seven rows, and the lower part was de-
corated with green stones, something like turquoises, but
marbled with coral beads, and many bands of silver and of a
yellow metal, probably gold, about a finger's breadth. A stifiT
band of leather, something like a soldier's collar, was placed
loosely round her neck, and ornamented with five rows of
coral beads. The collar was secured with a button and clasp
of silver. In her left ear was a coral bead set in silver, and
in her right were two smaller beads in the same material. On
her right thumb she wore a square gold ring, with characters
engraved on the table.'*

In Rajast'han, and throughout the N.W. provinces, the
costume varies in each district and tribe, though the materials
of dress are everywhere the same ; in summer cotton, in win-
ter quilted chintz or broadcloth. The ladies have only three
garments ; ' the ghagra, or petticoat ; the kancAli, or corset ;
and the dapati, or scarf, which is occasionally thrown over
the head as a veil.f Tattooing, which may be regarded as a
kind of substitute for dress, has not yet wholly disappeared
in India. The Hindoo women, in many parts of the country,
paint various figures, chiefly of flowers, on the arms, chin,
and cheeks of their daughters. This is effected, as among

* Asiatic Researchea, vol. xii. p. 422, 423.

t Colonel Tod, Annals of Rajast'han, vol. ii. p. 661.

ORNAMENTS OF THE HINDOO WOMEN. 198

the South Sea islanders, by making with the point of a needle,
slight punctures in the skin, over which the juice of certain
plants is then poured ; and thus the figures become inefface-
able.* Many Brahmini women dye their whole bodies, or, at
least, so much of them as is uncovered, with a saf&on-coloured
infusion, which, instead of increasing their beauty, renders
them frightful, at least, in the eyes of Europeans. The young
and beautiful attempt to increase the dark lustre of their eyes
by the use of surmehy or powder of antimony, that famous
collyrium which played so conspicuous a part in the toUette
of the Grecian ladies. The ladies of Hindostan moreover
paint with black the border of the eye-lids, and prolong the
eye-lashes and eye-brows at the comers, while the hair is
adorned with sweet-scented flowers, and ornaments of gold.

The ornaments of the Hindoo women are rich and nume-
rous. Every toe has its particular ring, so broad above as
frequently to conceal the whole toe. Their bracelets are
sometimes large hollow rings of gold, more than an inch in
diameter, while others wear them flat, and more than two
inches in breadth. Round their necks are suspended several
chains of gold or silver, or strings of gold, pearl, coral, or
glass beads. Many ladies have collars of gold, an inch broad,
set with rubies, topazes, emeralds, carbuncles, or diamonds ;
besides an ornament for the forehead set with jewels ; ear-
rings, of which there are no less than 18 species ; nose
jewels ; necklaces ; strings of flowers or pearls ; belts orna-
mented with little bells and jewels ; and numerous other
ornaments of the same costly kind.f

The«dres8 of the men, in which there are neither buttons,
strings, nor pins, is admirably adapted to the climate, and
produces a very graceful effect. It differs, however, but Ut-
tle, in many parts of the country, from that of the women.
The shoes worn by the rich are embroidered with gold or
silver thread, open at the heels, and curled up at the toes.

* Dubois, Description, &c. p. 221. They likewise, as do also the
Arabs, dye their fingers, the palms of their hands, and the soles of their
feet with henna.

t See Ayeen Akbery, vol ii. p. 521, 522.

VOL. I. O

194 COSTUME OF THE HINDOOS OF NORTHERN INDIA.

Few persons wear stockings.* Turbans are sometimes worn
by the Brahmins, and very commonly by all other persons of
the superior classes. The head and beard are generally
shaved, but mustachios are worn, and a small lock of hair is
usually left upon the crown. Ajdma^ or long gown of white
calico, confined round the waist with a fringed or embroidered
sash, replaces the simple robe of the Eastern Provinces ; and
the princes and nobles adorn their persons with necklaces of
pearl and golden chains, sustaining clusters of costly gems ;
while their turbans are crusted with diamonds, rubies, and
emeralds. Their golden bracelets are likewise set thick with
gems. The shoes ate of red leather, or English broadcloth.
In the ears they wear, like the women, large gold rings,
which pass through two pearls or rubies. Both sexes are
greatly addicted to the use of attar, and other perfiimes.f

In Northern India another variety of costume is found.
Here the garments of the men consist of * trowsers of every
shape and calibre, a tunic girded with a ceinture, and a scarf,
form the wardrobe of every Rajpoot. The turban is the
most important part of the dress, and is the unerring mark of
the tribe ; the form and fashion are various, and its decora-
tions differ, according to time and circumstances. The 6afa-
bundj or silken fiUet, was once valued as the mark of the
sovereign's favour, and was tantamount to the courtly ^ orders'
of Europe. The colour of the turban and tunic varies with
the seasons ; and the changes are rung upon crimson, saffron,
and purple, though white, is by far the most common. Their
shoes are mere slippers, and sandals are worn by the common
classes. Boots are used in hunting and war, made of chamois
leather, of which material the warrior often has a doublet,
being more commodious and less oppressive than armour.
The dagger, or poniard is inseparable from the girdle.]; At
Calcutta, and the other Presidencies^ the inhabitants are ap-

• Ward, View of the History, &c. of the Hindooi, vol. i. p. 186, \S7
t Forbes, Oriental Memoirs, vol. i. p. 70, 71» 83.
X Colonel Tod, vol. ii. p. 662.

HINDOO DWELLINGS. 195

proximating towards the dress of Europeans, with the excep-
tion of the hat.

The paUa, or thread of inTestiture, supposed to belong to
the three superior castes, is somettmes worn indiscrimi-
nately by all : this, therefore, being no distinction, the Brah-
mins resort to other means of making known their rank.
Those of the N. of the peninsula are distinguished by a per-
pendicular line, drawn with the paste of sandal-wood on the
middle of the forehead ; in the farming districts this Hne is
drawn horizontally, and the Vishnuite Brahmins, who are
exceedingly numerous in all the S. of India, imprint on their
forehead three perpendicular lines, joined at the base, and
thus representing the figure of a trident. Of these three
lines the middle one is red or yellow, while those on the side
are white, and being drawn with a kind of clay, called nama,
this has gro?m by degrees to be considered the name of the
figure itself The mark of the Sivaites is the Lingam, which
they either wear stuck in the hair, or suspended to the arm,
in a small golden or silver tube : it is also worn suspended by
a ribbon from the neck, like the bulla of the Roman youth,
which was firequently of the same form ; or else it is enclosed
in a silver box which hangs upon the bosom.*

Dwellings. — ^The houses of the rich, in most parts of
India, are built of brick, and, like a caravanserai, run round
the tour sides of a quadrangle. On the N. (the sacred point
of the Hindoos) stands the family chapel, which contains the
household god. Tbe other three sides are occupied by por-
ticoes and apartments for the family. The windows of these
apartments are mere air-holes, through which the women
may be seen peeping as through the gratings of a jail.
During the great festivals, an awning is extended over the
whole court, (as is the fashion, in Arabia and difierent parts
of Afinea); and here the common people are admitted, while
those of superior rank occupy the verandahs. The dwellings
of the middle classes are constructed in the same style, but
with different materials ; the walls being of mud, the roofs of

• Dubob, Description, &c. p. 9, 48, 51,57. Antiqtutates Middletonianae.

196 HINDOO DWELLINGS IN THE SOUTH OF INDIA.

bamboo and thatch. A low mud-built hut, containing but
one room, is the usual dwelling of the poor in Bengal.*

In the S. of India the poor build their huts of a reddish
ferruginous clay intermixed with small fragments of quartz,
and other materials of decayed granite, forming walls, which,
with ordinary care, will resist the rains for many years. In
many towns and villages the houses have flat roofs terraced
with this mud, which is laid on in the dry season, and turns
the rain very well. The buildings erected with this clay have
a very tolerable appearance, the surface of the walls being
neatly smoothed, and, like the houses of the ancient cities of
Italy and France, painted with alternate vertical stripes of
red and white. These huts are in the form of a parallelo-
gram, without chimneys or windows. The rich, instead of
enlarging the house, merely erect several huts in the same
style.f In many cases the rooms are white-washed within,
and the houses roofed with tiles. They are in general clean,
and, had they any windows, would be comfortable. In Ma-
labar the huts, called ckera, are like bee-hives, and consist
of a circular mud wall about three feet high, which is covered
with a long conical roof of thatch. Contrary to what might
have been expected in a hot climate, but agreeable to the
custom of almost all Hindoos, one small door is the only out-
let for smoke, and the only inlet for air and light. Elach
family has a hut for sleeping, another for cooking, and a
third for a storehouse. Wealthy men add more huts to
their premises ; but seldom attempt at any innovation in the
architecture of the country.;)^

The agrarunuf, or grdmasy villages occupied by the Puttar
Brahmins in Malabar, are remarkable for their taste. ' The
houses are built contiguous, in straight streets ; and they are
among the neatest and cleanest villages to be seen in India.
The beauty, cleanliness, and elegant dress of the girls of the
Brahmins add much to the look of these places. Their

• Ward, View of the History, &c. vol. i. p. 192.
+ Journey throuf^h the Mysore, &c. vol. i. p. 33, 38.
J Ibid. vol. ii. p. 192.

HINDOO DWELLINGS IN MALABAR. 197

greatest defect is, that the houses are thatched with palm*
leaves, which never can be made to lie close, and which ren-
der them very liable to fires. The houses of the Namburis,
Nairs^ and other wealthy persons, are much better than those
usually met with in the villages of India. They are built of
mud, so as generally to occupy two sides of a square area,
that is a little raised, and kept smooth, clean, and free from
grass. The mud is of an excellent quality, and in general is
neatly smoothed, and either whitewashed or painted.

In other parts of Malabar the houses are two stories high,
built -with stone, and thatched with cocoa-nut leaves. Win-
dows also, though very diminutive ones, are more common on
this coast than in any other parts of India.* The kitchen is
always situated in the part of the house least accessible to
strangers, whose very look, according to the prejudices of
the natives, would pollute their earthen vessels, and compel
them to break them. The position of the hearth is generally
on the S.W. side of the dwelling, because, in their opinion,
the dwelling of the god of fire is in that quarter : a peculiar
divinity presides over each of the eight points of the compass.
It not being customary for men, unless they happen to be
near relations, to visit the female part of the family, to avoid
the necessity of introducing strangers into the apartments
where they are usually occupied with household afikirs, ve-
randahs or alcoves are constructed both within and without
the principal gate of entrance ; in these the men assemble, '
and sitting cross-legged on the floor, converse on business,
religion, politics, receive visitors, ** or pass their time in
empty talk."f

Somerset House, the British Museum, the Louvre, and
many other places and houses both in England and France,
represent exactly, in point of form, the common dwellings of
the wealthy Hindoos, whether they be erected of stone or of
mud. Even in Rajpootana the same style prevails. The
mansions of the Rajpoots, Col. Tod observes, are quadran-

* Baclianan, Journey, vol. iii. p. 99.
t Dubois, ubi supra.

198 HINDOO DWELLINGS IN RAJPOOTANA.

gular piles, with an open paved area, the suites of apartments
carried round the sides, with latticed or open corridors ex-
tending parallel to each suite. The residence of the Rana
of Oodipoor might not, perhaps, lose greatly by a comparison
with Windsor Castle ; and is very much superior, both in
taste and magnificence, to the Chateau of the Tmleries.
^ The palace is a most imposing pile, of a regular form, built
of granite and marble, rising at least a hundred feet from the
ground, and flanked with octagonal towers, crowned with
cupolas. Although built at various periods, uniformity of
design has been very well preserved ; nor is there in the £•
a more striking or more majestic spectacle. It stands on the
very crest of a ridge running parallel to, but considerably
elevated above, the margin of the lake* The terrace, which
is at the E. end and chief front of the palace, extends
throughout its length, and is supported by a triple row of
arches from the declivity of the ridge. The height of this
arcaded wall is full 50 feet ; and although all is hollow beneath,
yet so admirably is it constructed, that an entire range of
stables is built on the extreme verge of the terrace, on which
the whole personal force of the Rana, elephants, horse, and
foot, are often assembled. From this terrace the city and the
valley lie before the spectator, whose vision is bounded only
by the hills shutting out the plains, while from the summit
of the palace nothing obstructs its range over lake and
* mountain.*

In several districts of Rajpootana the houses are built with
a red sandstone, and, wood being scarce and dear, hate like*
wise roofs of stone, which are supported by numerous slender
pillars. The fafade, in many instances, is coated with marble
chunam ; and the whole surrounded by a flower-garden, in-
tersected by neat stone channels, through which the water is
conducted, for irrigation, from a tank. Bishop Heber, de-
scribing one of these gardens, observes ; ' some of the trees
were of great size and beauty, and the whole place, though
evidently uninhabited, was kept in substantial fepair, and not

* Annals of Rajast'ban, vol. i. p. 474, 475.

HINDOO DWELLINGS IN WESTERN INDIA. 199

the less beautiful in my eyes because the orange-trees had
somewhat broken their bounds ; the shade of the flowering
plants assumed a ranker luxuriance^ and the scarlet blossoms
of the pomegranate trailed more widely across our path than
was consistent with the rules of exact gardening. At the
further end of the garden we found ourselves on the edge of
a broad moat, with some little water still in it, surrounding
an old stone-built castle with round towers and high ramparts
of stone*'*

Rajpoot villages are frequently situated on the slopes of
hills, or rocky eminences, and surrounded by groves, or nu-
merous scattered trees. Here, through the soft fleecy mists
of the morning, large herds of deer may often be seen grazing;
while the branches of the fruit-tree groves swarm with wild
peacocks. In Marwar the construction of the villages differs
entirely from anything elsewhere seen in India, and ap-
proaches, in physiognomy, the wigwams of the Western
World. Each commune is surrounded by a circumvallation
of thorns, which, with the stacks of chaff rising above it at
intervals, has the appearance of a respectable fortification.
These stacks of chaff, intended to supply the cattle with pro-
vender in acuity rainy seasons, are erected to the height of
SO or 30 feet, and are coated with a cement of earth and cow-
dung, with a sprinkling of thorns, which are added to keep
away the birds from roosting in them. If fresh coated occa-
sionally, they will endure 10 years, and when necessity
requires them to be eaten the ^^ kine may be said to devour
the village walls." These villages picturesquely scattered
through the plain, break very agreeably the monotony inci-
dental to a level surfiice. Near the banks of rivers the
bouses are sometimes thatched with bulrushes, which grow
to the height of 10 feeff

In the country above the Ghauts, the villages are fortified
in a different style. Every collection of houses, however

* Narrative of a Jonrney, &c. voL ii. p. 372.

t Colooel Tod» Annals of R^jaet'han^ vol. i. p. 700, 773 ; Bisliap Hebefs
Narrative, vol. iL p. 351, 367^ 368, 372, 374.

200 ' HINDOO DWELLINGS IN GUZERAT.

small^ is defended by a round wall, or rather tower, of stone,
sometimes 40 feet in diameter, and six feet high. This is
surmounted by a parapet of mud, in which there is a door
that can be approached only by a ladder. Into this tower
the inhabitants were wont on the appearance of a plundering
party to retire with their families and most yaluable eflfects :
and having drawn up the ladder^ defended themselTes by huri^
ing down stones on the assailants, in which they were Tigoiv
ously aided by their women. More populous villages have
square forts, flanked by round towers, which may, in some
cases, deserve the name of a citadeL A circumvallation of
mud is likewise thrown up around the villages. In many places
the villages are defended, as in Ajmeare, by hedges, which
rise very high and thick, so as almost entirdy to conceal the
mud wall. These hedges greatly contribute to enliven the
prospect, which is further adorned by the mangoes and other
fruit-trees that usually grow around a villi^e.

In Guaerat the villages are open, and the inhabitants more
at their ease. ' The villages in the Dhuboy Perguimah,'
says Forbes, ' generally consist of thatched cottages, built of
mud, and a few brick houses with tiled roofs ; a small dewal,
a mosque, and sometimes a choultrie, ctre the only public
buildings. Near the large villages there is generally a tank
or lake, where the rain is collected, for the use of the catde
in the dry season, when, for the space of eight months, not
a single shower falls, and no water is to be met with except
in these reservoirs: they are often enclosed with strong
masonry, and their banks adorned by banian, mango, and
tamarind trees, to shade the weary traveller, and lessen eva*
poration. The tanks are constructed at the expense of Qi^'
vemment, or by an assessment on the villages; they also
contribute to the masonry of a good well and dstem fov
cattle, when the large reservoirs fail. Sometimes these useful
works are private acts of charity, from a rich individual, as
instanced in the noble works of Govindsett, in the Concan.
Large wells with a grand flight of steps down to the water
are not uncommon in remote situations, where travellers,

HINDOO DWBLUNGS ON THB GANGES. ^1

merchants, and caravans are obliged to pass, far from other
supplies/ After expatiating on the value of these blessings
in the torrid zone, he continues, ^ HospitaUty to travellers
prevails throughout Gnaerat ; a person of any consideration
passing through the province is presented, at the entrance of
a village, with fruit, milk, butter, firewood, and earthen pots
fer cookery : the women and children offer him wreaths of
flowers. Small bowers are constructed on convenient spots,
at a distance from a well or lake, where a person is main-
tained, by the nearest villages, to take care of the water-jars,
and supply all travelers gratis. There are particular viDages
where the inhabitants compel all travellers to accept of one
day's provisions ; whether they be many or few, rich or
poor, European or native, they must not refuse the offered
bounty/*

The villages on the banks of the Ganges, though merely a
collection of mud«walled, thatched cottages, covered, how-
ever, in many instances, with a creeping plant bearing a
beautiful broad leaf, of the gourd species, being embosomed
in groves of cocoa-palms, banyan, and other trees, have a
highly picturesque and rural appearance. A little graceful
temple, generally of Siva, in a style almost Gothic, con-
riderably increases the beauty of the scene. In one of these
viUages Bishop Heber, on his first sailing up the Ganges,
describes the appearance of an Indian farm-yard and home-
stead : * In front,' he says, ' was a small mud building, with
a thatched verandah looking towards the village, and behind
was a court filled with cocoa-nut husks, and a little rice
straw ; in the centre of this was a round thatched building,
raieed on bamboos about a foot from the ground, which they
said was a goliah, or granary ; round it were small mud cot-
tages, each to all appearance an apartment in the dwelling*
In one comer was a little mill, something like a crab-mill, to
be worked by a man, for separating the rice from the husk.
By all which we could see through the open doors, the floor

* Forbes, Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 413, 415.

202 FURNITURE OF HINDOO DWRLUNGS.

of the apartments was of clay, devoid of furniture and iighti
except what the door admitted.'*

The furniture of the Hindoo is exceedingly simple : their
ordinary plates and dishes are formed from the leaf of the
plantain-tree, or of the nymphsea lotus, that beautiful lily
which abounds in every lake. These are neatly sown toge*
ther with some grassy fibre ; but, however neatly fashioned^
are never used a second time. Even in the houses of the
Nairs, which are neater and better kept than ordinary, you
find little beyond a few mats, earthen pots» grindstones, and
utensils for cleaning the rice, with a swing for the amusement
of the family. A few earthen pots, and two jars, the one for
the water, the other for oil, comprise the whole stock for a
villager. The cooking utensils are sometimes of brass, or
copper, as are likewise their drinking vessek, which are made
with a spout, that they may pour out the water in a small
stream, as in drinking it is thought indelicate to touch the
vessel with their lips. In the superb dwellings of the Raj-
poot nobles, where the painted and gilded ceiling is sup-
ported by columns of serpentine, and the walls are lined with
mirrors, marble, or china, no costly furniture, no hangings,
no chairs, tables, beds, couches, or candelabra, are to be
seen. The floors are covered with soft rich carpets, over
which, to preserve their glowing freshness, a white cloth is
spread ; and here the Rajpoot sits and sleeps. However,
we find that on the coast of Malabar a different fashion some-
times prevuls. The hall in the Zamorin*s palace, into which
Vasco de Gama and his companions were conducted on their
first arrival, was set round with seats, rising one above an-
other, hke those of an amphitheatre ; the floor was covered
with a rich carpet ; the walls were hung with silk tapestry
interwoven with gold ; and there were sofas for the prince
and his guests. Neat little bedsteads of cane, manufactured
by the hill tribes, are in use in many parts of India ; as are
likewise chairs and tables. In the wealthier habitations silver

* NarratiYe, &c. vol. i. p. 18.

BIBT OF THE HlNDOOf). 203

utensils assume the place of earthen^ and now that riches can
be exhibited without fear of confiscation there is eridently,
m the large cities, an adoption of many articles of European
household furniture.

Diet of the Hindoos.— The Hindoos in general, whether
of high or low caste, do not, as has been erroneously sup-
posed, subsist upon rice, or abstain from animal food. Even
among the Brahmins no such pious abstinence from every
thing which has had the principle of life exists, or ever did
exist Persons of this sacred caste eat aninlal food, like their
neighbours ; and if certain individuals, or certain sects among
them, abstain, it is simply as a matter of taste, and not from
any religious motive ; for both by their laws and their scrip-
tures the flesh of animals is expressly permitted to be eaten.*
There are Hindoos however, both Brahmins and others, who
restrict themselves to a vegetable diet.

The sect of Vishnu composes, in Hindostan, a very nu-
merous body, and contains individuals of every caste, from the
highest to the lowest. These sectarians, according to the
Abbe Dubois, belong to the carnivorous part of mankind, of
whom they by no means constitute the most abstemioua
members. They eat publicly all sorts of meat, excepting that
of the cow, and drink toddy, arrack, and all other liquors
that the country supplies, without shame or reatraintf

The Brahmins, in general, according to Dubois, add to
their other numerous vices that of gluttony. When an oppor-
tunity occurs of satiating their appetite, they exceed all
bounds of temperance ; and such occasions, it is added>
* are frequent.:^

Intoxication is still more common among the Brahmins than
the use of interdicted food. A large quantity of wine and
brandy imported into Calcutta is drank by the Brahmins and
other classes of Hindoos ; to say nothing of the Mussulmans*

The Kshatriyas, or Rajpoots, are eminently carnivorous.
When not engaged in war, they usually, at the proper season

* See Institutes of Menu, chap* v. ver. 36» 66, &c.
t Description, &c. p. 53. X ^^i^* P* ^^i*

204 VARIED DIET OF THE HINDOOS — OPIUM.

of the year, devote a large portion of their time to the plea*
sures of the chace. Among the larger game, the most
common is the wild hoar. Of the flesh of this animal they
appear to he particularly fond ; and they pursue it with their
utmost ardour. But the covers afforded by the nature of their
country, especially the fields of maize, which there grows to
the height of 10 or 12 feet, not unfrequently affords the boar
a chance of escape. In the barren plains of Marwar, maize
porridge is the common fare ; but in Mewar, the paradise of
the Rajpoot, the luxury of wheaten bread is well understood.
Maize and Indian com, gathered in an unripe state, are tied
into bundles, roasted in the ear, and eaten with a little salt
For the introduction of melons and grapes, which at present
form the principal dessert of the Hindoos, India is indebted
to the Emperor Baber, the most ingenuous and chivalrous of
Eastern conquerors. Tobacco was introduced by his grand-
son Jehangtr. When or by whom the use of opium was made
known to the Rajpoots is not known ; but * this pernicious
plant,* says an acute observer, * has robbed the Rajpoot of
half his virtues.' Under the influence of opium his natural
bravery often degenerates into ferocity, while his countenance
when he is not thus excited, has an air of drowsy imbecility.
From the earliest ages the soldiers of Hindoostan, like
those of most other countries, have been addicted to intoxicat-
ing drinks ; but these, though still in favour, are secondary
in importance to the opiate. ' To eat opium together is the
most inviolable pledge, and an agreement ratified by this cere-
mony is stronger than any adjuration. If a Rajpoot pays a
visit, the first question is, umul kya t ' have you had your
opiate V^vmtd kao, * take your opiate.' On a birth-day, when
all the chiefs convene to congratulate their brother on ano-
ther knot to his years, the large cup is brought forth, a lump
of opium put therein, upon which water is poured, and by the
aid of a stick a solution is made, to which each helps his
neighbour, not with a glass, but with the hollow of his hand
held to his mouth. To judge from the wry faces on the oc-
casion, none can like it, and to get rid of the nauseous taste,

CARNiyOROUSNESS OF THE HINDOOS — THE RAJPOOTS. 206

comfit balls are handed round. It is curious to observe the
animation it.inspires ; a Rajpoot is fit for nothing without his
umuly and Col. Tod often dismissed their men of business
to refresh their intellects by a dose^ for when its effects are
dissipating they become mere logs. Opium to the Rajpoot is
more necessary than food.*

Scarcely any kind of animal food is rejected by the Rajpoot,
excepting such as by all civilized nations has been accounted
unclean. His game condsts of the hare, the deer, the boar, the
elk, the buffalo ; and of the wild-dog, the hyaena, the wolf,
and the tiger; of which, the latter class are destroyed as
noxious. The rotaries of Caniifa, who have taken refuge in
bis sanctuary at N4t'hdwara, confine themselves, in penance,
to a vegetable diet, which consists of dried fruits, spices,
and curd, which, however, in these degenerate days, are sea-
soned with rose-water, amber, and all the aromatics of the
East. When entertaining Europeans, the Rajpoots, fearfrd
that their dishes may not be suited to the palates of their
guests, sometimes request them to bring along with them their
cuisine* An example of this occurred to Colonel Tod at Jud-
poor. Having been invited to dinner by the Rajah, the prince
added to the invitation the above curious request, as he feared
that the fare of the dessert might ptove unpalatable. ' But
this,' says the traveller, * I had often seen done in Sindia*s
camp, where joints of mutton, fowls, and fricassees, would
diversify the provender of the Mahratta. I intimated that
we had no apprehension that we should not do justice to the
gastronomy of Judpoor; however we sent our tables, and
some claret to drink long life to the King of Maroodes. Hav-
ing paid our respects to our host, he dismissed us, with the
complimentary wish that appetite might wait upon us, and
preceded by a host of gold and silver sticks, we were ushered
mto a hall, where we found the table literally covered with
curries, pillaws, and ragouts of every kind, in which was not
forgotten, the hart moong Mundore ra, ^ the green pulse of
Mundore^^* the favourite dish next to rabri, or maize porridge,

* Annals of Rajast'han, vol. i. p. 644, 645.

206 DIET OF THE HINDOOS AND MUSSULMANS.

of the simple Rahtore. Here, however, we saw displayed the
dishes of hoth the Ifindoo and Mussulman, and nearly all
were served in silver. The curries were excellent, especially
those of the vegetable tribes made of the pulses, the kakris
or cucumbers, and of a miniature melon, not larger than an
egg, which grows spontaneously in these regions, and is trans-
ported by kasids or runners, as presents, for many hundred
miles round.'*

Fruit, as might be expected from its plenty and cheapness,
enters largely into the food of the Hindoos.f Their groves and
gardens supply an abundance of guavas, plantains, bananas,
custard-apples, tamarinds, oranges, limes, citrons, grapes,
pine-apples, and pomegranates. But of all the fruits of India
the best as well as the most plentiful is the mango, which is
found in all parts of the country, even in the forests. The
superior kinds of mango are extremely delicious, being not
unlike the large yellow Venice peach, heightened by the fla-
vour of the orange and anana.-)* In the mango season, it is the
principal diet of the poor, and supposed to be very nutricious.
The Chili pepper,]: and the cardamom, a pleasant spice from
the Malabar coast, form a principal ingredient in curries.

The Hindoos are particularly fond of wild honey, which is
found in the clefts of the rocks, in caverns, and on the sum-
mits of scarped rugged mountains. Offish likewise, whether
fresh or salted, they constantly make use. Whole tribes of
men subsist by catching them,. and they are conveyed in vast
quantities into the interior. Many natives of the Concan are
addicted to the chace, and eat the flesh of deer, hares, quails,
partridges, and pigeons. The Chensu, a tribe inhabiting the
hilly country above Malabar, destroy and kill all kinds of
game. The Telinga Bafdjigaru, who are worshippers of
Vishnu, and are all either merchants, farmers, or porters, eat
sheep, goats, hogs, fowls, and fish, and, though prohibited

* Annals of Rajast'han, vol. i. p. 732.

t To me the flavour smacks strongly of turpentine^ and the liking for
the Mango appears quite an acquired taste. The finest I e?er met was at
Zanzibar.— [R. M. M.] J Forbes, Oriental Memoirs.

ANIMAL DIET AND DRINK OF THE HINDOOS. 307

the use of spirituous liquors, may intoxicate themselves with
bang (wild hemp). The Madigas, who dress hides, make
shoes, or cultivate the ground, eat not only all kinds of animal
food, but even carrion : and openly drink spirituous liquors.
The Ruddif a very respectable caste of Sudras, chiefly em-
ployed in agriculture, eat hogs, sheep, goats, venison, and
fowls, and are permitted the use of bang.

The Palliwanluy a tribe of Tamul extraction, who are either
farmers or gardeners, both eat animal food and drink spiritu-
ous liquors. Mutton and fish may lawfully be eaten by the
MuchacerUy or shoemakers, who, contrary to the practice of
persons of this caste in Europe, are expected to abstain
from spirituous liquors. To make up in some measure for
this extraordinary prohibition, they are permitted to marry
as many wives as they please.

The WuUy Ttgulas, another Tamul tribe ; the TeUga De-
vangeSj of the sect of Siva ; the Baydaru^ who are soldiers
and hunters, likewise of the sect of Siva ; the Curubas, sol-
diers and cultivators ; and the Canara Devangas, all eat ani-
mal food, and, in many instances, drink spirituous liquors.
The tastes of the Niadis, an outcast tribe of Malabar, are
extremely peculiar. They refiise to perform any kind of la-
bour, and consequently are plunged in the deepest po-
verty. Unable to catch fish or kill game, they subsist upon
wild roots, and whatever they can get by begging ; but are
occasionally fortunate enough to kill a tortoise, or hook a cro-
codile, the flesh of which, like the Nubians, they reckon deli-
cious food. The Bacadaru, a tribe of Carnata origin, now
sunk into slavery, not only eat animal food, but, to borrow
the expressive language of Buchanan, ^ may lawfully intoxi-
cate themselves ;* an advantage as above observed denied to
the cobblers.

According to Buchanan, the other castes of southern India,
who are commonly known to make use of animal food, are —
the GocdaSf or shepherds ; the Bestas, farmers and lime-
burners ; the Mysore farmers ; the Curubaru, who eat every
thing but beef, even carrion ; the Naimars or Nairs, who, al-

208 MANY NATIVES OF HINDOSTAN EAT BEEF.

though properly Visbnuites, wear the mark of Siva. The
Magayer^ or fishermen ; the Biluarcu, who extract the juice
from the pafan tree ; the Corar, (this caste may lawfully eat
tigers, but reject dogs and snakes) ; the Handi Curubaa. '

The Pariahs y who are supposed to amount to several
million of souls, do not abstain even from beef. They pos-
sibly form a portion of the aboriginal population, who, refus-
ing, on the rise of Brahminism, to adopt the prejudices of the
new sect, were anathematized and excommunicated by those
revengeful priests. Many of the Bengal Brahmins eat fish,
and several sorts of animal food ; they are not only allowed
them, but at some particular ceremonies they are enjoined to
do so.* But the Mahrattas, though all Hindoos, and the
lower classes especially, eat of almost every thing that comes
in their way ; as mutton, goat, wild hog, game, and fish. Ma-
jor Moor, mentions two places by name where the Mahrattas
eat beefy and permit cattle to be killed, and publicly exposed
to sale.-)- He then adds : — The lower tribes of Hindoos are
not so scrupulous as the higher about what they eat, or what
they touch ; especially if they are not observed by others.
When at a distance from their families, and out of sight <^
their priests, many divest themselves of these nice ideas of
purity. Those domesticated with Europeans generally affect

* I have eaten a very fine beef steak in a firahmin's house at Calcntta.
— fR.M.M.]

t Forbes tells a story illustrative of the scruples of the lower Hindoos,
which is too good to be Emitted. ' I knew a gentleman,' he says, ' who
having formed a party for a little excursion into the country, provided a
round of beef, as a principal dish in the cold collation. As be was going
on horseback, he desired the beef might be covered with a cloth, and put
into his palanquin to keep it cool ; the bearers refused to carry a vehicle
which contained such a pollution. The gentleman, on finding that neither
remonstrances, entreaties, or threats, were of any avail, cut off a slice of
the meat^ and eating it in their presence desired them to carry him to the
place of rendezvous. This produced the desired effect ; the bearers were
the first to laugh at their folly, and exclaimed, ' Master come wise man,
with two eyes ; while poor black man come very foolish with only one ;'
and taking up the palanquin with the beef, set off towards the tents In
great good humour.' Vol. i. p. 2 ; ii. 139.

DIBT OF THE HINDOOS. 209

to be very scrupulous ; an English table covered with a va-
riety of food is necessarily surrounded by a number of ser-
vants of different castes to attend the guests. At Baroche,
Surat, and Bombay, a Hindoo will not remove a dish that has
been defiled with beef, a Mohammedan cannot touch a plate
polluted by pork, nor will a Parsee take one away on which
is hare or rabbit. I never knew more than one Parsee ser-
vant who would snuff a candle, from a fear of extinguishing
th^ B3mibol of the deity he worships, nor would this man ever
do it in the presence of another Parsee."*

Bishop Heber observes, ' I had always heard, and fuUy be-
lieved, till I came to India, that it was a grievous crime, in the
opinion of the Brahmins, to eat the flesh or shed the blood of
any living creature whateyer.'f But the Bishop had not sailed
up the Ganges to Calcutta before he found himself compelled
to abandon this belief. Among the merchant ships andMaldive
boats, which crowded the Hooghly, and seemed to reproduce
the naval activity of the Thames, he saw the little barks of
numerous fishermen, who were employed in catering for the
appetites of their wealthy countrymen, Brahmins as well as
others. Fish, our traveller now found, * is considered as one
of the purest and most lawful kinds of food. Nothing, indeed,
seems more generally mistaken than the supposed prohibition
of animal food to the Hindoos. Thus many Brahmins eat
both fish and kid. The Rajpoots, besides these, eat mutton,
venison, or goat s flesh. Some castes may eat any thing but
fowls, beef or pork ; while pork is with others a favourite diet,
and beef only is prohibited.* He then adds, that though in-
toxicating liquors are by their religion forbidden to the Hin-
doos, the ^prohibition is very generally disregarded by persons
of aD ranks.]:

Respecting the Pythagorsean habits of the Brahmins and
Hindoos, Heber wrote — * You may be, perhaps, as much sur-
prised as I was to find that those who can afford it are hardly

* Orientd Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 138.

t Narrative of a Journey, &c. voL iii. p. d47» Bvo. edit.

\ Narrative of a Journey &c. vol. i. p. 9.

VOL. I. P

filO DIET OF THE HINDOOS — SHBBP EATERS.

less carnivorous than ourselves ; that even the purest Bmh^
mins are allowed to eat mutton and venison.' And again, in
another letter to a friend, he adds, ^ I have now myself se^i
Brahmins of the highest caste cut off the beads of goats as a
sacrifice to Dorga (Bhavani) ; and I know from the testUBony
of Brahmins, as well as from other sources, that not only he*
catomhs of animals are offered in this manner as a meritor^
ious act (a Rajah about 25 years back offered 60,000 in one
fortnight,) but that any person. Brahmins not excepted, eata
readily of the flesh of whatever has been offered up to one of
their divinities, while among ahnost all the other castes, mut-
ton, pork, venison, fish, any thing but beef and fowls, are con-
sumed as readily as in Europe.'*

Herodotus mentions a rumour that there were cannibab in
India, who were said to eat even the bodies of their parents.
We find the charge of cannibalism renewed by a modem au-
thor of considerable reputation. ^Not only,' says Miyor
Moor^ ^ do the Hindoos, even the Brahmins, eat flesh, but
they eat (one sect at least) human flesh* They do noli I con"
elude, kill human subjects to eat, but they eat such as they
find in or about the Ganges, and perhaps other rivers. Tb&
name of the sect is Pctramahansa ; and I have received au-
thentic information of individuals of this sect being not very
unusually seen about Benares, floating down the river oa, and
feeding an a corpse. Nor is this a low despicable tribe ; but
on the contrary, esteemed by themselves at least, as a very
high one ; and my information stated that the human brain ift
judged by these epicurean canmbals as the most delieioua
morsel of their unsocial banquet.'

In some of the districts of Bahar, there is a tribe of peofde
called Sheep-eaters, who seize the animal alive, tear open ita
diroat with their teeth, suck the living bloody and actually de-
vour the flesh a^d entrails, until nothing r^Dains but the ske^
leton. Lady Anstruther, who mode a valuable, collection of
drawings during her residence in India, has a set of paintings
in water colours, done by a native, which contains the whole

• Narrative &c. ?oL iii. p. 251, 277, 347*

DIET or THE HINDOOS — VBOETAKLE FOOD. 911

Jnrocess of these extraordinary gluttons, from the first seizure
of the unfortunate aidmal, until it is oompletelj devoured. A
lithographic sketch, made after a similar set of paintings*
of a sheep-eater in the various stages of his disgusting meal,
is pubhahed in tiie dnrd vohiine of the Transactions of the
Royal Asiatic Society, accompanied with a brief memoir by
General Hardwieke.

Among all these cannibals and carnivorous people, how<r
ever, there are undoubtedly many Bralnuim and othei^ who
r%idly abstain fipom all kinds of animal food. Nevertheless
Aeir aliments are sufficiently varied. The feast of one of
these vegetable Brahmins generally consist of seasoned bread>
riee, curry, vegetables, pickles, and a dessert* Their ord»-
Asry bread is prepared from flour of wheat, juari, or bajera.
To this they are fond of adding a thin cake or wafer, ' made
from the flour of aordy highly seasoned with assafoetida; a
salt called popper-khar ; and a very hot massaula, composed
of turmeric. Mack pepper, ginger, garlic, several kinds of
wann seeds, and a quantity of the hottest Chili peppw,* AH
these ingredients are kneaded together with the oord flour
and water, into a tenaciouB paste, which is then rolled into
eakes tbin as a wafer, which, having been first dried a little
in the sun, are then baked, like the oaten cakes of tiie Scotch,
until diey are quite crisp. The Brahmini curry is generally
nothing more than warm buttermilk, thickened with grain-
flour, and slightly seasoned with spices. Another of their
finrourite dishes is composed of a sort of split pea, boiled with
salt and tnrineric, and eaten with ghee^ or clarified butter.
When the dinner is prepared the Brahmin first washes- his
body in warm water, during whidi operation he wears his
dMae, or that doth which, fastened round his loins, hangs
down to his ancles: when washed, he hangs up the dotee to
dry, «nd Uiids in its place a piece of silk, it not being allow-
able for a Brahmin to wear any thing else when eatings If a
person of another caste, or even a Brahmin who is not wash-
ed, tonehes his dotee while drying, he cannot wear it without
wadiing it i^in. After going through several forms of prayer

212 DIST OF THE HINDOOS — ^SEASONINO.

and other oeremonies, he sits down to his food, which is spread
on fresh gathered leaves, fastened together to the size wanted
for the company. The dishes and plates are invariably com-
posed of leaves ; a Brahmin may not eat out of any thing else*
Tin vessels, or copper tinned, may be used for cooking ; but
a Brahmin cannot eat out of them. The food, after being
prepared in the kitchen, is placed in distinct portions, on
dishes of different size, form, and depth, on the large verdant
covering in a regular manner. In the centre of the cover is
always a large pile of plain boiled rice, and at a feast there
are generally two other heaps of white and yeflow rice, sea*
soned with spices and salt ; and two of sweet rice, to be eaten
with ehatna^ pickles, and stewed vegetables : the latter are
chiefly brenjals, bendre turoy, and different kinds of beans,
all saVourily dressed and heated with chilies of every descrip-
tion. The ehaina is usually made from a vegetable called
eotemear^ to the eye very much resembling parsley, but to
those unused to it, of a very disagreeable taste and smell:
this is so strongly heated with chilies, as to render the other
ingredients less distinguishable. The chatna is sometimes
made with cocoa-nut, lime-juice, gartic, and chiHes, and, with
the pickles, is placed in deep leaves round the large cover, to
the number of SO or 40, the Hindoos being very fond of this
stimulus to their rice. These pickles are not prepared with
vinegar, but preserved in oil and salt, seasoned with chilie
and the acid of tamarinds, which in a salted state is nwck
used in Hindoostan. Brahmins and many other Hindoos re-
ject the onion from their bill of fare. Ghee, which, in deep
boats formed of leaves, seems to constitute the essence of the
dinner, is plentifully dispensed. The dessert consists of man*
goes, preserved with sugar, ginger, limes, and other sweet-
meats ; syrup of different fruits, and sometimes a little ripe
fruit ; but the dessert is not common. Such is the entertain-
ment of a rich Brahmin who eats no animal food.

The poor, whose means will not allow them to think of ani-
mal food, consume rice, dhall, and other cheap grains, sea-
soned with salt, spices, and, if possible, a little dried or fr«sh

LITERATURE. — RELIGIOUS WORKS. S13

fith. The Hindoo uses the right hand only. in eating. The
use of kniyesy forks, spoons, &c. he abjures as an abomina-
tion ; he drinks out of a brass cup, or from the hollow of his
hand ; but is always careful that the vessel, when any is used,
does not touch his lips.

Literature. — ^The antiquity of the Hindoos is demon-
.trated by the ancientness, and in many instances the purity
of their literary compositions.

Religtmu works. — ^The Vedas (signifying knowledge) are,
in every respect, the most important work of their ancient
literature. They are the basis of their religion, and are ap-
pealed to as the foundation of all their social and political
institutions. Only a small portion of them has hitherto been
drawn to light, and, up to the present moment, the principal
source of our information respecting them is a dissertation by
Mr. Colebrooke, printed in the eighth volume of the 'Asiatic
Researches.'

The Vedas are four in number.; each Veda consisting of
two parts, denominated the Mantras^ or prayers, and the
Brdhmanas, or precepts. The complete collection of the
MatUras (or hymns, prayers, and invocations) belonging to
one Veda is entitled its Sanhiid. Every other portion of
Indian scripture is included under the general head of divinity
{BrdkmoHa). This comprises precepts which inculcate reli-*
gious duties, m^'giwifl which explain those precepts, and argu-
ments which relate to theology.'*

The whole of the Indian theology is professedly founded
on tracts, likewise considered as parts of the Vedas, and
denominated Upanishads. The proper meaning of this de-
signation is doubtful : it is usually supposed to signify ' mys-
tery ;' but neither the etymology nor the usual acceptation of
the word seems to warrant this interpretation.f

• A«. Res. vol. viii. p. 387, 388. Compare Transact, of the Roy. As.
Soc. vol. i. p. 448, 449.

t As. Res. ?ol viii. p. 472. The Upanishads were translated into Per-
naa by Svhan fHri-Shekftb, the eldest son of the Mogol emperor, Sh&h<
Jeli4n, and brother of Aurungzebe; who was bom a.d. 1615, and was

214 UTS&ATUa£.r— RELIGIOUS WORKS.

The Mimirw, qt prayers, are the {Hriocipal portion of eadb
Veda, and apparently preceded the BrdhmanoM. Those of
the Rig-Veda are metrical, and are recited ^Joud ; those of
the Sama^Veda are ehaunted with musical moduliitioa ; those
of the Yajur-Veda are in prose, and are inaudiUy i^eoited.
A table of contents, appended to the several Sanhitda^ states
the nfime of Uue author of each prayer> that of tba deity or
heing invoked, and if the prayer be in verse, the number of
stanaaa and the metre. Indra, of the firmament, fire, the
sun, the moon, water, air, the sjiirits, the atmos{^re> and
the earth are the objects most firequently addressed.*

The followbg is Mr. Golebrooke'js literal translation of a
single prayer from the Big^Veda : —

' Ouurdian of this abode ! be acquainted with us ; be to us
a wholesome dwelling; afford us what we ask of Aee: and
grant happiness to our bipeds and quadrupeds. Gnardiiin
of this house! increase both us and our wealth. Moon!
while thou art friendly, may we, with our fcine and our horses,
be exempted trojn decrepitude : guard us as a father protects
his offspring. Guardian of this dwelling ! may we be united
with a happy, delightful, and melodious abode affbrd^ed by
thee t guard c»ir wealth now under thy protection^ or yet in
expeotanoy, and do thou defend us.'

killed by Aurao^ebe's order in 1669. This Persia tmulsdoo irss agmiB
translated into Latin by Anqaetii du Perron. (Oupnekhai, id ut, SeorHum
tfgemi^m* ftc* Psr}i, 180}, 2 vols. 4to.) A fre^ traqslstion from the Saii-
crit origtsal of four of the shorter Upanishads may be found in Rammohun
Roy's * Translation of several principal Books^ &c. of the Veds.' London,
1832, 8vo.

* ' Every line/ observes Mr. Colebrooke, in speaking of the prayers of
the Rig-Veda, * is replete with allusions to mythology ; not a myt^ol^^gj
which avowedly exalts deified heroes (as in the wore recent legendary
poems of the Hindoos), but one which personiBes the elements and planets,
and which peoples heaven and the world below with rarioua oidera of
beings.' Mr. Colebrooke proceeds to say^ that he has not remarked ia
these hymns any thing that corresponds with the favourite legends of th/oee
sects which worship either the Linga or SacU, or else Rftma or Kriahaa.
See As. Res. vol. viii. p. 398.

LITERATURE OP THE HINDOOS — LEGENDS* S15

The diflferenoe of style al<me would be suffident to prove
Aat in the Vedas, as they are now before us, books, treatises,
and fragments belonging to difierent ages are put together.
At what period tibe present arrangement was made, we are
as yet unable to determine, since our total want of authentic
information, respecting the history of India, renders it alto-
gether extremely difficult to ascertain the epoch of any of
the anrient monuments of Sanscrit literature. From a pas-
sage stating the position of the solstitial points, which occurs
in a sort of calendar appended to the Rig-Veda, Mr. Cole-»
brooke has drawn the conclusion that this calendar must have
been regulated during the fourteenth century ;* and part at
least of the hymns in honour of the several deities, whose
festivals this calendar was destined to regulate, now embodied
in the Rig-Veda, must then have been already extant.

Legends, — ^The class of Sanscrit writings, next in import-
ance to the Vedas, are the Purdnas^ or legendary poems,
swiyar, in some respects, to the Grecian theogonies. The
Purdnas are said to be composed by Vy&sa, the compiler of
the present collection of the Vedas. Each Purana treats of
five subjects ; — the creation of the universe, its destruction,
and the renovation of worlds ; the avaidraSf or manifestations
of the supreme deity ; the genealogy of gods and heroes ;
chronology, according to a fabulous system ; and heroic his-
tory, containing the achievements of demi-gods and heroes.
Some of the Puranas, being less obscure than the Vedas, are
now very generally read and studied, and constitute the
popular, or poetical creed of the present Hindoos. The
pruicipal Pur&nas are 18 in number; their names are the
Brahma, Padma, Brahm&nda, Agni, Vishnu, Garuda, Brah-
mavaivarta, Siva, Linga, Naradtya, Skanda, Markandeya,
Bhavinbyat, Matsya, Varaha, Kurma, V&mana, and Bhaga-
vata Purina. They are reckoned to ccmtain 400,000 stansas.
(Wilson, Mackenzie Collection, vol.i. p. 46.) There are also
18 Vpapurdnasy or similar poems of inferior sanctity and dif-
fbrent appellations.

* Asiatic Researches^ vol. viii. p. 491 > &c.

216 LITERATURE OF THE HIVDOOB — POETRY — ^LAW.

Poetry. — ^Two great epic poems, the Rdmdymna and the
Mahdbhdraia, are usually classed with the Puranas* The
Rdmdyana, comprising 24,000 stanzas, divided into seven
books, and written by the ancient poet V ihniki, lecords the
adventures of Rama, an incarnation of the god Vishnu, who
was bom as the son of Dasarat'ha, king of Oude. The 3fa-
hdbkdraia is said to contain no less than 100,000 stanzas.
Vy&sa, the supposed compiler of the Yedas and Puraoas, is
said to be its author. It recoxds the actions of Krishna, the
last and most celebrated of the avat&rs of Vishnu*

Late. — ^Books on law constitute another important brandi
of Sanscrit literature. The treatises coming under this de»
signation may be divided mto two classes : some consist of
maxims or precepts, usually expressed in verse, put togetiier
into codes of greater or less extent, and attributed to various
ancient sages, as their original and inspired authors ; others
consist either of comments on these traditional texts, eluci*
dating and amplifying their import, and solving such difficul-
ties as arise from apparent contradictions in different pas-
sages ; or of systematic treatises, in which the several topics
of Hindoo jurisprudence are discussed according to logical
arrangement, and passages from the ancient law-givers aie
adduced in support of the doctrines advanced.

The most distinguished work extant of the first class is un-
doubtedly the code generally known under the title of the
Institutes of Menu. Numerous compilations of a similar na^
ture exist, which are attributed to 06tama, Nftrada, Sanka,
Likhita, K&ty&yana, Yajnawalkya, and other ancient sages.
Among the commentaries on their codes, we shall here only
mention the gloss of Kulliikabhatt& on the laws of Menu, and
the ample commentary of Vijn&n^swara on the Institutes of
Yajnawalkya, known in India under the title of the Miidi'-
shara : the latter work is the principal law authori^, now fol-
lowed by the Hindoo lawyers officially attached to the courts
of justice in the Dekkan, and in the western provinces of
Hindoostan.* Among the works on jurisprudence arranged

* Rammohun Roy's Judicial System of India, p. 48.

LITERATURE. — EPIC POEMS — THE DRAMA* 217

OD a free system, independent from the accidental succession
of topics in the ancient compilations of legal precepts, we may
notice the Viramiirddaya of Mitramisra, the Ddyabhdga of
Jtmihav&hana^ and the Digest of Jagann&t'ha, as some of the
most generally known.*

Epie Poems. — ^The two great epic poems of the Hindoos,
the^Rftmiyana and the Mahabharata» are written in a remark-
ably easy and natural kind of verse, and in a language which
diough sometimes highly expressive and energetic, generally
bears the character of the simplest narrative, and the tone of
eoaaaon conversation. There are, however, other Sanscrit
poems, evidently belonging to a more modern age, and writ-
ten in a style of artificial refinement, both as to language and
versification.

The Drama* — ^The dramatic literature of the Hindoos be-
came first known to the Hterary public of Europe through
the translation of one of its greatest ornaments, the play of
Saeontaldf by Sir William Jones. The translation of the
dranuitiaed allegory, called Prabddha Chandrddaya, or * Rise
of the Moon of Intellect,' by Dr. Taylor, of Bombay, was pub-
lished in 1812, more calculated to throw light on the meta-
physics than on the scenic literature of the Hindoos. In 18S7,
however, Mr. Wilson's English translation of six new plays
appeared,f accompanied with a dissertation on the dramatic
system of the Hindoos, and with some account of other extiMit
Sanscrit dramas. Independently of the other imdeniable
poetic merit of many parts, at least, of these compositions^
they are highly interesting, as the most genuine pictures of
Hindoo manners, and of the condition of society in Hindoos-
tan previous to its conquest by foreign invaders. It deserves
to be noticed, as a striking peculiarity of the Hindoo dramas,
that different forms of speech are employed for different cha-
racters : the hero and the principal personages speaking San-

* The two l^ter works are translated by Mr. Colebrooke.

t Select Specimens of tbe Theatre of the Hindoos, by H. H. Wilson,
Cafe8tia» 1827» 3 vols. 8vo. A new edition of this work hat just been
published (London, 1835, 2 vols. 8vo.)

£18 HINDOO LITERATURE — ^PLAYS AND FABLES.

scrit ; but women and the inferior oharaeters uring the yariom
modifications of that language, which are comprehended un-
der the term Pracrit None of the Hindoo plays at present
known can boast of a yery high antiquity, and nearly all ap-
pear to have been composed at a period when the Sanacrit
has ceased to be the colloquial medium* ^ They must there-
fore/ observes Mr. Wilson, ^hayebeen unintelligible to a
considerable portion of the audience, and nerer could haye
been so directly addressed to the bulk of the population as to
haye exercised much influence upon their paasions or their
tastes. This circumstance, howeyer, is perfectly in harmony
with the constitution of Hindoo society, by which the highest
branches of literature, as weU as the highest offices in the
state, were resenred for the priyileged tribes of Kshatriyms
and Brahmins/ To the unities of time and place the drama-
tic poets of India haye paid but little attention: they are not,
howeyer, destitute of certain rules ; and many Hindoo writers
haye endeayoured to reduce to a system the technicalities of
dramatic composition. The Hindoos had no separate edifices
appropriated to dramatic representations, nor do they appear
to have possessed any complicated scenic apparatus. In &a
palaces of kings there was a haU or saloon, in which dancing
and singing were practised and sometimes exhibited, and this
room was fitted up on purpose for dramatic entertainmoitB.*
Plays were only occasionally enacted, at seasons peculiarly
sacred to some divinity, or at royal coronations, marriages,
and other public occasions ; and this circumstance accounts
partly for the limited number, and partly for the great length
of those Hindoo dramas which haye been preserved to us.

Fables. — -The popular collection of fsibles, commonly known
in Europe under the name of the * Fables of Pilpay,' are of
Indian origin. The Sanscrit original has now been asoer*
tained to be the Panchatantraj a work so called from its being
divided into five taniras, or sections, and probably compiled
in the ^fth century of our era. It consists of stories told in

* At the English theatre at Chouringec, Calcutta, a large part of the
audience is composed of the most respectable of the Hindoo gentry.

LITERATURE. — ARITHIISTIO. 219

prose, but interspersed with moral inaziiiuS) and other sen-
tences in Terse, many of which have been borrowed from
other authors, and can be traced to their original sources.*

The Arabian Nights were long considered to have been
originally composed in the Arabic language; but, latterly^
some at least of the most enchanting tales embodied in that
cottection have been discoTcred to be of Indian <mgin, and
the Sanscrit to which they have recently been traced is a vo-
luminous collection of stories known in India under the title
of the Vrikaikafhd.f

Arithmetic. — ^The decimal system of the rotation of nume-
rals, now generally in use among us, is an Indian invention,
which was probably communicated to the Arabians through
the Hindoo mathematicians and astronomers, who visited
Bagdad during the reigns of the earlier Abbaside caliphs ;
and Gerbert of Anrillac, subsequently raised to the papal
throne as Pope Sylvester II. (died A.n. 1003,) who had studied
in the Arabian universities of Seville and COTdova^ in Spaiui
is usually supposed to have first introduced it into Europe*
To the Hindoos the Arabians also appear to be indebted for
their first knowledge of algebra. The earliest extant Arabic
treaties on algebra,]: confirms by internal evidence the sup-
position previously entertained by Cossali, Hutton, and others,
that the art of solving problems by reduction and equation
had not originated among the Arabians, but had been com-
municated to them fnnn India* The principal Indian writers
on algebra and arithmetic generally, are Aryabhatta (in the

* See Mr. ^MUson's account of the Panckaiantra, Trans, of the Royal
Asiat. See. rol. i. p. 1^, &c.

t See the (Calcutta) Quarterly Oriental Magazine, June, 1825, p. 250,
&c. ; and March, 1824, p. 68, &c. Wilson's Theatre of the Hindoos, toL
ii. p. 138.

I By Mohammed ben Musa, who wrote during the reign of the Abbaside
caliph MamC\^, in the earlier part of the ninth century of our era. An
edition and translation of his elementary treatise on Algebra was published
three years ago by the Oriental Translation Committee.

820 LITERATURE OF THE HINDOOS — ASTRONOMY.

fifth century of our era,) Brahmagupta (who wrote about a.d.
628,) and Bhascara (in the twelfth century.)*
. Astronomy appears, from an early period, to have been cul-
tivated by the Hindoos for the regulation of time. It seems
probable that the astronomy of the Hindoos was orij^nally as
independent from that of the Greeks as their early proficiency
in algebra ; although no doubt can be entertained that, at a
period when astronomy had already made some progress
among them, they receiyed hints from the astronomical schools
of the Greeks.f The number of astronomical works in the
Sanscrit language is considerable : the most celebrated among
them are the SUryasiddbdnta of Varahamihira, who, to judge
from the position of the colures in his work, must have writ-
ten in the latter part of the fifth century of our era;j: the
Brahma-'Siddhdnta of Brahmagupta, who is supposed to have
written about a.d. 636 ;§ and the Siddhdnia-sirdtnani of Bhas-
cara, which was completed in a. d. 1150.|| ^The Hindoos
place the earth in the centre of the world, and make the sun,
and moon, and minor planets revolve round it, apparendy in
concentric orbits, with unequal or irregular motion. For a
physical explanation of the phenomena, they imagine the
planets driven by currents of air along their respective orbits
(besides one great vortex carrying stars and planets with pro-
digious velocity round the earth, in the compass of a day.)
The winds or currents, impelling the several planets, commu-
nicate to them velocities, by which their motion should be
equable, and in the plane of the ecliptic ; but the planets are

* See Colebrooke'8 Algebra, with Arithmetic and MenouFBtion, from
the Sanscrit of Brahmagapta and Bhdscara. London, 1817, 4to.

t Colebrooke's Algebra, &c., Dissert, p. 24 ; Whish, on the Origin and
Andquity of the Hindoo Zodiac, in the Transactions of the Literary So-
dety of Madras, part. i. p. 63, &c.

I See Davis on the Astronomical Computations of the Hindoos ; As.
Res. vol. ii. p. 225—286.

§ Asiat. Res. vol vi. p. 586 ; Colebrooke's Algebra, from the Sanscrit,
&c.. Dissertation, p. 6.

II Asiat. Res. vol. xii. p. 221, note.

LITERATURE — ^ASTRONOMY — POSITION OF THE WORLD. 281

drawn from this course by certain controlling powers^ situated
at the apogees^ conjunctions, and nodes. These powers are
clothed by Hindoo imaginations with celestial bodies invisible
to human sight, and furnished with hands and reins, by which
they draw the planets from their direct path and uniform pro-
gress. The being at the apogee, for instance, constantly at-
tracts the planet towards itself, alternately, however, with the
right and left hands. The deity at the node diverts the pla-
net, first to one side then to the other, from the ecliptic $ and,
lastly, the deity at the conjunction causes the planet, to be
one while stationary, another while retrograde, and to move at
different times with velocity accelerated or retarded. These
fancied beings are considered as invisible planets ; the nodes
and apogees having a motion of their own in the ecHptic.
This whimsical system, more worthy of the mythologist than
of the astronomer, is gravely set forth in the ^SAryasiddkdnta;
and even Bhascara gives it, though not without indications of
reluctant acquiescence. To explain on mathematical prin-
ciples the irregularity of the planetary motions, the Hiiidoo
astronomers remove the earth from the centre of the planet's
orbit, and assume the motion in that excentric to be really
equable, though it appear irregular as viewed from the
earth.** Mr. Colebrooke, after a minute investigation of the
notions of the Hindoo astronomers, concerning the precession
of the equinoxes, arrives at the conclusion that on this sub-
ject the Hindoos had a theory which, though erroneous, was
their own ; that they had a knowledge of the true doctrine of
an uniform motion in antecedentia, at least 700 years ago,
and that they had approximated to the true ratio of that mo-
tion much nearer than Ptolemy, before the Arabian astrono-
mers, and as near the truth as these have ever done since.f

* Colebrooke, Asiat. Res. vol. xii. p. 233, 234.

t Asiat. Res. voL xii. p. 220, &c. ' Some of the most celebrated Hin-
doo astronomers, as Brahma^pta, have been uient on the subject of a
change in the places of the colores, or have denied their re^lar periodical
motion. Others, as Manj&la and Bh&scara, have asserted a periodical

iS2 LITERATURE. — PHILOflOPHY.

* Their calendar^ both civil and religious, was governed chiefly^
not exchisivelyy by the moon and snn, and the motion of these
luminaries were corefuUy observed by them ; and with dudi
success, that their determinatioa of the moon's synodical re^
volution, which they were principally concerned with, is a
much more correct one tiban the Greeks ever achieved.*

Pkihsophff. The various systems of Hindoo philosophy
are in some instances considered orthodox, as consist^it with
the theology of the Vedas; such are the two Mimdfud
schools: odiers are deemed heretical, as incompatible with
the sacred writings of the Hindoos : sfuch are the Nydya and
the VaMsAika system; others again are partly heterodox,
and partly conformable to the established Hindoo creed; such
are the Sdnkhya and Y6ga. The two Mindnshs (for there
are two schools of metaphysics under this title) comprise the
complete systemof interpretati<Hiof the precepts and doctrine
of the Vedas, both practical and theologicaL The prior
Mimdmd (P4rva Mindnsdy or Karma MimdnsdJ, which has
Jaimini for its founder, teaches the art of reasoning, with the
express view of aiding the interpretation of the Vedas : its
scope is the ascertainment of duties and religious observances
prescribed in the sacred books. * It is not directly a system
of philosophy, nor chiefly so ; but, in course of delivering
canons of scriptural interpretation, it incidentally touches
upon philosophical topics; and scholastic disputants have
elicited from its dogmas principles of reasoning applicable to
the prevailing points of controversy agitated in the Hindoo
schools of philosopby.'f The latter Mimamd ( UUara Mi^
mdMdf or Brahma MimdngdJ^ which is attributed to Vydio^
is usually called Veddnta i. e. ^ the conclusion^ end, or scope
of the Veda,' and consists in a refined psychology, deduced

revolution of the colures ; but the greater ottmber of celebrated writere,
aad all the modem Hindoo astronomers, have affirmed a libration of the
equinoctial points.' Ibid. p. 217.

* Cold)rooke'8 Algebra, &c.. Dissertation, p. 22.

t Colebrooke, Trans. Roy. Asiat. Soe. ?ol. i. p. 19, 439, &c.

LITERATURE-— HINDOO PHILOSOPHY. 2SS

chiefly from the Upanishadsy which goes to a denial of a
material world.*

' The NydyOy of which GStama is the acknowledged author,
fiimishes a philosophical arrangement^ with strict rules of
reasoning, not unaptly compared to the dialectic of the
Aristotelian school. Another course of philosophy connected
with it bears the denomination of Vaisishika. Its reputed
author is Kanade, who^ like Democritus^ maintained the doc-*
trine of atoms. A different philosophical system, partly he-
terodox, and partly comformable to the established Hindoo
creed, is the Sdnkkya / of which also, as of die preceding,
there are two schools— one usually known by that name, the
other commonly termed YdgaJ'f The former was founded
by Kapila, the latter by PatanjaU. The two schools differ
upon one point, which is the most important of all — the proof
of the existence of God. The school of Patanjali recognises
Grod, and is, therefore, denominated the theistical Sftnkhya ;
that of Kapila is atheistical, inasmuch as it acknowledges no
Creator of the Universe, nor Supr^ne Ruling Providence.
The gods of Kapila are beings superior to man ; but, like
\aack9 sulgect to change and transmigration.:):

The preceding remarks have reference to that portion of
the literature of the Hindoos which is written in the Sanscrit
language, partly because it is the most important and das-
rical branch of it, and partly because the literature, extant in
the various vernacular dialects of India, has not yet suffi-
dently been expfered. As fS^r as our present knowledge
extends, the majority of the works written in the Hindi, Ben-
gali, Mahratta, Tamul, and Teloogoo languages consists in

* See Colebrooke, Trans. Roy. Asiat. Soc. vo1.ii. p. 1, &c. Rammohun
Soy's ^Translation of an Abridgment of the Vedant/ in his 'T^ranslation
ef several Books, &€. of the Veds/' p. 1—22. F. H. H. Windischmann,
Sancara sire de Hieologamenis Yedantioonini. Bonn, 1833, 8to.

t Colebrooke, 1. c. voL i. p. 19.

t Colebrooke, Trans. Roy. Asiat. Soc. toI. i. p, 19, 25, &c. ; Lassen's
Oymnosophista, fascic. i. Bonn, 1832, 4to.

2S4 ARCHITECTURE.

translations or imitations of compositions in the Sanscrit.*
It is a remarkable fact, that no strictly historical works, of a
date anterior to the conquest of northern India by the
Mohammedans, have yet been discovered' in any Indian
langiiage.f

Architecture. — ^The sacred buildings of Hindostan have
long been the theme of admiration, and the Mahometan con-
querors of Indian seem to have vied ^th the Hindoos in the
magnitude and beauty of their structures. The most ancient
temples are probably those excavated in the sides of moun-
tains ; one of the earliest of which is the Cave of Elephanta,
situate in a island of the same name in the Bay of Bombay, j:

' The entrance into this temple, which is entirely hewn out
of a stone resembling porphyry, is by a spacious front sup-
ported by two massy pillars and two pUasters forming three
openings, under a thick and steep rock, overhung by brush-
wood and wild shrubs. The long ranges of columns that
appear closing in perspective on every side ; the flat roof of
solid rock, that seems to be prevented from falling only by
the massy pillars, whose capitals are pressed down and flat-
tened as if by the superincumbent weight; the ^darkness that
obscures the interior of the temple, which is dimly lighted
only by the entrances ; and the gloomy appearance of the
gigantic stone figures ranged along the wall, and hewn, like
the whole temple, out of the living rock, — joined to the
strange uncertainty that hangs over the history of this place,
— carry the mind back to distant periods, and impress it with

• See Ward's View, &c. of the Hindoos, vol. iv. p. 476—482 (3rd edi-
tion) ; Wilson's Catalo^e of the Mackenzie Collection, 2 vols. 8vo. Gal-
ciitta, 1828; Biojpuphical Sketches of Dekkan Poets, by CavellyVenkata
Ramaswamie, Calcutta, 1829, 8ro.

t The only exception to thu remark that could perhaps be adduced*
is the poetic Sanscrit Chronicle of Cashmere, an account of which is
given by Mr. Wilson in the I6th volume of the Asiatic Researches.

X Elephanta Isle, seven miles from Bombay castle, is about six miles
in circumference, and composed of two long hills, with a narrow valley
between them.

ANCIBNT ARCHITECTURE OF THE HINDOOS. 225

that kind of uncertain and religious awe with which the
grander works of ages of darkness are generally contemplated*

' The whole excayation consists of three principal parts ;
the great temple itself^ which is in the centre, and two smaller
chapels, one on each side of the great temple. These two
chapels do not come forward into a straight line with the
front of the chief temple, are not perceived on approaching
the temple, and are considerably in recess, being approached
by two narrow passes in the hill, one on each side of the
grand entrance, but at some distance from it. After advanc-
ing to some distance up these confined passes, we find each
of them conduct to another front of the grand excavatipn,
exactly like the principal front which is first seen ; all the
three fronts being hollowed out of the solid rock, and each
consisting of two huge pillars with two pilasters. The two
side fronts are precisely opposite to each other on the £. and
W.y the grand entrance facing the N. The two wings of the
temple are at the upper end of these passages, and are close
by the grand excavation, but have no covered passage to
connect them with it.'*

From the northern entrance to the extremity of this cave
is about 130| feet, and from the eastern to the western side
133. Twenty-six pillars, (of which eight are broken,) and 16
pilasters, support the roof. Neither the floor nor the roof is
in the same plane, and consequently the height varies, being
in some parts 17}, in others 15 feet. Two rows of pillars run
parallel to one another from the northern entrance and at
right angles to it, to the extremity of the cave ; and the pi-
lasters, one of which stands on each side of the two front
pillars, are followed by other pilasters and pillars also, form-
ing on each side of the two rows already described, another
row, running parallel to them up to the southern extremity
of the cave. The pillars on the eastern and western front,
which are like those on the northern side, are also continued
across from £. to W. ; thus the ranges of pillars form a nunv-
ber of parallel lines, intersecting one another at right angles ;
• Mr. W. Enkiae, m the Bombay Literary Traaaactioiii.

VOL. I. Q

2X6 ARCHITECTURE. — ELEPHANTA TEMPLE.

the pillars of the central parts being considered as common
to the two sets of intersecting lines. The pillars vary both
in size and decorations, and all the walls are covered with
reliefs referring to Hindoo mythology.

Mr. Mill speaks slightingly (as he generally does of every-
thing Indian) of Elephanta as a cave of no extraordinary struc-
ture, and describes the pillars as ^ pieces of the rock, as is usual
in mining, left at certain distances supporting the superincum-
bent matter:* but many persons of taste, who have visited
Elephanta, entertain a very different opinion. Goldingham
mentions among the sculptures the beautiful figure of a youth,
and, in another group, a male * leading a female towards a
majestic figure seated in a corner of the niche, his head co-
vered like our judges on the bench; the countenance and
attitude of the female highly expressive of modesty, and a
timid reluctance.' Further on he adds, ^ the part of this
surprising monument of human skill and perseverance, hitherto
described, is generally called the Great Cave ; its length is
135 feet, and its breadth nearly the same.* * Gigantic as the
figures are,' he says, ' the mind is not disagreeably moved
on viewing in them a certain indication of the harmony of the
proportions. Having measured three or four, and examined
the proportions by the scale we allow the most correct, I
found many stood even this test, while the disagreements
were not equal to what are met with every day in people
whom we think by no means ill-proportioned.** Another tra-
veller, who has left us an entertaining account of Western
India, observes that, * the principal temple and adjoining
apartments are 2S0 feet long, and 150 broad; in these dimen-
sions exceeding the largest work at Salsette;f but being
very inferior in height, notwithstanding the numerous and
richer decorations at Elephanta, the spectator is constantly
reminded of being in a cave. At Salsette, the lofty concave
roof and noble columns have a majestic appearance : yet, the
observer feels more surprise and admiration at Elephanta

* Qoldiogham, Afliatic Researches, toI. iv. p. 424—434.

f An island also in Bombay Bay, with an extensive rock-cut temple.

ARCHITECTURE. — CAVE TEMPLES OF KENNERY. 227

than at Salsette : he beholds four rows of massive columns
cat out of the solid rock^ uniform in their order, and placed
at regular distances, so as to form three magnificent avenues
from the principal entrance to the grand idol, which termi-
nates the middle vista ; the general effect being heightened
by the blueness of the light, or rather gloom, pecuUar to the
situation. The central image is composed of three colossal
heads, reaching nearly from the floor to the roof, a height of '
16 feet.'*

The accomplished Heber says, ^ the great cavern is
deserving all the praise which has been lavished on it.'
' Though my expectations were highly raised, the reality much
exceeded them, and both the dimensions, the proportions,
and the sculpture seemed to me to be of a much more noble
character, and a more elegant execution than I had been led
to suppose. Even the statues are executed with great spirit,
and are some of them of no common beauty, considering their
dilapidated condition, and the coarseness of their material. 'f

Of the cave temples of Kennery, in the Island of Salsette,
the same excellent authority observes : — * These are, cer-
tainly, in every way remarkable from their number, their
beautiful situation, their elaborate carving, and their marked
comiexion with Buddha and his religion. The caves are
scattered over two sides of a high rocky hill, at many different
elevations, and of various sizes and forms. Most of them
appear to have been places of habitation for monks or
hermits. One very beautiful apartment, of a square form,
its walls covered with sculpture, and surrounded internally by
a broad stone bench, is called * the durbar,' but I should
rather guess had been a school. Many have deep and well-
carved cisterns attached to them, which, even in this dry
season (May) were well supplied with water. The largest
and most remarkable of all is a Buddhist temple, of great
beauty and majesty, and which even in its present state
would make a very stately and convenient place of Christian

• Forbes, Oriental Memoirs, vol. i. p. 429, 430.
t NamtiTe of a Journey, &c. vol. iii. p. 79, 90.

£28 ARCHITECTURE.— CARLI CAVERN.

woi^ship. It is entered through a fine and lofty portico^
having on its front, but a little to the left hand, a high de«
tached octagonal pillar, surmounted by three Eons seated
back to back. On each side of the portico is a colossal
statue of Buddha, with his hands raised in the attitude of
benediction, and the screen which separates the vestibidd
from the temple is covered, immediately above the dado, with
a row of male and female figures, nearly naked, but not inde->
cent, and carved with considerable spirit, which apparently
represent dancers. In the centre of the semicircle, and with
a free walk all round it, is a mass of rock left solid, but
carved externally like a dome, and so as to bear a strong
general likeness to our Saviour*s sepulchre, as it is now cfai*
selled away and enclosed in St. Helena's Church at Jerusalem.
On the top of the dome is a sort of spreading ornament, like
the capital of a column. It is, apparently, intended to sup^
port something, and I was afterwards told at CarU, where
such an ornament, but of greater size, is likewise found, thai
a large gilt umbrella used to spring from it. This solid
dome appears to be the usual symbol of Buddhist adoration
ftnd, with its umbrella ornament, may be traced in the Shoo«
Madoo of Pegu, and other more remote structures of the
same faith. Though it is different in its form and style of
ornament from the Lingam, I cannot help thinking it haa
been originally intended to represent the same popular object
of that almost universal idolatry. The ceiling of this cave is
arched semicircularly, and ornamented, in a very singular
manner, with slender ribs of teak-wood of the same curve
with the roof, and disposed as if they were supporting it»
which, however, it does not require, nor are they strong
enough to answer the purpose* Their use may have been to
hang lamps or flowers from in solemn rejoicings.?*^

The celebrated cavern at Carli ' is hewn on the face of a
precipice, about two-thirds up the side of a steep hill, rising
with a very scarped and regular talus, to the height of pro-
bably 800 feet above the plain. The excavations consist,

* Narrative of a Jouniey, kc. yol. iti. p. 93—95.

ARCHITECTURE. — ^KENNERI AND CARLI COMPARED. 929

besides the principal temple^ of many smaller apartments and
galleries^ in two stories, some of them ornamented with great
beauty, and evidently intended, like those at Kennery, for
the lodging of monks or hermits. The temple itself is on the
same general plan as that of Kennery, but half as large again,
and far finer and richer. It is approached by a steep and
narrow path winding up the side of the hill, among trees and
brushwood, and fragments of rock. This brought us to a
mean and ruinous temple of Siva, wluch serves as a sort of
gateway to the cave. A similar small building stands on
the right hand of its portico. The approach to the temr
pk is, like that of Kennery, under a noble arch, filled up
with a sort of portico screen, in two stories of three inter>-
columniations below, and five above. In the front, but a
litde to the lefl, is the same kind of pillar as is seen at Ken-
nery, though of larger dimensions, surmoimted by three lions
bade to baek. Within die portico, to the right and left, are
three colossal figures, in alto reUeto^ of elephants, dieir fiices
looking towards the person who arrives in the i)ortico, and
their heads, tusks, and trunks very boldly projecting from
the walL On each of them is a mahout very well carved, and
a howdah with two persons seated in it. The internal screen
on each side of the door is covered, as at Kennery, with alto
reUevas, very bold, and somewhat larger than life, of naked
male and female figures.' In its general arrangement Carli
closely answers to Kennery : but Bishop Heber thought that
' both in dimensions and execution it is much nobler, and more
elaborate ; and that the capitals of the columns (all of them
at least which are not hidden by the chattah at the E. end)
are very singular and beautifiil. ELach consists of a large
cap, like a bell, finely carved, and surmounted by two ele-
phants, with their trunks entwined, and each carrying two
male and one female figure. The timber ribs which decorate
the roof, whatever their use may have been, are very perfect,
and have a good effect in the perspective of the interior,
which is all extremely clean, and in good repair, and would
be, in fact, a very noble temple for any religion.'*
* Heber's Journal, &c. vol. iit. p. 112, 113.

230 ARCHITECTURE. — ELLORA TEMPLES.

Among the cavern temples of India the most remarkable,
perhaps, both for the style of execution and the historical
associations connected with them, are those of Ellora, situated
near the ancient Hindoo capital of Deoghir, or Tagara, in
the province of Aurungabad. Hamilton* justly remarks,
that without the aid of numerous plates it would be impos*
sible to render a minute description of these excavations in-
telligible. The excavations which have, with apparent pro-
priety, been divided into Jain, Buddhist, and Brahminieal,
are situated in the face of a crescent-shaped hill, about a mile
from the little rural village of Ellora. ' The first view of
this desolate religious city,' says Mr. Erskine, ' is grand and
striking, but melancholy. The number and magnificence of
the subterraneous temples, the extent and loftiness of some,
the endless diversity of sculpture in others, the variety of
curious foliage, of minute tracery, highly wrought pillars^
rich mythological designs, sacred shrines, and colossal statues
astonish but distract the mind. From their number and di-
versity^ it is impossible to form any idea of the whole ; and
the first impressions only give way to a wonder not less
natural, that such prodigious efforts of labour and skill should
remain, from times certainly not barbarous, without a trace to
tell us the hand by which they were designed, or the popu-
lous and powerful nation by which they were completed.
The empire, whose pride they must have been, has passed
away, and left not a memorial behind it. The religion to
which we owe one part of them, indeed, continues to exist ;
but that which called into existence the other, like the beings
by whose toil is was wrought, has been swept from the land.'

One of the groups of caves which, in contempt, is termed
by the Brahmins Dehr Warra, or ' the Halalkhorsf Quarter,'
has during the rains a very picturesque appearance. The
large excavation, according to Sir Charles Malet, is very spa-
cious and handsome, and over the front of it there must rush

* Description of India, vol. ii. p. 148, 149.

t The Haldlkhors (i. e. literally, those to whom every thing is lawfiil
food) arc the lowest trihe of outcasts. Forbes, Oriental Memoirs, vol. H.
p. 136.

ARCHITECTURE. — BUDDUA-OAYA TEMPLE. 281

a small river^ during the rainy season, into the plain below,
forming a sheet of water, which, in a beautiful cascade,
covers the facade of the temple as with a curtain of crystal.
There are two benches of stone that run parallel to each
other along the floor, from the entrance, the whole depth of
the cave, the prospect from which, of the great tank, town,
and valley of Ellora, is beautiful. These benches appear to
have been intended, as in what is called * the Durbar' at
Kennery, as seats either for students, scribes, or the sellers
of certain commodities, a convenient passage lying between
them up to the idol at the end of the cave.*

Of the Buddhist cave-temple near Buddha-Gaya, in Bahar,
no very minute or elaborate description exists. The hill in
which it is hewn Ues about 14 miles from Gaya, and appears
to be one entire mass of granite, rough, craggy, and preci-
pitous in its ascent. * The cave is situated on its southern
declivity, about two-thirds from the summit : a tree immedi-
ately before it prevents its being seen from the bottom. It
has only one narrow entrance from the S., two feet and a half
in breadth, and six feet high, and of thickness exactly equal.
This leads to a room of an oval form, with a vaulted roof,
44 feet in length from E. to W., 18^ feet in breadth, and
10| in height at the centre. This immense cavity is dug
entirely out of the soUd rock, and is exceedingly well polished,
but without any ornament. The same stone extends much

* Asiatic Researches, vol. yi. p. 423. The reader, desirous of stadyiqg
the details of these extraordinary caverns, may consult the elaborate des-
cription of Sir G. Malet. lb. p. 382—423 ; Transactions of the Bombay
Literary Sodety, articles ix. and xv. ; Fitzdarence's Journal of a Route
across India, p. 193—213 ; Seely, the Wonders of Ellora, Loud. 1824 ;
Daaiell's Picturesque Voya^ to India> Loud. 1810; Lanf(l^, Monumens
anciens et modemes de I'lnde, en 150 planches, Paris, 1813 j Trans, of the
Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. p. 326, &c. In the ' Modem Traveller,' an
unpretending but clever compilation, the contributions of various authori-
ties have been abridged with much pains* India, toL iv. p. 287 — 306.
Aaquedl Dupenron has left us an elaborate description of the excavations
ia his Preliminary Discourse to the Zend Avetta, torn. i. p. 233—349.

^3 ARCHITECTURE. — TEMPLES IN RAJABT'uAN.

farther than the excavated part^ on each aide of it, and la
altogether, I unagine, iiill an hundred feet in length*'*

Of all these caTem tonples, by far the greater number
bear evident marks of having been originally consecrated to
the worship of Siva, and his consort Bhavani ; whose symbols^
the Yoni, the Lingam^ and the Bull, occupy the sanctnary of
the edifice, or are at least discernible among it principal otw
naments. (See Religion of the Hindoos^

Among the most beautiful of the shrines of India is that
which the Jains, who have been termed the Deists of Hin-
dostan, have erected to the Supreme God in the mountain
city of Comulmere in Rajast'han. The design of this tem-
ple, according to Col. Tod, is truly classic. It consists only
of the sanctuary, which has a vaulted dome and colonnaded
portico all round. The architecture is undoubtedly Jain,
which is as distinct in character from the Brahminical as their
religion* There is a chasteness and aimpttcity in this speci*
men of monotheistic worship, afibrding a wide contrast to Ae
elaborately sculptured shrines of the Sivas and other poly*
theists of India. The extreme want of decoration beat
attests its antiquity, entitling us to attribute it to that period
when Sumpriti Raja, of the famfly of Chandragupta, was pa-
ramount sovereign over all these regions (SOO years belbre
Christ) ; to whom tradition ascribes the most ancient monu*
ments of this faith, yet existing in Rajast'han and Saurashlra.
The proportions and forms of the columns are especially dis-
tinct from the other temples, being slight and tapering instead
of massive, the general characteristic of Hindoo architecture ;

* J. H. Harrington, Asiatic Researdies, voL i. p. 276—278. Of the «k
tiq«ity or bietory of thh cavern nothini^ is known. Dr. Francis Budisnaa
Hanrilton, who has %\vtn a description of Buddha Gaya in the Traii8Be>-
tioDS of the Royal Asiatic Society, (vol. ii. p. 40—^1,) thinks it p r oh ahlc
that part of the ruins may be as ancient as the local tradition would m^ke
them, vis. coeval with the age of Buddha ; but that the great edifice still
existing, though in the last stage of decay, is of hx more recent date, and
perhi^s not older than the tenth century of the Christian era. A Sanscrit
inscniition found at Oaya has been translated by Sir Charles Wifhias.
See Asiatic Researches, i. 278—285.

ARCHITECTURE.— CHARACTERS OF THE JAIN TEMPLES. 8S8

while the projecting cornices, which would absolutely deform
shafts less light, are peculiarly indicative of the Takshac ar-
chitect. Sumpriti was the fourth prince in descent from
Chandragupta, of die Jain faith, and the ally of Seleucus, the*
Grecian sorereign of Bactriana. The fragments of Megas-
thenes, ambassador from Seleucus, record that this alliance
was most intimate; that the daughter of the Rajpoot king
was married to Seleucus, who in return for elephants and
other gifts, sent a body of Greek soldiers to serve Chandra-
gupta. It is curious to contemplate the possibility, nay the
probability, that the Jain temple now before the reader may
have been designed by Grecian artists, or that the taste of
^ artists among the Rajpoots may have been modelled after
Ihe Ghrecian.^

CcL Tod describes another sacred structure in its vicinity^
likewise Jain, but of a distinct character; indeed, offering a
perfect contrast to that described. It was three stories in
height; each tier decorated with numerous massive low
columna, resting on a sculptured pannelled parapet, and sus-
taining the roof of each st(^, which being very low, ad-
ii^ed1>ut a broken light to chase the pervading gloom. He
imagines that tbe sacred architects of the £. had studied
effect equally with the preservers of learning and the arts in
liie dark period of Europe, when those monuments, which
Must ever be her pride, arose on the ruins of paganism.
How far the Saxon or Scandinavian pagan contributed to the
general design of such structures may be doubted ; but that
their deoorationB, particulariy the grotesque, have a poweriul
resemblance to the moat aacient Hindoo-Scythic, there is no
question.

No sect of Hiadoos have exhibited so much architectural
genius as tbe Jatas. EverywherCt at least so far as our ex-
perience extends, where their comparatively pure religion
has prevafled, monuments of simple grandeur, or of elaborate
elegance, have remained, a testimony of their proficiency in
the arts. At Benares, indeed, in the midst of shrines and
* Colonel Tod, Annals of Raja8t*han, ?ol. i. p. 670, 671.

"284 ARCHITECTURE OF THE JAINS,

temples of remarkable beauty, the sacred building of the
Jains has little to distinguish it beyond the diminutive gilt
.cupola by which the roof is surmounted ; but the Brahmins
are here so powerful, and their enemies, for auch are the
Jains, so much at their mercy, that it is more surprising they
should possess any place of worship at all, than that it should
be destitute of magnificence* Wherever this sect, free fitmi
the apprehension of persecution, have deemed it prudent to
indulge their natural taste, the case is different. Even in
the small obscure town of Mousabad in Rajpootana, Bishop
Heber found their temple richly sculptured, with a beautifully
carved dome, and three lofty pyramids of carved stone
spring from the roof.* At Calingera, a small village between
Neemuch and Baroda, the same traveller observed the most
spacious and elegant structure of the kind which he had any-
where seen in India. It was entered by a projecting portico,
which led to an open vestibule covered by a dome. Nume-
rous domes and pyramids, surmounting as many small chapels
or sanctuaries, adorned the roof, and along its several fronts
ran elegantly carved verandahs, supported by slender co-
lumns. ^ The domes are admirably constructed, and the exe-
cution of the whole building greatly superior to what might
have been expected in such a situation. Its splendour of
architecture, and its present deserted condition, were ac-
counted for by the Thannadar, from the fact that Calingera
had been a place of much traffic, and the residence of many
rich traders of the Jain sect'f

At the city of Cairah, in GKizerat, there is a Jain temple,
which, though distinguished by its striking fa9ade, depressed
domes and pyramidal sikharas, is chiefly rendered remarkable
by a piece of curious mechanism which it contains. 'Near the
centre of the town are a large Jain temple and school, the
former consisting of many small apartments up and down
stairs, and even under ground, with a good deal of gaudy or-
nament, and some very beautifrd carving in a dark wood like

• Narrative of a Journey, &c, vol. ii. p. 429, 430.
t Ditto, ditto, p. 529

ARCHITECTURE. CURIOUS MECHANISM* S35

oaL In one of the upper rooms is a piece of mechanism,
something like those moving clockwork groups of kings,
armies, gods and goddesses, which are occasionally carried
about our own country by Italians and Frenchmen, in which
sundry divinities dance and salam with a sort of musical ac-
companiment. These figures are made chiefly of the same
black wood which I have described. What they last showed
us was a cellar under ground, approached by a very narrow
passage, and containing on an altar of the usual construction,
the four statues of sitting men, which are the most frequent
and peculiar objects of Jain idolatry. They are of white
marble, but had (as seems to have been the case with many
of the images of ancient Greece) their eyes of silver, which
gleamed in a very dismal and ghostly manner in the light of
a solitary lamp which was burning before them, aided by a
yet dimmer ray which penetrated from above through two
narrow apertures, hke flues in the vaulting. We were very
civilly conducted over the whole of the building by one of the
junior priests, the senior pundit of the place remaining, as if
absorbed in heavenly things, immoveable and silent during
the whole of our stay. While I was in the temple a good
many worshippers entered, chiefly women, each of whom,
first touching one of the bells which hung from the roof, bent
to the ground before one or other of the idols, depositing in
some instances flowers of sugar candy before it.'*

A splendid Jain temple, on the summit of a mountain, is
thus described by Lieutenant Bumes, in one of his interesting
papers read before the Calcutta Asiatic Society : —

The mountain of Abu, Abuji^ or Abiighad, is situated near
the 25th degree of N. lat., in the district of Sekrul and pro-
vince of Marwdr, about 40 miles N.E. by £. of the camp of
D(sa» The magnificent temples are erected at the small
village of Dehoarra, about the centre of the mountain, which
has an elevation of about 5,000 feet, where the summit is ex-
tremely irregular and studded mth peaked hills. There are
four in number, all of marble, and two of them of the richest

• Narrative of a Journey, vol- i. p. 386; ii. 430, 626—530; iii. 48, 49.

236 ARCHITBCTURE. — TEMPLES OF DELWARRA.

kind. They are dedicated to Pdramdih, or * the principal
of the deified saints, who, according to their creed, have suc-
cessively become superior gods,' and who are believed to
amount to the number of 24, or as some say, to have api-
peared, Uke Hindu gods, in 24 different Avat&rs. These
are the gods of the Jain, Shrawak, or Banian castes, who are
a gloomy tribe of atheistical ascetics, not unlike the Budd-
hists, * who deny the authority of God, and a foture state ;
believe that, as the trees in an uninhabited forest spring up
without cultivation, so the universe is self-existent; and that
the world, in short, is produced, as the spider produces his
web, out of its own bowels ; and that, as the banks of a river
fall of themselves, there is no supreme destroyer: — ^they
also deny the divine authority of the Vedas, and worship the
great Hindu gods as minor deities only/

The building is in the figure of an oblong square, 44 paces
long by 22 wide (or perhaps 100 feet by 50); within the
buiUing, and in the centre of the area so enclosed, stands
the pagoda, in which the great image of the god is placed
facing eastwards. In ifront of this there is an octagon of £4
feet, supporting, on pillars and arches of marble, a cupola of
the same. The pillars may be firom 12 to 15 feet high. The
entrance to the temple is firom a small door opposite this cu-
pola, and the grandeur of die building is discoverable at once
on entering it, and has a very imposing effect On all sides
of the area there is a colonnade, the long sides having a
double row of pillars supporting small domes, within each of
which are cells in the walls to the number of 56, in all pf
which are marble images of the god. In the S.W. comer,
and in a chamber detached firom the building, is a colossal
figure of Nemindth, in black stone. The whole of the
building is of tibe richest white marble, superbly cut into
numerous devices : and it is worthy of remark that there is
not an inch of stone unomamented, and not two domes of
the same pattern, though 1S3 in number, and all carved.
The grand dome is a most diaate piece of workmanship, and
so light do the pillars appear, that it could hardly be imagined

ARCHITECTURE. — TEMPLE OF NEMINATH. S37

ih€y cotdd support the superincumbent weight. Adjoining
to this building is a room, called ^ Hdthesdl,' or the elephant
haDy which seems once to have a]so had a roof of domes, and
in which are the figures of 10 marble elephants with driversi
each about four feet high, caparisoned in the modem style
of those of the native princes, with every rope, tassel, and
cloth, beautifliUy and correctly carved, and apparently (the
cars and riders excepted) from one block of marble. The
workmanship is exceedingly good, and the representation of
the animal is very superior to Indian sculpture in generah
The floor of this room is of black marble, while that of the
temple is of white. At the door is a large equestrian statue
of the founder, who, by an inscription, is described as ' Bi^
malndih, a banian of ChandouUy to whom the gods had been
propitious.' It is rudely executed, and is ^ridently the work
of later days.

The next temple to be described is the northern one,
which is dedicated to Nemindih, the S2d deified saint of
the Jains* It is, with regard to design and material, as
the one mentioned, but although of equal length it is 10
paces wider, from which addition the architect has been able
to make the colonnade double on all sides without contracting
the area too much, and which has a good effect The pagoda
of the god is in the centre, and faces the W. It has also a
cupola in front of it, the same as the other in size, though far
inferior in execution : but the greatest ornament in this tem«-
pie, and indeed on Abu, is a portico between this cupola and
the pagoda. It is supported by pillars, and the roof ia
formed by nine small domes most exquisitely carved. The
dtodes on both sides the entrance of the temple are deeper
eat than any marble Lieut* Bumes ever saw, and approached
in resemblance to Hogarth's line of beauty. This part of
the building is said to have cost 18 lacs of rupees. The
E« side of the building is dirided into two compartments, but
eonsiBts of one long room in which are placed 10 marble ele^
phants, which are more minutely carved than those described,
the very twisting of the ropes being rejuresented. In rear of
these are the images of the different contributors to the

SS8 ARCHITECTURE. — ^TEMPI<ES OF WESTERN INDIA.

* Holy undertaking/ rudely cut out in stone, and represented
as holding purses full of money ready to be appropriated.
There are inscriptions under all these figures, mentioning
the names of the difierent ' pious individuals/ most of whom
appear to have been Banians.*

But these provincial temples, compared with those of the
capitals of Western India, are no more than so many village
churches placed in juxta-position with Westminster Abbey or
St. Paul's. The bigotry of the Patans and Moguls, whom
Colonel Tod very properly denominates the Goths and Van-
dals of Rajast'han, has deprived the lovers of the fine arts in
Hindostan of many a beautiful relic of nobler days and
noblest arts ; but a few exquisite structures have survived
their indiscriminating rage, and of these one of the most per-
fect, as well as one of the most ancient specimens is found in
the city of Ajmere. This noble monument of Hindoo archi-
tecture stands on the western declivity of the fortress. It is
termed by the natives, ^ the shed of two and a half days,* for
they imagine it to have been the work of magic, and to have
been completed within that time. ^ The temple is surrounded
by a superb screen of Saracenic architecture, having the main
front and gateway to the north. From its simplicity, as well
as its appearance of antiquity, I am inclined to assign the
screen to the first dynasty, the Ghorian sultans, who evidently
employed native architects. The entrance arch is of that
wavy kind, characteristic of what is termed the Saracenic,
whether the term be applied to the Alhambra of Spain, or
the Mosques of Delhi ; and I am disposed, on close examin*-
tion, to pronounce it Hindoo. The entire fa9ade of this noble
entrance is covered with Arabic inscriptions. But unless my
eyes much deceived me, the small frieze over the apex of the
arch contained an inscription in Sanscrit, with which Arabic
has been commingled, both being unintelligible. The remains
of a minaret still maintain their position on the right flank of
the muexxin to call the faithfiil to prayers. The design is
chaste and beautiful, and the material, which is a compact
limestone of a yeUow colour, admitting almost of as high a
* See Jottrnal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

ARCHITECTURE. — AJMSRB TEMPLE. S39

polish aa the jaune antique^ gave abundant scope to the
sculptor. After confessing and admiring the taste of the Van-
dal architect/ we passed under the arch to examine the more
noble production of the Hindoo. Its plan is simple, and con-
sonant with the more ailcient temples of the Jains. It is an
extensiye saloon, the ceiling supported by a quadruple range
of columns, those of the centre being surmounted by a range
of vaulted coverings; while the lateral portion, which is flat,
is divided into compartments of the most elaborate sculpture.
But the columns are most worthy of attention ; they are unique
in design, and with the exception of the cave-temples, pro-
bably among the oldest now existing in India. On examin-
ing them, ideas entirely novel, even in Hindoo art, are deve-
loped. Like all these portions of Hindoo architecture, their
ornaments are very complex, and the observer will not fail to
be struck with their dissimilarity : it was evidently a rule in
the art to make the ornaments of every part unlike the other,
and which I have seen carried to a great extent. There may
be forty columns, but not two alike. The ornaments of the
base are peculiar, both as to form and execution ; the lozen-
ges, with the rich tracery surmounting them, might be trans-
ferred, not inappropriately to the Gothic cathedrals of Eu-
rope. The projections from various parts of the shaft, (which,
on a small scale, may be compared to the corresponding pro-
jections of the columns in the duomo at Milan,) with the small
niches still containing the statues, though occasionally muti-
lated, of the pontiffs of the Jains, give them a character which
strengthens the comparison, and which would be yet more
apparent, if we could afford to engrave the details. The ele-
gant Camacumpa, the emblem of the Hindoo Ceres, with its
pendant palmyra-branches, is here lost, as are many emble-
matical ornaments^ curious in design, and elegant in their ex-
ecution. Here and there occurs a richly carved corbeille,
which still farther sustains the analogy between the two sys-
tems of architecture ; and the capitals are at once strong and
delicate ; the central vault, which is the largest, is constructed
after the same fashion as that described at Nadole ; but the
concentric annulets which in that are plain, in this are one

£40 FINE ARTS. — SCULPTURE.

blaze of ornaments, whichi with the whole of the cdling^ is
too elaborate and complicated for description. Under the
most retired of the compartments, and nearly about the
centre, is raised the mumba, or pulpit, whence the Moollah
enunciates the dogma, of Mohammed, ^ There is but one God :*
and from which he dispossessed the Jain, whose creed was
like his own, the unity of the Oodhead. But this is in unison
with the feeling which dictated the external metamorphosis.**

These details mark suflSciently the high degree of civiliza-
tion that existed at a former period in India ; under the Ma-
homedan dynasties we hare attested the advanced state of
the architectural art in the beautifiil Taje Mehal, composed
entirely of white marble, inlaid with precious stones, — ^the
splendid Jumna Musjeed at Delhi, the elegant Cuttub Minar
pillar,f the palace of Shah Jehan, and the Mausoleum of Ac-
bar ; while in the South we have the magnificent Hindoo
temples of Tanjore, Madura, &c.

Fine Arts. — Sculpture. — ^The art of sculpture appears at
a very early period to have occupied the Hindoos. In their
choice of subjects they were necessarily much influenced by
the nature of their religious opinions, but there are numerous
exceptions ; and among these must be reckoned various spe-
cimens of ancient sculpture still found in the dilapidated city
of Mahamalaipur, situate near the sea, at a distance of about
8& English miles S. of Madras. ' The rock, or hill of stone,
is that which first engrosses the attention on approaching the
place, for as it rises abruptly out of a level plain of great ex-
tent, consists chiefly of one single stone, and is situated very
near to the sea-beach, it is such a kind of object as an inqui*
sitive traveller would turn aside to examine. Its shape b also

• Annals of Rajast'han, vol. 1. p. 779» 780.

t In 1794 the Cuttub Minar (built 300 years ago) was described as
having for its base a polygon of 27 sides, rising in a circular form, the ex-
terior fluted into 27 semi-circular and angular divisions : there were four
balconies at sueeessive elevations of 90, 140, 180, and 203 feet ; the total
height beiog 242 ; an irregular spiral staircase led firom the bottooi to tht
Mimmit of the Minar, which was crowned with a majestic cupola of n4
granite* which has since fallen in.

PINE ARTS IN HINDOSTAN. — ^SCULPTURE. S41

singular and romantic, and, from a distant view, has an ap-
pearance like some antique and lofty edifice. On coming
near to the foot of the rock, on the N., works of imagery and
sculpture crowd so thick upon the eye as might seem to fa*
▼our the idea of a petrified city, like those that have been
fiibled in different parts of the world by too credulous tra-
vellers.'* On the smooth faces of the rock are sculptured,
some in basso, others in alto, reHevo, numerous figures of gods
and heroes, some indistinct, and defaced by the action of the
sea air, others fresh, as if newly executed. As far as can be
collected firom the accounts of travellers, who have bestowed
fiir too little attention on the subject, the ancient sculptors,
who adorned this remarkable city with their labours, were
men of undoubted genius, capable, by their productions, of
conferring pleasure, not only on their comparatively rude con-
temporaries, but even on men of refined judgment and taste
in the present critical age. Bishop Heber bears a very fa-
vourable testimony to the degree of skill displayed in the
sculptures of Mahamalaipur ; he observes that the 'rocks,
which in themselves are pretty and picturesque, are carved
out into porticoes, temples, bas-reliefs, &c. on a much smaller
scale indeed than Elephanta or Kenneri, but same of them
very beauiifuUy executed.^ They differ firom those of the N.
and W. of India (which are almost all dedicated to Siva or
Cali) in being in honour of Vishnu, whose different avatars are
repeated over and over in the various temples, while he only
saw the solitary lingam, if it be one, and one unfinished cave,
which struck him as intended for a temple of the * destroying
power.* Many of the bas-reliefs are of great spirit and beauty ;
there is one of an elephant with two young ones, strikingly
executed, and the general merit of the work is superior to that
of Elephanta, though the size is extremely inferior.f

* Asiatic Researches, ?ol. i. p. 147.

t Narradve of a Journey, &c. vol. iii. p. 217- Mr. Goldingham, a com-
petent judge, agrees with Bishop Heber in considering the execution of
the lions as ?ery inferior, as well as in bestowing considerable praise on

TOL. I. R

S48 FINE ARTS. — SCULPTURE.

The bas-reliefs on the walls of' Malicarjrs pagoda at Per-
wuttum, may be considered in many respects as some of the
most extraordinary specimens of art in all India. * The first
and lowest row of these stones/ says Captain Mackenzie, * is
covered with figures of elephants, harnessed in different ways,
as if led in procession, many of them twistmg up trees with
their trunks. The second row is chiefly occupied with eques^
trian subjects; horses led ready saddled, and their manes
ornamented; others tied up to pillars, some loose; a great
many horsemen are represented engaged in fight, at full gal-
lop, and armed with pikes, swords and shields ; others are
seen hunting the tiger, jind running it through with long
spears. The riders are represented very small in proportion
to the horses, probably to distinguish the size of the latter, as
a smaller cast seems intended to be represented among the led
•horses, where a few are seen lower in size, something reaeB»-
bling the Acheen breed of horses. All these figures are very
accurately designed. It is remarkable, that several figores
are represented galloping off* as in flight, and at the same time
drawing the bow at full stretch : these Parthian figures seem
to have entirely dropped the bridle, both hands being occur
pied by the bow ; some of them are seen advancing at fiill
speed, and drawing the bow at the same time. This mode
appears to have been practised by the Indians, as it is highly
probable that the arts of common hfe only are here repre-
sented, in the lower row. On the third row a variety of
figures are represented, many of them hunting pieces ; tigers,
and in one place a lion, attacked by several persons; crowds
of people appear on foot, many armed with bows and arrowi^
like the Chinsuars; many figures of Viragis, or Yogis, ave
seen distinguished by large turbans, carrying their sticky,
pots, and bundles, as if coming from a journey: some

the style in which the bas-reliefSB are scnlptared. Even in the represents-
fion of female beauty, the artists of Malidmalaipur had attained a high
degree of skill. 'The figure and action of the goddess (Bhavani) are
executed/ says Mr. Goldingham, 'in a masterly and spirited style.* Asiatic
Researches, vol. v. p. 71.

PINE ARTS. — ^PAINTING. 243

on h stick as if tired, or decrepit from age ; others approach-
ing with a mien of respect and adoration. The fourth, fifth,
sixth, and seventh rows are filled (as it would appear from the
scanty information I was able to obtain) with representations
of several events regarding the deities of the place, or ex-
pressive allegories of the moral and religious dogmas of the
Brahmins ; and probably some may record particular events
of real history. The eighth has fewer carvings than the rest ;
some stones are occupied by a single flower, of large size,
perhaps intended for the lotos ; and some, though but a few,
by the figure of a god. The ninth, or upper row, is cut into
openings, in the manner of battlements ; and the stones be-
tween each of these apertures are alternately sculptured with
the figures of the lihgam, and a cow shaded by an umbrella,
to signify its preeminence/* Mr. Hunter saw at Oojein the
images of Rftma, Lacsh&mana, Sita, and R&dha, in white
marble, and the statue of Krishna, in black, which were all
executed with ability.

Painiing appears to have been less assiduously cultivated
in India than sculpture, at least so far as there are the speci-
mens extant. Forbes, an enlightened lover of the arts, and
himself a painter, having bestowed high praise on the archi*
tecture of the principal temple at Chandode, observes that
' the interior of the dome is forty feet in diameter, the con-
cave painted by artists from Ahmedabad, on subjects in the
Hindoo mythology. They are done in distemper, which is
very durable in that climate ; but the drawing is bad, and the
style altogether hard, incorrect, and deficient in the efiect of
%ht and shade : a light and dark shade seem indeed to be all
they are acquainted with. The modem artists have no idea
of middle tints, or the harmony of colouring. The outline,
diough greatly inferior in proportion and line of beauty, bears
some resemblance to the ancient Greek and Etruscan vases.^

* Acooont of the pagoda at Perwattum> A.R. vol. v. p. 311, 312. See
also, in vol. yi. p. 433, the same writer's remarks on the images found in
Ceybn. Journey from Agra to Oojein, A.R. vol. vi. p. 40.

t Oriental Memoirs, vol. ill. p. 16.

244 PINE ARTS. — MUSIC.

Portrait painting seems to have been long fashionable in
Hindoostan. I have seen in the houses of wealthy Hindoos
well executed portraits in oil, and some on glass : Colonel
Tod, relating the history of Sanga Rana, observes^ ' I pos-
sess his portrait, given to me by the present Rana, who has
a collection of full-lengths of all his royal ancestors, from Sa-
marsi to himself, of their exact heights, and with every bodUy
peculiarity, whether of complexion or form. They are valu-
able for the costume.'

The Hindoos, like the Chinese, copy with great exactness,
even from nature ; but their portraits, both of individuals
and of groups, are peculiarly devoid of grace and expression
— ^they want the touch of genius. I do not, however agree
with Mr. Mill, that they are ^ entirely without a knowledge of
perspective ; and by consequence of all those finer and nobler
parts of the art of painting which have perspective for their
requisite basis.'*

Speaking of the interior of the palace of Jeypoor, Bishop
Heber remarks, that the * ceilings are generally low, and the
rooms dark and close ; both the walls and ceilings are, how-
ever, splendidly carved and painted, and some of the former
are entirely composed of small looking-glasses, in fantastic
frames of chunam mixed with talc, which have the appearance
of silver, till closely examined* The subjects of the paintings
are almost entirely mythological ; and their stile of colouring,
their attitudes, and the general gloomy silence and intricacy
of the place, reminded me frequently of Belzoni's model of
the Egyptian tomb.'f

The music of the Hindoos is certainly not in accordance
with our ideas of harmony, though the Hindoos appear to be
as much affected by it as a connoisseur at the Italian Opera.
Sir William Ousely amuses his readers with a few of the mar-
vellous stories related by the Hindoos of the effects of their
ancient music, and of the decline of taste among themselves.
^ On the subject of those ancient and extraordinary melodies,'

* History of Britiah Iadia> vol. ii. p. 36, 36.

t Narrative^ toL ii. p. 404.

FINE ARTS. — ^MUSIC. 245

says he, ' which the Hindoos call r^s and rdginiMy the popu-
lar traditions are so numerous and romantic as the powers
ascribed to them are miraculous. Of the six raugs^ the first
five owe their origin to the god Mah&deva (Siva,) who pro-
duced them from his five heads. Parvati, his wife, con-
structed the sixth ; and the thirty raginis were composed by
Brahma. Thus, of celestial invention, these melodies are of
a peculiar genus ; and, of the three ancient genera of the
Greeks, resemble most the enharmomc ; the more modem
compositions are of that species termed diatonic,

^ A considerable difficulty is found in setting to music the
rags and rAgints, as our system does not supply notes or signs
sufficiently expressive of the almost imperceptible elevations
and depressions of the voice in these melodies, of which the
tune is broken and irregular, the modulations frequent, and
very wild. Whatever magic was in the touch when Orpheus
swept his lyre, or Timotheus filled his sofUy-breathing flute,
the effects said to have been produced by two of the six rags
are even more extraordinary than any of those ascribed to the
modes of the ancients. Mir Tansine, a wonderiul musician in
the time of the emperor Acbar, sung one of the night r&gs at
mid-day : the powers of his music were such that it instantly
became night ; and the darkness extended in a circle round
the palace as far as the sound of his voice could be heard. I
shall say little on the tradition of Naik Gopal, another cele-
brated musician in the reign of Acbar, who was commanded
by the emperor to sing the rag dtpaka ; which, whoever at*
tempted to sing, should be destroyed by fire. The story is
long : Naik Gopal flew to the river Jumna, and plunged him-
self up to the neck in water, where Acbar determined to prove
the power of this rag, compelled the unfortunate musician to
sing it, when, notwithstanding his situation in the river, flames
burst violently from his body, and consumed him to ashes.

' These, and other anecdotes of the same nature, are re-
lated by many of the Hindoos, and implicitly believed by
some. The effect produced by the maig multar rdg^ was im?
mediate rain : and it is told, that a singing girl once, by ex-

£46 FiNB ARX8.-HMUSIC.

ertiag the powers of her yoice in this rag, drew down firaoi
Ihe clouds timely and refireshing showers on the parched ri€e->
crops of Bengal* and thereby adverted the horrors of tunaSam
from the paradise of regions* An European in that country,
inquiring after those whose musieal performance might pro*-
duoe similar effects, was answered, ^ that the art is now al-
most lost ; but that there are still musicians possessed of tiioae
wonderful powers in the W* of India.' If one inquires in the
W. they say, ^ that if any such p^formers remain, they are to
be found only in Bengal/

' Of the present music, and the sensations it excites, one
can 8i>eak with greater accuracy* Many of the Hindoo me-
lodies possess the plaintive simplicity of the Scotch and Iriah,
and others a wild originality, pleasing beyond descriptioiu*
Counterp<Hnt seems not to have entered, at any time, into the
system of Indian music* It is not alluded to in the manu-
script treatises which I have hitherto perused; nor have I
discovered that any of our ingenious orientalists speak of it as
being known in Hindoostan.*

In Mr. Wilson's translation of a Sanscrit play entitled
Mridichhacati, or * The Toy-cart,' and supposed to have been
written about a century before our era, we find the following
beautiful lines on the vitu$, or Hindoo lute : —

** Although not ocean bora,t the tuneful vlna
Is most assuredly a gem of heavra-—
Like a dear friend it cheers the lonely heart.
And lends new lustre to the social meeting.
It lulls the pain that absent lovers feel.
And adds fresh impulse to the glow of passion."

Domestic Arts. — Compared with England^ the Hindoos
have effected few improvements in the instruments of social
economy* A Bengal plough is the most simple instrument

* The Hindoos take delight in the favourite Persian air of—' Ttzzipu-
tasa-^Iben Oh*

t An allusion to the legend of the churning of the ocean by the gods
and demons, at which Tarions personages and prteious articles, called
rsimu^ or ^'gemt,** variously enumerated, were recovered from the deep.

DOMESTIC ARTS OF THE HINDOOS. 347

imaginable : it consists of a crooked piece of wood, sharpened
at one end^ and covered ynth a plate of iron, which fcHrms the
plooghshaie. A wooden handle^ about two feet long, is fixed
to the other end eross^waya ; and in the midst is a long
straight piece of wood, or bambooi called Uka^ which goes
between the bullocksy and falls on the middle of the yoke, to
which it hangs by means of a peg, and is tied by a string.
The yoke is a neat instrument, and lies over Ihe neck of two
buflocks, just before the hump, and has two pegs descending
on the side of each bullock's neck, by means of which it is
tied with a cord under the throat. There is only one man or
boy to each plough, who with one hand holds the plough,
and widi the other gtddes the animals, by pulling them this or
that way by the tail, and driving them forward with a stick.

The separating of the grain from the chafi*is performed by
two or more bullocks fastened together, side by side, and driven
round upon a quantity of sheaves spread on the ground, by
which means about 30 maunds* will be trodden out in three
hours. The Bengal farmers generally ' muzzle the ox in tread-
ing out the com,' until the upper sheaves have been reduced
to mere straw. The rice is then cleared from the husk by large
handfans, one person letting the grain faU from his hands, while
another winnows it. It is next deposited in granaries, or sent
to the corn-merchant. The straw is piled up in stacks for the
cattle, the use of hay being unknown. The scythe has not
hitherto been introduced into Bengal, where even grass is
cat with the sickle. The grinding mills are generally the
oonamon hand stones, turned chiefly by women, but the fol-
lowing is an account of a simple mill used in the mountain
streams in the N. Doab: it consists of a horizontal waters

See Wikon'8 Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindoos, voL i.
p. 59, 60, (2d edit London, 1835, 8vo.)

* The mound U equal to 74 pounds and two-thirds m Bengal ; 37 pounds
and a half at Surat ; 28 pounds at Anjengo j and 25 at Madras. Roas-
seau's Persian Dictionary, s, v. Ward makes it 80 pounds, and observes
that 320 pounds of rice in the husk are sometimes sold for a rupee! Vol. i.
p. 106.

S48 DOMESTIC ARTS — GRINDING CORN, IRRIGATION, &C

wheel, with floats jdaeed obliquely so as to receive a stream
of water firom a shorter funnel, the flat board being fixed in a
vertical axle passing through the lower mill-stone, and held
to the upper one by a short iron bar at right angles, causing
it to revolve with the water-wheel ; the axle itself having a
pivot working on a piece of the hardest stone that can be pro-
cured at hand, — this, with a thatched roof, and the expense
or trouble of digging a cut so as to take advantage of a fiaJl
of water, is all that is required.

In the N.W. and dry provinces of India, a shnple but ef-
fective mode of irrigation is adopted. ' In Rajpootana,* says
Ck>l. Tod, 'firom the margin of the stream on each side to the
mountain's base, they have constructed a series of terraces f
rising over each other, whence by simple and ingenious
methods they raise the waters to irrigate the rich crops of
sugar*cane, cotton, and rice, which they cultivate upon them.
Wherever soil could be found, or time decomposed these
primitive rocks, a barrier was raised. When discovered,
should it be in a hollow below, or on the summit of a crag, it
is alike greedily seized on : even there water is found, and if
you leave the path below and ascend a 100 feet above the
terraces, you will discover pools or reservoirs dammed in with
massive trees, which serve to irrigate such insulated spots, or
as nurseries to the young rice plants. A patch of ground,
for which the cultivator pays six rupees rent, will produce
sugar-cane 600 rupees in value.*

Among Hindoo implements of husbandry is an excellent in-
strument in the form of a hoe, with a handle about two feet and
a half long, and the iron as wide and as strong as a spade,
called a kuddala^ which answers the purpose of a spade and hoe.

The Indian loom, though much more simple and imperfect,
is in substance the same as the English. The frame is laid
almost on the ground, in which a hole is cut to receive the

* It 18 not trae, as some writers suppose, that the Hmdoos never mannre
their lands : in CSanara leaves are strewed over the fields and plouj^hed up ;
in Nagpoor (where the mode of ploughing answers Dr. Tennant's descrip-
tion,) they use manure to a great amount, particularly in the cultivation of

DOM S8T1C ARTS — COTTON IfANUVACTVRBS. S40

feet of the weaver while at work. Women of all castes are
engaged in the preparation of the cotton*thread* The finest
muslins are manufactured at Dacca, Shantipoor, Sonarga, and
Vicrampoor, where the price of a single piece, idiich oc-
cupies the weaver four months, sometimes amounts to 4€0 or
500 rupees. When thb muslin is laid on the grass, and the
dew has £dlen upon it, it is no longer discernible. Tavemier
relates that the ambassador of Shah Sefi, on his return from
India, presented his master with a cocoa-nut, set with jewels,
containing a muslin turban, 60 covits, or SO English yards>
in length, so exquisitely fine that it could scarcely be felt by
the touch ; indeed, the manufiicture of no modem nation can,
in delicacy and fineness, vie with the textures of Hindoostan;
The common kinds are also preferred, on the score of
enduring great hardships, and retaining their whiteness
better ; and in respect to the coloured or prohibited goods,
lor the foreign markets, they will always retain their sype-
riority. In the article of Ghiinea stufis manufactured at Surat,
and in request on the coast of Africa, many attempts have
been made to imitate them, particularly by the French, but in
vain. The Moors discover merely by the touch whether
they have been manufactured in Europe or India; nor is it
even to their feel and colour that they chiefly trust; they
assertain by their smell, as the indigo with which they are
dyed gives them a pecuHar smell which cannot be imitated.'*
' The cotton manufactures of India seem anciently to have
been as much admired as they are at present, not only for
their delicate texture, but for the elegance with which some
of them are embroidered, and the beautiful colour of the
flowers with which others are adorned. From the earliest
period of European intercourse with India, that country has
been distinguished for the number and excellence of the sub-

sugar, the betal leaf, and tobacco. For this purpose the dung of sheep and
other animals u used. In the calture of cotton the ground Is manured
with wood^hes. i^Rept. 1830, p. 147» 211, 322.
* Oriental Commerce, p. 297.

$50 DOMESTIC ARTS — HIKDOO TRADBSMSN.

^BtBxtoBB for dyeing yarious colours, widi wldch it aboimded**
The dye of the deep bhie colour, ia highest estinustion among
the Romans, bore the name of ImUounkj^ From India, too,
the substance used in dyeing a bright red ctdour seems to have
been imported ; and it is well know diat both in the cotton
and silk stuflb whidi we now receive from India, the bhie and
the red are the colours of most conspicuous lustre and
beauty.'t

The tradesmen of India are numerous. Among the inferior
classes, the Napit(Uf or * barbers,' claim a disdnguished
place, as, like their ancient brethren of Europe, they unite a
certain knowledge of pharmacy with the art and mystery of
shaving. No Hindoo, even of the poorest class, ever shaves
himself, or cuts his own nails; and there are numbers who
disdain even to clean their own ears, which operation falls to
Ae lot of the barbers, who may be seen in the streets, seeking
employment, with an instrument like a skewer, covered at one
end with cotton, in their hands* The rich are usually shaved
daily, the middling ranks once a week, the poor once in a
fortnight. The operation is generally performed in the street,
or under a tree, and the operator receives for his pains, inm
the poor a farthing, and from the rich double that sum. The
wives of the barbers, who in France both shave and cut hair,
are condemned in India to operate on their own sex only, for
whom they cut the nails of both fingers and. toes, and stain
the feet and hands with hennet.

The confectioners of India, who are in great request, make
and vend nearly a hundred sorts of sweetmeats, principally
composed of sugar, molasses, flour, and spices, no fruit, ex-
cepting the cocoar-nut, being ever used in these delicacies,
which are in great request among the Hindoos. It is very
interesting to drive along the Chitpore road at Calcutta on an
evening, and examine the confectioners shops, piled witb
every variety of cakes and sweetmeats, while smoking fires at

* StrabOf lib. zv. c. 1, p. 694, ed. Cswab.

t Plin. Nat. Hist lib. xzxr. c. 6^ § 27.

X RobertsoD, Dissertation, &c. App. § 4.

DOMESTIC ARTS— <K>NF£CTION£R8, POTTERS, &C. ^1

ike yery edge of the baeaar or shops^ send forth a savottry
odour of refreshing delicacies.

The potters caste are numerous and varied ; for besides
manufacturing earthenware of different kinds, they plaster
houses with clay, make bricks, tiles, spouts, balustrades, to-
gether with those little images, which, having been worshipped
during certain days, are cast into the pools or rivers. Toys,
also, as birds, horses, gods, coaches, and elephants, which are
painted and gilt, are the work of the potter.

Black9miih$ are numerous, they make arrows, bill'-hooks^
the iuddalaj or spade-hoe, the axe, the farmer's weedmg
knife, the ploughshare, the sickle, the hook to lift up the
com while the oxen are treading it out : besides nails, locks,
keys, knives^ chains, scissors, razors, cooking utensils, builder's
and joiner's tools, instruments of war, &Cf

Fhwer-$eUers are found in great numbers in Hindoostan.
It is a part of their business to make wedding crowns, together
with the lamps and artificial flowers which are carried in mar*
riage processions. They likewise work in gardens, and manu-
&cture gunpowder and fire-works. Hindoo joiners were
formerly a very rude and Ignorant race, possessing no know-
ledge of the rule, compass or gimlet, or, indeed, of more than
ten of those implements which compose a joiner's chest of
txx>l8 ; but they are now richer in tools, and more skilful in
the use of them* They make idols, bedsteads, window-frames,
doors, boxes, seats, pillars for houses, delineate the figures
of idols* on boards, paint images, and sometimes engage in
masonry.

The Rajakcts^ or '^ washermen," are a numerous caste.
They were ignorant until recently, of the use of soap, and
to this day make use of a wash composed chiefly of the
ashes of the plantain, or of the argemone mexicana. The
linen having been steeped in the wash, and boiled, is dipped
repeatedly in water, and then beaten with a heavy mallet on

* The lieraldry of Europe has evidently derived its on^ firom the East ;
and it was intiinatdy associated with religion and Buperstition. Maurice
observes, that by the same hardy race— -the descendants of the Tartar

252 DOMESTIC ARTS — GOLDSMITHS^ SHOEMAKERS.

a board, which is generally placed by the side of a pool or
river. And this method, though somewhat adverse to the
duration of linen, renders it much whiter than our own*

The Suvamakdras, or ' goldsmiths/ display no small in*
genuity in Bengal Bishop Heber, says ' the goldsmiths of
Kutch and Katt3rw&r emboss very neatly, by filling the cup,
watch-case, box, or other vessel, with gum-lac, and punching
it in, to the figure required, with a small chisel. Major Sale
shewed me a watch-case and a small tankard, very prettily
ornamented in this manner, with flowers, elephants, and dif«
ferent birds and animals.' As ornaments of gold and silver
are much worn by the Hindoos of both sexes, whether young
or old, this is a flourishing caste. DistiUers, though they
employ a rude apparatus, produce excellent arrack, and the
Nagas and other tribes brew good beer.

Few castes of Hindoos are more despised than the Shoe-
makers, principally because they work up the skin of the
cow, and may thus be suspected of indirectly encouraging the
slaughter of that sacred animal. However, though despised
and not allowed to get drunk, they are excellent workmen,
and will make a pair of shoes for four-pence; but for a good
pair, which will last two years, they demand eighteen-pence.
In the upper parts of India they make several kinds of gilt
and ornamented shoes, like those worn by the Grecian
ladies, which sell in Bengal for from three to forty rupees.
These merry sons of Crispin are likewise employed as musi*
cians at weddings, feasts, and religious ceremonies; which,

tribes, which tenanted the north of Asia — ^were introduced into Europe
armorial bearings, which were ori^nally nothing more than hieroglyphical
symbols, mostly of a religious allusion, that distinguished the banners of
the potentates of Asia. The eagle belongs to the ensign of Vishna, the bull
to that of Siva, and (he felcon to that of Rama. The sun riaiog behind a
recumbent lion blazed on the ancient ensign of the Tartar, and the eagle of
the sun on that of the Persians. The Humza, a famous goose, one of the
incarnations of Boodha, is yet the chief emblem of Burman banners. The
Russians, no doubt, had their standard from the eastern nations ; it is the
type of Garuda. The Islamites took the crescent, a fit emblem either of a
rising or declining empire, and of their primeval worship.

DOMESTIC ARTS. 353

in the opinion of Ward^ accounts in a great measure for the
horrid din which on these occasions stuns the ear of an Euro-
pean.* The Hindoo DruggUts are a respectable cUiss of
people. The Brass-founders are numerous and skilfiiL

Shell-^imament'Tnakers abound in Calcutta^ where the wo«
men sometimes wear six or eight rings of shells on each wrist.
In some parts of the country all the lower part of the arm is
covered with them. These trinkets, like the gold and silver
ornaments possessed by the peasants of France, sometimes
become a kind of heir-loom in the family, and descend from
mother to daughter to the third or fourth generation.f In
diflferent parts of India gunpowder is manufactured — cannon
(both brass and iron) cast, and various warlike weapons, as
also coats of mail of exquisite workmanship prepared ; paper,
whether for writing, printing, or wrapping is made in large
quantities, and the introduction of a steam paper mill at Se-
rampore has introduced an improved material into the mar-
ket ; the indigo made by natives is equal to any of the Euro-
pean &ctories — and in delicateness and brilliancy of dyes
they quite excel us; the Hindoo surgeons, although not
equally daring as the Europeans in the large operations of
amputations, &c. are quite as skilful in couching for the cata-
ract, or cutting for the stone, — and whether handicraft re-
quires patient endurance, firmness of touch, and keenness of
sight, they are not behind their Western brethren. 'To
>&y/ says Bishop Heber, 'that the Hindoos or Musulmans
are deficient in any essential feature of a civilised people, is
an assertion which I can scarcely suppose to be made by any
who have lived with them. Their manners are at least as
pleasing and courteous as those of the corresponding stations
of life among ourselves; their houses are larger, and, accord-
ing to their wants and climate, to the full as convenient as
ours ; their architecture is at least as elegant. Nor is ii true
that in the mechanic arts they are inferior to the general run

* See Mr. Knight's Account of the Hindoos, vol. i. p. 193.
t Ward, View, &c. vol. i. p. 98—142.

S54 GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE NATIVES OF INDIA.

of European nations. Where they fall short of us (which is
chiefly in agricultural implements and die mechanics of cobot
mon Ufe)^ they are not, so far as I have understood of Italy
and the South of France, surpassed in any great degree by
the people of diose countries. Their goldsmiths and weavers
produce as beautifiil fabrics as our own, and it is so far firom
true that they are obstinately wedded to their own patterns,
that they show an anxiety to imitate our models, and do imi-
tate them very successfully. The ships built by native ajrtiats
at Bombay are notoriously as good as any which sail from
London or Liverpool. The carriages and gigs which they
supply at Calcutta are as handsome, though not as durable,
88 Aose of Long Acre. In the little town of Monghir, 900
miles from Calcutta, I had pistols, double-barrelled guns, and
different pieces of cabinet-work brought down to my boat for
sale, whidi in outward form (for I know no further) nobody
could detect to be of Hindoo origin.'

In closing this chapter, I trust sufficient facts have been
adduced to prove the claims which our Hindoo fellow-subjects
have on their brethren in England ; I have quoted the testiU
mony of others, in preference to recording my own observa-
tions, in order to avoid the recurrence of the charge that
has been made of my being prejudiced in fiitvour of the
Hindoos, and of oar colonists in general ; I know of no indi-
vidual who has ever resided long in India, or attentively
examined the Hindoos, without speaking warmly in their
fiivoor, — ^I found them, whether Hindoos, Mussulmans, or
Parsees, grateful for even slight attentions, courteous in their
manners, hospitable without ostentation, punctual in their
duties, and brave without boa8ting,-^in charity abounding,
strict in religious rites, and scrupulously exact in the per^
formance of social obligations; of an intelligence qui(^ and
refined, docSe under instruction, and expanding in oompre^
heiiMon. That England may treat them with justice, and no
longer impoverish their beautiful and fertile land by a grasp-
ing, mercenary commercial system which beggars the Hindoo
without enriching Britain, is my fervent and anxious wish.

WEIQHTS AND MEASURE OF BRITISH INDIA. 2j5

Bbngal — Weights. — 5 siccas— 1 chittuck — 16 == 1 seer— -40 =: 1
maund.

Two maunds in use $ the factory maund, 74 lbs. 10 oz, 10.666
drs. avoirdupois ; the bazar maund, 8^ lbs. 2 oz. 2.133 drs.

lAqtdd Measure. — 5 siccas — 1 chittuck, 4 r= 1 pouah or pice, 4 =
1 seer, 40 = 1 maund ) or 5 seers = 1 pussaree or measure, 8 mea-
sures z= 1 maund.

Grain Measmre.^-^ khacniks r= 1 raik,* 4 =: 1 paillie, 20 = 1 soal-
lie, 16 = 1 kahoon.f

Long Measure^^-^S jows| = 1 finger, 4 = 1 hand, 5 = 1 span» 2
= 1 cubit, 4 = 1 fathom, 1000 = 1 coss.||

Square Measure. — 5 cubits or hauts = 1 chittuck,§ 16 = 1 cottah,
20 = 1 biggah,^ 3i = 1 English acre.

Gold and Silver.-^ punkhos = 1 dhan,^* 4=1 rutty, 6^ = 1
anna, 16.= 1 tolah, = 224.588 grs. troy -, or 8 rutties = 1 massa,
13.23 s 1 mohur.

Madras — Commercial. — Candy = 20 maunds. The candy of
Madras 500 lbs. avoirdupois. The maund divided into 8 vis, 320
pollams or 3200 pagodas, (the vis being divided into 5 seers,) each
pagoda weighing 2 oz. 3 grs. The Conunercial Dictionary, from
whkh this statement is taken, observes : the garce = 20 baruays or
candies — ^the baruay = 20 maunds<— -the maund = 8 visay or vis,
320 pollams or 3200 varahuns, the varahun weighing 52 j[ English
grains 3 therefore, the vis is 3 lbs. 3 oz. -, the maund, 24 lbs. 2 oz, 3
the baruay, 482 lbs. 5 and the garce, 9645 lbs. avoirdupois, or nearly
4 tons, 6 cwt.

Measures of Ca/>ad<y.-^The garce com measure contains — 80
parahs = 400 marcals, — ^the marcal = 8 puddies = 64 oUucks, The
marcal := 750 cubic inches = 27 lbs. 2 oz. 2 drs. avoir, of fresh
spring water ; hence 43 marcals zn 15 Winchester bushels, and the
garce nearly 17^ English quarters. Grain, when sold by weight,
9256^ lbs. = 1 garee = 18 candies = 12-^ maunds.

Bombay — Commercial, — 1 tank = 2.488 drs., 72=1 seer, 40 = 1
maand = 28 lbs. avoirdupois.

Gram. — 2 tipprees = 1 seer, 4 = 1 pailie, 7 = 1 parah^ 8 = 1
candy =156 lbs. 12 oz. 12 drs.

Salt. — \0^ adowlies = 1 parah^ 100 = I anna, 16 = 1 rash =
2,572,176 cubic inches.tt

Pearl JVaght.—! tucka = 0.208 gr., 13^ = 1 ruttee,--«24 = 1
tank = 72 grains.

Gold and Silver — 1 wall, 4.475 grs., 40 = 1 tolah = 179 grains.

Lof^ Measure. — 16 tussoos = 1 hath = 18 English inches ; 24
tussooB 8 1 guz = 27 English inches.

Liquor Measure.^The seer weighs 60 Bombay rupees = 1 lb. 8
oz. and 81^ drs., and 50 seers = 1 maund.

* Or 9 lbs. avoirdupois. 1 1 kahoon = 40 B. maunds.

I Or barley coma. || 1 coss = 1 mile, 1 furlong, 3 poles and 3i yds.
§ 45 EngHsh square feet. ^ 14,440 square feet. ** A gnin.

tt 40 tons ; the anna weighs 2i tons.

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2>57

CHAPTER IV.

COVERNllENT (ENGLISH AND INDIAN) OF BENOAIi, AORA, MADRAS, AND
BOMBAY; JUDICIAL, POLICE, MILITARY, MARINE, MEDICAL AND EC-
CLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS, PATRONAGE OF THE BAST INDIA COM-
PANY, &C.

The Government of the British possessions on the continent
of Asia, is yested at home in two powers with co-ordinate
authority, — ^viz. the E. I. Company, and a Ministerial Board,
termed His Majesty's Commissioners for the affairs of India,
the latter being devised by Mr. Pitt as a check upon the po-
litical proceedings of the former. A few words wiQ be requi-
site to explain this complex authority.

The Court of Directors. — ^The more immediate govern-
ing power of British India, and consequently the patronage
attached thereto, is vested in the Court of Directors, or execu-
tive body of the £. I. Company. The capital stock of this
Company is 6,000,0001. sterling, which is divided, according to
a recent calculation, among 3,579 proprietors, of whom 53
have four votes;* 64 — three; 347 — two; 1,454 — one; and
221 hold only 500/. stock, and are not qualified to vote but
merely to debate on any question ; 396 proprietors hold stock
under 5001. and are not qualified to vote or speak, and 2S0 have
not held their stock a sufficient time to enable them to vote.
The stock must be bona fide in the proprietor's possession
for 12 months, to enable him or her to vote ; a regulation
adopted to prevent collusive transfers of stock for particular
occasions. The total number o{ voters is estimated at 2,000, and
of the votes about 1,500 are compromised within four miles of
the General Post Office. Women as well as men ; foreigners
as well as Englishmen, if holding stock sufficient, are empowered

• A proprietor of not less than j^lOOO has one vote ; of £3000 two ;
of iC6000 three ; and of £\0,000 and upwards, no more than four rotes. •
VOL. I. S

358 CONSTITUTION OF COURT OP PROPRIETORS OF E. I. STOCK.

to vote and debate. A late classification of the votes gave of
gentry, bankers, merchants, traders, shipowners, shopkeepers,
&c. 1,836; of women (married, widows, and spinsters), 43;
of officers in the King's and E. I. Company's Army, 222 ; of
the clergy, 86 ; of officers in the Royal Navy, 28 ; of medical
men, 19 ; of the nobility, 30.* The proprietors meet as a
Court regularly every quarter, and specially when convened
to discuss particular business.f The powers vested in this
Court are, the election of qualified proprietors as their dele-
gates, or representatives, to form a Court of Directors ; to
frame bye-laws for the regulation of the Company — provided
they do not interfere with Acts of Parliament ; to controul
salaries, or pensions, exceeding 200/. a year, or gratuities
above 600/. It may confer pecuniary rewards on any eastern
statesman, or warrior, above the latter named sum, subject,
however, to the confirmation of the Board of Control ; it
can demand copies of public documents to be laid before it
for discussion and consideration, but it is prevented interfer-
ing with any order of the Court of Directors, after the same
shall have received the approval of the Board of Control.
The Court of Proprietors did interfere, and with effect, in the
case of the maritime compensations, on the ground that their
concurrence had not been obtained previously to the appli-
cation of the Board. The Chairman of the Court of Directors
is ex-qfficio Chairman of the Court of Proprietors ; — debates
are regulated as in the House of Commons, — and all questions
and elections are decided by the ballot.

The Court of Directors, or Representatives of the fore-
going body of Proprietors, consist of 24f persons, qualified
according to an Act of Parliament, which provides that each
must be a natural bom or naturalized subject of Great Bri-

* The following is said to be the state of the votes of die Coart of Pro-
prietors in 1832 : — Peers, 20 ; Members of Parliament, 10 $ Directors, 50 ;
Clergymen, 86 ; Medical men, 19 ; Military Officers, 222 ; Naval Dittd,
28 { Minor, 1 ; other Gentlemen, 1775^ male votes, 2211 ; female ditto,
372; total, 2583.

t The number of quarterly and special Coorti held from 1814 to 1830-31»
was 212.

CONSTITUTION OF COURT OF DIRECTORS OF THE E. I. COMPY. 259

tain : possessed of £2000 stocky (no matter for what previous
period) he must not be a Director of the Bank of England, or
the South Sea Company ; and, by a Bye-law of the Company,
he shall be liable to be removed if he should promote his own,
or the election of any other Director, by promises of reward,
collusive transfer of stock, or payment of travelling expenses,
receive any pecuniary or other remuneration whatever, for any
appointment in his gift or patronage as a Director. Six Di-
rectors retire annually by rotation, and are re-eligible after
twelve months absence, the Proprietors have a review of every
Director in the course of four years, and can of course remove
if they think fit such as they may deem not fit for the duty
which they ought to fulfil.* The Court of Directors elect
from their own body a Chairman and Deputy Chairman an-
nually, meet once a week, not less than thirteen form a Court,
and all questions are decided by ballot The Court in gene-
ral consists of men of various habits, views, and interests; by
a recent analysis there were ten retired civil and law officers
of the company; four military ditto of ditto ; four maritime
ditto of ditto ; three private Indian merchants ; and nine Lon-
don merchants and bankers ; of these fifteen were under ten
years standing from the first election; eleven from ten to
twenty ditto ; two from twenty to thirty, and two from thif ty
upwards. The Court of Directors enjoy full initiatory autho-
rity over all matters at home and abroad relating to the poli-
tical, financial, judicial, and military affairs of the Company.
But its proceedings are subject to certain Acts of Parliament ;
to the superintendence of the Board of Control, and in several
matters to the approval of the Court of Proprietors,

For the despatch of business the Directors are divided into
diree Committees; Finance and Home, eight Directors ; Poli-
tical and Military, seven; Revenue, Judicial, and Legis-
lative, seven; the duty of each is partly defined by the
title, but there is a committee of secrecy, forming the cabinet
council of the Company, and consisting of the Chairman, de-

* Nineteen contested elections for Directora took place from 1814 to
1831.

260 PROPORTIONATE BUSINESS OF E. I. HOUSE, &C.

puty ditto, and senior Director ; its functions are defined by
Parliament. In reference to the business done by the Court
of Directors as compared with the Board of Control, the Se-
lect Committee of the House of Commons thus reports in 1832:

As to the proportions of general administration resting on
the Board of Control, and the East India Company, its Courts
and its Officers respectively, it has been asserted, that, of all
the reflections, suggestions and instructions bearing upon the
policy of the Indian Governments, contained in the public
despatches, nine-tenths, if not a larger proportion originate
with the India House, though whatever regards the more im-
portant transactions* with other States, and whatever is done
in England, may be said to be mainly done by the Board of
Commissioners. Considering the multifarious nature of the
Company's relations and transactions, it is to be expected that
the correspondence should be voluminous and complicated,
comprehending, as it does, not only all that is originated in
England, and transmitted to India, but the record of the pro-
ceedings and correspondence of all the Boards at the several
Presidencies, with duplicates of the documents relating thereto
in India, necessary to put the authorities at home in complete
possession of all their acts. The correspondence comes home
in despatches, and the explanatory matter in books or volumes.
The total number of folio volumes received firom 1793 to.
1813, 21 years, was 9,094; and from 1814 to 1829, a period
of 16 years, 12,414.

From the establishment of the Board in 1784 to 1814, the
number of letters received from the Court by the Board of
Commissioners was 1,791 ; the number sent from them to the
Court was 1,196. From 1814 to 1831, 1,967 letters have been
written to, and 2,642 received from, the board. The number
of drafts sent up to the Board from 1 793 to 1813, were 3,958 ;
from 1814 to 1833, 7,962, making an increase 4,004; in addi-
tion, there have been references, connected with servants,
civil and military, and others, in this country, amounting be-,
tween the years 1814 and 1830, to 50,146. Reports made to
the Court by its Committees, apart from details and researches
made in framing such Reports, 32,902. From 1813 to the

MODE OF TRANSACTING INDIA BUSINESS IN ENGLAND. S61

present time, nearly 800 Parliamentary Orders have beeii
served on the Courts requiring returns of vast extent.

By the new East India charter the Company have agreed
to place their Commercial rights in abeyance while they hold
the political government and patronage of India, which is ex-
tended by charter to the 30th April, 1854, and in considera-
tion of assigning over all their commercial assets (upwards of
21,000,000. sterling) for the benefit of the Indian territory,
the present dividend of ten and a half per cent. (630,000/.) on
the Company's capital stock, is secured on the Indian revenue
for forty years, at the expiration of which period the capital
of 6,000,000/. ¥rill be paid off at the rate of 100/. for every
5/. 5s. of annuity. As a guarantee fund for the pi<oprietors
in case of the surplus Indian revenues being unable in any
one year to pay the dividends, and in order to provide for the
ultimate liquidation of the principal, the sum of 2,000,000/. is
to be set apart out of the commercial assets, to be invested in
the three and a half per cents, there to accumulate as a secu-
rity fund until it reaches the sum of 12,000,000/.

The business relating to the India Government is trans-
acted in England, between the Board of Control and the
Court of Directors, as follows : — *

All communications, of whatever nature, and whether re-
ceived from abroad or from parties in this country, come, in
the first instance, to the Secretary's Office, at the East India
House, and are laid by the Chairman before the first Court
that meets after their receipt. Despatches of importance are
generally read to the Court at length. The despatches, when
read or laid before the Court, are considered under reference
to the respective Committees, and the officers whose duty
it is to prepare answers take the directions of the Chairs
upon points connected with them ; the draft is prepared upon
an examination of all the documents to which the substance
has reference, and submitted to the Chairs ; it is then brought
before the Committee, to whose province the subject more
particularly relates, to be approved or altered by them^

* Evidence before Parliament in 1832.

862 MODE OF TRANSACTING INDIA BUSINESS IN ENGLAND

and^ on being passed, is laid before the Court of Directors.
After it has parsed the Court of Directorsi the draft goes
to the Board of Control^ who are empowered to make any
alterations, but required to return it within a limited time,
and with reasons assigned for the alterations they bare
made. Previously, however, to the draft being laid before
either Committee by the Chairs, experience has suggested
the convenience of submitting it to the President of the
Board, in the shape of what is called a previous communi-
cation. This is done in communication between the Presi-
dent and the Chairs, in which stage alterations, containing the
original views of the President, are made. The draft being
returned to the Chairman, is laid by him, either with or with-
out the alterations, as he may see fit, before the Com-
mittee. The draft, when approved of by the Committee,
is submitted to the Court, and there altered or approved, as
the Court may see fit. It is then officially sent to the Board,
who make such alterations as they judge expedient, and
return it to the Court, with their reasons at large for the
same. Against these alterations the Court may make a re-
presentation to the Board, who have not unfrequently modified
the alterations on such representation; but if the Board
decline to do so, they state the same to the Court, and desire
the draft may be framed into a despatch, and sent out to
India, agreeably to the terms of the Act of Parliament. In
the event of a refttsal, three Judges of the Court of King's
Bench finally decide as to the legality of the Board's order.

By the Act of 1784 and of 1833, the Directors are charged
with appointing a Secret Committee, whose province is to
forward to India all despatches which, in the opinion of the
Board of Control, should be secret, and the subject-matter of
which can only be divulged by permission of the Board.
The Committee consists of three Members of the Court of
Directors, chosen by the Court generally, viz. the Chairman,
Deputy Chair, and most frequently Senior Member, who
take the oath of secresy, as prescribed by the Act. Their
officers are also sworn to secresy ; and no one is employed in

BSTWBSN THE COUHT OF DIRECTORS AND BD. OF CONTROI*. S6S

transcribing secret despatches without the permission of the
Board. The Board are empowered by law to issue, through
the Secret Committee, orders and instructions on all matters
relating to war, peace, or negociations of treaties with the
States of India, and the Secret Conunittee are bound to
transmit such, order to India without delay. The Secret
Committee have no legal power to remonstrate against such
orders, provided ihey have relation to the subjects above
stated. The Committee have had communication, upon mat-
ters stated in secret despatches, with the Board, and at their
suggestions alterations have been made ; but they have not
the same power with regard to despatches sent down in the
Secret Department that they have with regard to other des-
patches; they are not empowered to make representations
thereon to the Board, whose orders are in fact conclusive on
the Committee. The signatures of the Committee are neces-
sary to ensure obedience to the orders conveyed by them to
the Company's servants, with whom the Board of Commi»-
sioners have no direct correspondence.

It has been stated that there is another class of subjects
not provided for in the Act which establishes the Secret
Committee, but which have been necessarily treated through
the Committee, and upon which its orders have been more
punctually obeyed than in other cases, namely, negociations
with European States having settlements in India, and gene-
rally all matters connected with war in Europe, which can in
any way affect our Indian interests. (Provided for by the
Act of 1833, section xxxvi.)

When either war against a Native State, or the carrying
forward an expedition against any of the Eastern Islands,
has been in contemplation, and the finances of India at these
periods exceedingly pressed, or requiring aid from this
country, the Secret Committee, in communication with the
Board of Commissioners, have taken upon themselves to pro-
vide the requisite funds, without intimating the same to the
Court at the time. Thus despatches relating to subjects
purely financial and commercial, such as the transmission of

264 BOARD OF CONTROL EXPLAINED.

bullion, and the nature and amount of the Company's iuTest-
mentSy have gone through the Secret Committee.

THE BOARD OF CONTROL.

The £. I. Company's Home Government, thus briefly de-
scribed, has been controlled by a ministerial authority since
1784, which is termed the * Board of Commissioners for the
Afiairs of India,' or more generally the Board of Control; it
consists of such members of the Privy Council as his Majes^
may be pleased to appoint, of whom the two principal Secre-
taries of State and the Chancellor of the Exchequer shall
always ex officio form three. The President is also nomi-
nated by the Crown, is usually a cabinet minister, and in all
changes of Administration retires from office together with
the salaried Commissioners and Secretary. The oath which
the Commissioners take imposes on them the responsible
duty of governing India to the best of their ability and judg-
ment, as much and as completely as if there were no Exe-
cutive Court or Administrative power. The controlling
functions of the Board are exercised in revising all des-
patches prepared by the Court of Directors, and addressed
to the Governments in India; the originating^ in requiring
the Court to prepare despatches on any named subject, and
in altering or revising such despatch as it may deem fit. The
Board is divided into six departments, viz. Accounts, Revenue,
Judicial, MiUtary, Secret and Political, and Foreign and
Public ; the duties of which are thus defined.*

1. The Accountant's Department. — ^To examine the ac-
counts of the finances at home and abroad: controul the
correspondence between the Court of Directors and the
Indian Governments, in the departments of Finance, and
Mints, and Coinage : also, occasional correspondence in most
of the other departments of the Company's afiairs requiring
calculation, or bearing a financial character.

2. The Revenue Department. — Principally revision of des^
patches proposed to be sent to the several Governments of

* Evidence before Parliament in 1832.

DIVISION OF LABOUR IN THE BOARD OF CONTROL. 265

India, reiriewing the detailed proceedings of those Govern^
ments, and of all the subordinate revenue authorities, in con-
nexion with the adjustment of the land assessments, the
realization of the revenue so assessed, and the general ope-
ration of the revenue regulations on the condition of the
people, and the improvement of the country. Besides the
land revenue, the detailed proceedings of the local authorities
in the salt, opium, and custom departments, come under peri-
odical revision*

3. The Judicial Department* — Examination of all corres-
pondence between the Court of Directors and the local
Governments, on subjects connected with the administration
of civil and criminal justice and police in the ulterior of India,
such as, the constitution of the various courts, the state of
business in them, the conduct and proceedings of the judges,
and all proposals and suggestions which from time to time
oraoe under discussion, with the view of applying remedies
to acknowledged defects.

The King's Courts at the three Presidencies, are not sub-
ject to the authority of the Court of Directors, or of the
Board of Control ; but, any correspondence which takes place
in relation to the appointment or retirement of the judges of
those courts, or to their proceedings (including papers sent
home for submission to the King in Council, recommendations
of pardon, &c.), passes through this department.

4. The Military Department. — ^Attention to any alterations
which may be made in the allowances, organization, or numbers
of the Indian army at the three Presidencies ; to the rules
and regulations affecting the different branches of the service;
to the general staff, comprehending the adjutant and quarter-
master general's department; the commissariat (both army
and ordnance); the pay, building, surveying, and clothing
departments; and, in fact, to every branch of Indian admi-
nistration connected with the Company's army. It also em-
braces so much of the proceedings, with respect to the King's
troops, as relate to the charge of their maintenance in India,

S66 DIVISION OF LABOUR IN THE BOARD OF CONTROL*

recruiting them from this countryi and the periodical reliefr
of regiments.

5. The Secretf PolUical, and Foreign Department. — ^Exa«
mines all communications from or to the local GroTemments»
respecting their relations with the native chiefs or States of
India, or with foreign Europeans, or Americans. It is divided
into the foUowing branches : —

i; The Secret department containing the correspondence
between the Indian Governments and the Secret Committee
of the Court of Directors. Under the provisions of the Act
of Parliament, such confidential communications as, in the
opinion of the local Governments, require secresy, are ad-
dressed by them to the Secret Committee. Any directionsi
also, to the local Governments, relating to war or negotiation,
which, in the judgment of the Board of Control, require
secresy, are signed by the Secret Committee ; and the local
Governments are botmd to obey those directions in the same
manner as if they were signed by the whole body of Directors.

ii. The Political department, comprising all correspondence
not addressed to the Secret Committee, or sent through that
Committee to the local Gt)vemments, respecting the native
chiefs, or States, with whom those Governments are in alli-
ance or communication, or whose afiairs are under their poli-
tical superintendence, or who are in the receipt of pecuniary
stipends in lieu of territory.

iii. The Foreign department, including all correspondence
relating to communications between the local Governments
and the several foreign Europeans who have settlements in
India or the Eastern Islands ; and embracing, in fact, all the
proceedings of the local Governments in relation to foreign
Europeans or Americans, resorting to India.

The proceeding of the local Governments, with respect to
their residents and poUtical agents, and to any other officers
and their respective establishments, through whom conununi-
cations with native states and chiefs, or with foreigners, may
be maintained, are also reported in the several departments
in which those officers are respectively employed.

DIVISION OF LABOUR IN TH8 BOAKP OF CONTROL. 267

6. The Public Department, — The business of this depart-
ment comprises the examination of all despatches to and
from India upon Commercial or EcclesiaeticcU subjects^ and
of those which^ being of a miscellaneous character, are dis-
tinguished by the general appellation of ** Public." The
commercial and ecclesiastical despatches, which are consi-
dered as forming two branches of correspondence distinct
from the '' Public/* are united with the latter in the same
department, only on account of the convenience of that ar-
rangement, with reference to the distribution of business in
the establishment of the Board of Control.

The Public correspondence comprises all those despatches
which do not belong specifically to any of the branches of
correspondence hitherto enumerated. They relate to the
education of the natives and of the civil servants ; to the
appointment of writers and of the civil service generally, and
to their allowances ; to the several compassionate funds ; to
the grant of licenses to reside in India; to the press; to
public buQdings ; to the Indian navy and the marine depart-
ment ; to the afiairs of Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore,
Malacca, and St. Helena ; and to various miscellaneous sub-
jects. Some of these being closely connected with the busi-
ness of other departments, are reported upon in them,
although the whole pass through, and are recorded in the
public department.

The Ecclesiastical despatches contain every thing relating
to the appointment of chaplains, archdeacons, and bishops ;
to their allowances; to their conduct; to the building and
repair of churches, or other places used for public worship ;
and' to all questions respecting the affairs of the churches of
England and Scotland in India, or that of Rome, so far as
public provision is made for its maintenance.

Any papers treating of ecclesiastical or miscellaneous topics,
though they are not despatches to or from India, are likewise
recorded and reported upon in this department.

The cost of the Board of Control is about 30,000/. a year.
The salary of the President of the Board is 3,500/. per aiH

06d FOREIGN GOVERNMENT OF INDIA.

num; of each of the paid Commissioners^ 1,S00/. ; and of the
Secretary 1,500/. to he raised to 1^800/. after three years*
service* The Charter of 1833 authorizes two Secretaries for
the Board.

THE FOREIGN GOVERNMENT OF INDIA—

is divided into three Presidencies, viz. Bengal, Madras, Bom-
bay, and a Lieutenancy at Agra, or rather at Allahabad ;
the Chief at each Presidency is assisted and partly controlled
by a Council* of two of the Company's senior civil servants,
and the Commander-in-Chief of the army. The government
of Bengal is termed the Supreme Government, and the head
thereof is styled the Governor General of India ; he is ne-
cessarily possessed of much local independence, exercising
some of the most important rights of sovereignty, such as
declaring war, making peace, framing treaties, to a certain
extent forgiving criminals and enacting laws.

On all questions of State policy, excepting in a judicial car
pacity, the Governor General is independent of his Council ;
if the Council are dissentient, the Members record in their
minutes the cause, which being submitted to the Governor
General and he still remaining of his original opinion, the dis-
cussion is adjourned for 4f8 hours, when the Governor Gene-
ral may proceed to execution, first assigning his reasons for
dissenting from the Council. The whole of the documents
relative to the difference are then instantly transmitted to the
Court of Directors and Board of Control ; and the Court
have the power, should they deem fit, of appointing new
Members of Council to succeed the dissentient ones, or of
recalling the Governor General.

* The GoTernor-Oeneral's Council consists of five Gouncillors— three
to he servants of the Company of ten years standing, and to he appointed
hy the Directors ; the fourth to be appointed by the Directors also, subject
to the approbation of the King, but not from among the E. I. Company's
servants, and with power to sit and vote in Council only at meetings for
making laws and regulations. The Commander-in-Chief forms the fifth
member, with precedence after the Governor General.

BXECUTIVE AND LEGISLATIVE FUNCTIONS OF INDIAN GOVT. 269

The Governor General, in virtue of his commission as
Captain General, may head the military operations in any part
of India. He has also the power of suspending the Gover-
nors of the other Presidencies, or of proceeding thither and
taking the supreme authority in their Councils, in the execu-
tion of any of which acts he is subject to the vigilant super-
vision of the home authorities. The Governors of Madras
and Bombay are in a similar manner independent of local con-
trol, but for the sake of obtaining unity in foreign transactions,
on matters of general and internal policy, or in expending
money they are subject to the authority of the Governor
General, who, on proceeding to either of the Presidencies,
may assemble his Council there and sit as President.

Regulations for the good government of the British posses-
sions in India are passed by the Governor General in Coun^
cil ; they immediately become effective, but are transmitted
nome and subject to the revision of the Court of Directors
and Board of Control; heretofore ordinances for the good
government of the Presidency capitals were not vaUd until
publicly exposed for 14 days, then registered by the Supreme
(King's) Court ; put in force, but subject to a further ordeal
at home : by the new Charter these checks on the Govemot
Greneral are removed, and that authority in council can now
make laws for the regulation of even his Majesty's supreme
courts. Such is the legislative department of the Govern-
ment, the executive is generally exercised by means of Boards,
of which in Bengal there are five,* at Madras three,f and at
Bombay one. Any of these Boards make suggestions or pre-
sent drafts of regulations in their respective departments to
Government ; the Boards also receive from their subordinates
suggestions, either for their own information or for transmis-
sion to the Governor General in Council ; by this means the
local knowledge of the inferior officers is brought under the
knowledge of the chief executive, and their talents and in-

* 1, Reveoue ; 2, Customs, salt and opium ; 3, Trade ; 4, Military ; 5,
Medical.
t 1, Revenue; 2, Military; 3, Medical.

S70 OOYBRNMENT OF INDIA ONE OF CHECKS AND SUPERVISION.

dustry appreciated : indeed^ a leading feature in the duties of
the Indian Governments is that of notbg down every transac-
tion, whether as individual chiefs of departments or as Boards :
thus habits of business are generated, combined with a moral
check of supervision, no matter what distance a servant may
be from the Presidency, or what period of time may elapse,
should an enquiry be necessary. All minutes of the Boards*
proceedings are laid before the Government monthly, and
then transmitted home. The objection alleged to this is that
it creates delay ; but as Correctly observed by the Court of
Directors in their Letter to the Board of Control, 27th Au-
gust, 18^, the Government of India may in one word be de-
scribed as a Government of Cheeks, The Court thus judi-
ciously remark — 'Now whatever may be the advantage of
checks, it must always be purchased at the expense of delay,
and the amount of delay will generally be in proportion to
the number and efficiency of checks. The correspondence
between the Court of Directors and the governments of In-
dia is conducted with a comprehensiveness and in a detail
quite unexampled ; every, the minutest proceedings of the
local governments including the whole correspondence re-
specting it which passes between them and their subordinate
functionaries, is placed on record, and complete copies of the
Indian records are sent annually to England for the use of
the home authorities. The despatches from India are indexes
to those records, or what a table of contents is to a book, not
merely communicating on matters of high interest, or solicit-
ing instructions on important measures in contemplation, but
containing summary narratives of all the proceedings of the
respective governments, with particular references to the cor*
respondence and consultations thereon, whether in the politi-
cal, revenue, judicial, military, financial, ecclesiastical or mi»*
cellaneous departments. In the ordinary course of Indian
administration much must always be left to the discretion of
local governments ; and unless upon questions of general po-
licy and personal cases, it rarely occurs that instructions from
hence can reach India before the time for acting upon them

COMPTROLLINO HOME AUTHORITIES. 271

is gone by. This is a necessary consequence of the great
distance between the two countries, the rapid succession of
events in India, which are seldom long foreseen, even by thosa
who are on the spot, and the importance of the ruling autho-
rities there, acting with promptitude and decision, and adopt-
ing their measures, on their own responsibility, to the vary-
ing exigencies of the hour. These circumstances unavoidably
regulate, but do not exclude the controlling authority of the
Court of Directors. Without defeating the intentions of Par-
liament, they point out the best and indeed the only mode in
which these intentions can be practically fulfilled. Although,
with the exceptions above adverted to, a specific line of con-
duct cannot often be prescribed to the Indian governments,
yet it seems to indicate any other rather than a state of irre-
sponsibility, that the proceedings of those governments are
reported with fidelity, examined with care, and commented
upon with fireedom by the home authorides ; nor can the judg-
ments passed by the Court be deemed useless whilst, though
they have immediate reference to past transactions, they serve
ultimately as rules for the future guidance of their servants
abroad* The knowledge, on the part of the local govern-
ments, that their proceedings will always undergo this revi-
sion, operates as a salutary check upon its conduct in India,
and the practice of replying to letters from thence, paragraph
by paragraph, is a security against habitual remissness or ac*
cidental oversight on the part of the Court, or their servants
at home. From a perusal of the Indian records, the Court
also obtain an insight into the conduct and qualifications of
dieir servants, which enables them to judge of their respective
merits, and to make a proper selection of members of Council/
The DUTIES OF THE BiUTisH FUNCTIONARIES IN India may
be gathered from the following detail of the chief stations
and <^ices of the civil servants in Bengal.* — ' The duties of
Territorial Secretary, in one branch, correspond in a great
measure with those of the Chancellor of the Exchequer in
thia country ; he manages the whole financial business of the

• Evidence before Psriianient in 1832.

272 DUTIES OF lIRlTISn FUNCTIONARIES IN INDIA.

GoTernment, in concert with the Accountant-general ; but the
Secretary is the chief officer of the Government in that de-
partment ; moreoyer, he has the management of the territorial
revenue, and the revenue derived from salt and opium, and
he conducts the correspondence of government with the three
Boards of Revenue in the upper, lower, and central provinces
respectively.

* In relation to the Board of Revenue, he is merely the mi*
nisterial officer of the Government ; he is not a responsible
officer, and has no direct power over the Board of Revenue.

^ If any increase of charge were proposed by any of the
Boards of Revenue, or by any person acting under them, that
proposal for increase is submitted to the Territorial Secretary
before it is acquiesced in and sanctioned by Grovemment — ^he
is the person always addressed. The Boards of Revenue
have the power of writing directly to the Governor-General
in Council ; but that is a mere matter of form, for such letter
goes equally through the office of the Territorial Secretary,
and is submitted by him to the Governor-General in CoundL

<The Territorial Secretary offers his opinion upon the ad-
missibility of any new charge proposed. He has no right or
power to do so, but he is generally called upon to do so. The
Secretaries are in the habit of giving in papers called memo-
randa. As the Grovemor-General or Members of Council lay
minutes before the Council Board, so the Secretaries, when-
ever they have any suggestion to make, submit what are called
memoranda.

* One of the Members of the Council is nominally President
of the Board of Revenue, he performs no duties.

* The duties of the territorial and judicial departments as
regard the judicial department are quite distinct departments.
There are two Secretaries ; the Judicial Secretary is quite in-
dependent of the Territorial ; he conducts the correspondence
of the Government with the Sudder Dewanny and Nizamut
Adawlut; they are the chief criminal and civil courts.

* The police is under his direction, at least all the corres-
pondence of Government on the subject of the police is con-

DUTIES OF BRITISH FUNCTIONARIES. 273

ducted by him. Like the Territorial Secretary, he is not a
substantive officer, only a ministerial functionary of the go-
▼ermnent. He writes always in the name of the government ;
his letters always begin with words to this effect, * I am di-
rected by the Governor-General in Council to inform you :'
and this holds good with regard to all other Secretaries.

* The business of a Collector in the lower provinces is the
receipt of revenue ; the conduct of public sales, in the event
of any defalcation on the part of any landed proprietor who
is responsible for any portion of the revenue.

' There being a permanent settlement of the land revenue
in those provinces, he has not much to do directly with the
collection of the revenue ; but he has a great number of other
duties, as the management of wards' estates (minors* estates) ;
for the Board of Revenue is also a Court of Wards.

' He exercises judicial functions in what are called summary
suits, arising from disputes between landlord and tenant, be-
tween zemindar and ryot. That is, in disputes connected with
the administration of the revenue.

' With reference to the extent in which he decides suits.
The 8uit3 are summary suits ; they are not conducted with
the formality of regular suits ; they are instituted originally
in the courts of law, and are referred by the Judge to the
Collector for decision ; they are of a particular description ;
they are not conducted with the formality of regular law-
suits ; there is a particular process laid down by the Regula-
tions for them.

^ It is indirectly in the nature of a reference ; it is a claim
of the zemindar on the ryot for rent which the ryot disputes
or denies ; and it is referred to the Collector, as a summary
suit^ under particular Regulations.

All the instances in which he exercises judicial power
are referred to him by the court, as far as regards the
summary suits referred to : but there are also investigations
which partake largely of judicial inquiries, which he conducts
independently of the courts, as, for instance, where land-
holders in coparceny have petitioned to have their estates

YOL. I. T

S74 MODE OF ADMINISTERING JUSTICE IN INDIA,

divided, and to become separately responsible to Govern-
ment. Such divisions are called Butwarahs.

* The revenue collected remains in the custody of a native
Treasurer, who gives heavy security, and who is to a great
degree independent of the Collector. Security is given to the
Government through the Collector ; but the Board of Reve-
nue see that it is sufficient, and the Collector is also responr-

sible.*

JUDICIAL.

We may now proceed to examine briefly the mode in which
the administration of justice is carried on ; in the Bengal
Presidency, for instance, there is first a high court of Appeal,
termed the ^ Sudder Dewany and Nizamut Adawlut,' or chief
Civil* and Criminal Court.f The functions of this CourtJ
are cognizance of civil, criminal, and police matters ; the re-
mission or mitigation of punishment when the sentence of the
law officers is unduly severe, co-revision previous to the exe-
cution of any sentence of death, transportation, or perpetual
imprisonment, arbitration where the provincial judges differ
from their law officers ; revisions of the proceedings of any of
the Courts, with power to suspend provincial judges ; it may
direct suits for property exceeding 5,000/. in value, to be
originally tried before it ; it may admit second or special ap-
peals from the inferior Courts, and its construction of the
Government regulations is final. The Chief Judge has 6,0001.
a year, and the three Puisne Judges 5,000/. each.§

* The civil law is admiDistered according to the religions code of the
party, whether Hindoo or Mahomedan. A commission is now being
issued to examine into the variety of the civil laws existing in the various
provinces, and to endeavour to codify them into a general system.

t The criminal law in India is the Mahomedan code, in which muti-
lations of the limbs and flagellations to death are not nnfrequently or-
dained; these: are commuted by us for imprisonment, &c., and it will be
seen in the chapter on education how crime has been diminished in India.

{ A Court of a similar nature has been established for the Western Ph>-
vinces, under Lord William Bentinck's enlightened government.

§ There are in the Company's Courts three grades of European Judges,
the District^ the Provincial, and the Judgei of the Sudder Court (there

PROVINCIAL CITY AND ZILLAH COURTS. S75

The second degree of Courts ore the Provincial Courts of
Appeal (of which there are six for Bengal) with a Chief and
Puisne Judge to each. They have no criminal jurisdiction ;
try suits exceeding 5,000 rupees in value, if the plaintiff de-
sire their ^decision, (he may prefer ithefore the ZiUah Judge,
if the value do not exceed 10,000 rupees,) appeals lie from
the Zillah Courts, and are final unless in cases of special
appeaL

For the Bengal Presidency there are 00 Commissioners of
Circuit who combine revenue with judicial functions. They
hold sessions of goal delivery at least twice in each year at
the different Zillah and City stations. The direction and
controul of the Magistrates, Revenue 0£Bcers and Police are
vested in them. The salary of each Commissioner is 4,000/*
a year. ^

The City of Zillah* Courts of Bengal amount to 49 ; some
have a judge, magistrate, and registrar ; in others less exten-
sive, the duties of judge and magistrate are conjoined, or the
duties of magistrate and registrar.f

These Courts have cognizance of afirays, thefts, burglaries,
&c., when not of an aggravated character, and power to the
extent of two years' imprisonment ; commit persons charged

are also Magistrates, who exercise civil jurisdiction under special ap-
pointments, and the Ref^istrars try and decide causes referred to them by
the Judge of the district.) The native Judges are divided into two classes.
lit, Moomnffsg of whom there are several stationed in the interior of every
district I and, 2ndly, Sudder Jumeemi^ established at the same station
with the European Judge. Native Judges of any sect can try causes as
ht as 1,000 rupees, and the amount may be increased at the recommenda-
tion of the European Judge to 6,000 rupees; this permission has been
granted in very many cases, and the decisions have been extremely satis-
hcXarj. An Appeal lies from the District Native Judges to the District
Eoropeaa Judge, from the latter to the High Court of Sudder Adawlut at
Calcutta, Madras, or Bombay, and from thence to the King in Council in
England.

* The population and extent of a Zillah is various; in Bengal the
average population is about 2,000,000.

t The total salaries of the European covenanted servants of a Zillah
Court range from 30,000 to 44,000 S. R. a year

S76 JUDICIAL POLICY OF THE E. I. COMPANY.

with heinous offences for trial before the Commissioners of
Circuit ; try original suits to the value of SO^OOO rupees ; de-
cide appeals from registrars, (s. e. causes not exceeding 500
rupees in value) Sudder Aumeems (native judges) and Moon-
siffs ; and by a regulation of 1832 (for the expedition of cri-
minal justice,) three Zillah judges may be invested with
power by the Governor-Greneral to hold sessions and goal
delivery.

These Courts have authority over the Police, and the
judges are enjoined to visit the goals at least once a week.

Another and extensive set of Zillah and City Courts have
been established last year with native judges of every class,
caste, or persuasion, found qualified for the duties enjoined
them, to whom Hberal salaries have been granted ; and by a
more recent regulation, native assessors sit on the bench with
the European judges.

A plan of judicature, similar to the foregoing, is in force at
Madras and Bombay, modified by local usages ; in some parts
there are Punchayets (native juries) of arbitration and of
civil and criminal procedure ; in others, native assessors in
civil and criminal matters.

In the administration of civil justice the objects of the Com-
pany's Government have been to render it pure in source,
speedy in execution, and cheap in practice ; in the adminis-
tration of criminal justice the aim has been first to prevent
crime, and secondly to promote the reformation of the offen^
der. The judges are well paid, in order to secure the purity
of justice ; the Courts are numerous, in order that it may be
speedily rendered, and the authorized fees are light (particu-
larly in trifling cases) for the cheap attainment of right. In
criminal matters, offences are quickly punished, — the death
sentences (which are inflicted but for very few crimes) are
almost sure to be carried into effect, and it is in evidence be-
fore Parliament (in 1832) that prisoners are brought to trial
without delay, that the punishments awarded are mild and
well proportioned to the offence ; that abundant care is taken
against unjust convictions, and that extraordinary care is paid

PUBLICATION OF THE REGULATIONS OF GOVERNMENT. 277

to the health and comfort of the prisoners in the goals ; the
efiect of the system is the extraordinary diminution of crime
as will be seen in the Education Chapter. Measures have
been taken for the promulgation of a knowledge of the old as
well as new laws.

Lmw9 and RegulaHons, — In pursuance of the direction, and
by virtue of the powers given by the 47tb section of the Act
of the 3d and 4th William lY. chap. 85, the Court of Direc-
tors of the East India Company, with the approbation of the
Commissioners for the Affairs of India, ordain as follow : —

1. Copies of all laws and regulations shall be communi-
cated to the several Functionaries appointed to carry them
into effect, and shall be preserved in all Courts of Justice^
and there be open to the inspection of all persons.

S. All laws and regulations shall be translated into the
several native languages most commonly spoken, and printed
and sold at a low price.

3. The GU>vemments of the several Presidencies will make
such a distribution of copies of the laws and regulations so to
be sold as may bring them most conveniently within the reach
of all persons, and will notify in a public manner where such
copies may be procured.

4. The Governments will likewise, on the passing of any
law and regulation, publish the title of it, and an abstract of
its contents in the Gazettes and such other newspapers as are
most generally circulated.

Authentification of Laws and Regulations. — 1. The origi.
nal copy of all laws and regulations shall be signed by the
Members of the Legislative Council by whom they shall be
passed^ and such copy shall be preserved in the archives of
the Government of India.

2. Such copies only of the several laws and regulations
hereafter passed as shall be printed at the Government Press
shall be admitted as evidence in Courts of Justice.

Such copies so printed shall bear in the title page fac-
of the signatures of the Members of Council by whom

S78 THE SUPREME OR KINo's COURTS*

the several laws and regulations may have been respeetivdiy
passed.**

There is a Supreme^ or King's Court at each Presidency,
with a Chief and two Puisne Judges ; a Master in Equity,
Registrar, an established number of Attorneys and Barristers^
at the discretion of the Judges, and at Calcutta there is a
Hindoo and a Mahomedan law officer attached to the Court
The jurisdiction of this Court extends over the local boun^
daries of the Presidency, with certain exceptions not well de-
fined, and IJie Courts claim jurisdiction in certain cases be-
yond the Presidency; such claims have, however, been viewed
with alarm, and the extension of the jurisdiction of the Ejng*s
Court at the present period deprecated. The salaries and
contingent expenses of the Supreme Court* at Calcutta an-
nually, are 879,000 rupees, and the emoluments of Barristers
and Attorneys about 771,000 rupees* The same items at
Madras and Bombay are — ^for the first, 650,000 rupees, and
for the second, 950,000 rupees : total of Supreme Courts,
8,S50,000 rupees. Trial by jury in criminal matters, not in
civil ; natives are eligible as petty and grand jurors ; pro-
ceedings are in English, with the aid of interpreters, and in
general the civil laws of England are applied. There are at
Calcutta and Bombay Courts of Requeilts, for the recovery of
small debts, the Recorders of which are Europeans.

THE POLICE

in Bengal, for instance, are divided into stations with a native
officer, native registrar, petty officer, and from SO to 90 po-

* The salaries of the Supreme Court Judf(es at the three Prssidendes
are, Bengal, Chief, j^^OOOj Pdsne, ^£6,000. Madra$, Chief, 60,000 m-
pees ; Puisne, 50,000 rupees. Bombay, ditto, ditto. Since 1807, there
have been six Chief Justices at Bengal, and since 1805 seven Puisne. At
Madras since 1815, four Chief, and since 1809, ten Puisne ; at Bombay
since 1823, three Chief and five Puisne Judges. The fi»ed charges were,
in 1829, as foUow: Bengal, S.R. 383,120; Madras, 378,056; Bombay,
293,874 j total, S.R. 955,050, being an excess over 1823 of S.R. 205,886.

THS POLICE^ ITS ORGANIZATION AND STRENGTH^ &C. It79

licemen well anned. In each district there are from 15 to SO
stations^ making altogether in lower Bengal about 500^ and in
the npper or western Provinces 400. Every village has also
its own watchman^ armed and paid by the village^ and as
there are IGS^STS villages in lower Bengal, there is a further
force of 160,000 men added to the Government estabUshment*
In some Provinces of central India, each village has also a
petty officer, whose duty it is to track thieves, and when he
traces them to a village, to hand over the search to the track-
ers of that village.

The head officer at each station receives criminal charges,
holds inquests, forwards accused persons with their pro-
secutors and witnesses to the Zillah Magistrate, uses every
exertion for the apprehension of criminals and the preserva-
tion of the peace in his district, and regularly reports all
proceedings to the European Magistrate from whom he re-
ceives orders. The village pohce, together with the village
corporation officers (such as the barber, schoolmaster, ac-
countant, waterman, measurer, &c.), land agents. Zemindars,
&c. are all required to give inunediate information of crime
committed within their limits and to aid in the apprehension
of offenders. There is a mounted police officered by natives,
and a river pohce conducted also by natives.

The police officers are furnished with precise and brief
manuals of instructions, and the abuses which prevailed are
being rapidly removed ; what was good in the native laws
has been retained, and what was evil obliterated, and an ex-
cellent system still open to improvement has been the result.
The general system of police in India, and its gradations of
ranks is thus detailed in the recent evidence before Parlia-
ment. 'The lowest pohce officer is the village watcher.
There are several in a village who perform the lower offices.
They are under the control of the head of the village ; the
head of the village is under the control of the Tehsildar, who
is a native collector of revenue ; the Tehsildar is under the
Magistrate, who is the collector. The village watchers are
remunerated by a small quantity of grain from the produce

280

STRENGTH OF CIVIL SERVICE IN INDIA.

of the village, and from certain fees from the; inhabitantt ;
and the head of the viUage has also similar allowances, to a
greater extent. The Tehsildar is a stipendiary officer of the
government, employed in the collection of the revenue. There
are pohce officers appointed to towns, called Aumeems of po-
lice, who have a jurisdiction also beyond those towns ; and
there are offio-ers called Cutwals, a land of high constables,
resident chiefly in market towns. There are, in some dis-
tricts, paid police ; and there were formerly various classes
of native peons, under different denominations, many of
whom have of late years been dismissed as unnecessary.'

The strength of the civil service at each Presidency, ac-
cording to the Bengal Finance Conunittee, is as follows : —

BengaL

Madni.

Bombar*

TOM.

Senior Merctaanti* .

Junior, ditto

Fftctors

Writen

36
41

177

183
11

6«

401
01

«7
847

Total

615

)

194

148

857

Nnmber of AnnaltBDtB retiriDg AnniuJlf
CasnalUea at Two and a half per Cent

9
10

4
4

16
16

The following detail shews the recent revision of allowances
for the civil functionaries of Bengal, the proposed salariea
not affecting present incumbents : —

Judicial and Judicial Fiscal.

Sudder Dewanny Adawluti 5 Judges, at 62,200 each, 2,61,000 St. Rs.
Judges of Provincial Courts : 14 Judges, at 36,000; 5,04,000. Registiv
of Sudder Dewanuy and Nizamut Adawlut, 37,200. Deputy ditto, 14,400.
21 Commissioners of Revenue and Circuit, at 42,000; 8,82,000. 10
Judges, at 30,000; 3,00,000. 36 Judges and Magistrates, at 30,000
10,80,000. 7 Magistrates, 1,34,400. Registrars, including vacancies, at
8,400 and 6,000 ; 3,94,800. 10 Joint Magistrates, also Registrars, as now.

* The terms here given have been continued ever since the E. I. Com*
pany were a mere trading company, new designations are necessary.

REVISION OF CIVIL FUNCTIONARIES. 281

rabject to revision, 1,27,200. 8 Prindpa] Asssistants, including 2 vacan-
des, at 30,000; 2,40,000. Commissioner in Kumaon, 30,000. Assistant
ditto, 8,400. Ramghnr Jad^, Magistrate, and Collector, 36,000. 1
Registrar and Assistant, 12,000. 1 CoUector and Magistrate of Calcutta,
36,000. 3 Collectors and Magistrates, 90,000. 4 Sub-Collectors and
Joint Magistrates, as now, subject to revision, 77>307* 1 Superintendent
and Remembrancer of Law suits, 24,000. 1 Head Assistant Sudder De-
wanny Adawlut, 8,400. 1 Second ditto, 7,200. 1 Third ditto, 6,000, 24
Assistants, at 4,800; 1,15,200. Total St. Rs. 44,25,507.

Fiscal.— n3 Members Board of Revenue, at 52,200 ; 1,56,600. Senior
Secretary, 37,200. Junior ditto, 31,200. Sub ditto, 14,400. Head As-
sistant ditto, 8,400. 3 Commissioners under Regulation III. of 1828,* at
45,000; 1,35,000. 2 Members Board of Customs, at 52,000; 1,04,4000.
1 Secretary, 31,200. Head Assistant in charge of salt chokees, 14,400.
Second Assistant ditto, with chokees and stamps, 8,400/ Opium Agent at
Bahar, 42,000. Ditto at Benares ; an equal sum to be drawn as Commer-
cial Resident, 24,000. 2 Salt Agents, Tumlook and Hidgelee, at 50,000;
1,00,000. Ditto at Jessore, 30,000. 6 Salt Agents and Collectors, at
36,000; 2,16,000. 48 Collectors, including those in charge of customs,
salt chokees, and Opium Agents, and also CoUectors of Customs, at
30,000 ; 14,40,000. 7 Deputy and Sub-Collectors, including Customs, at
12,000; 84,000. Superintendent of Sulkea Golahs, 30,000. 1 ditto
Eastern Salt Chokees, 19,200. Collector of Calcutta Sea Customs,
42,000. 1 Deputy ditto, 20,400. ] Head Assistant to ditto, 12,000.
Collector of Inland Customs, 31,200. 1 Deputy Collector Inland Cus-
toms, 16,800. 1 Collector of Customs at Moorshedabad, 30,000. 1 Com-
missioner Sunderbunds, 30,000. 13 Assistants in Revenue and Salt De-
partmento, at 4,800 ; 62,400. Total St. Rs. 27,71.200.

Political. — 4 Residents at Foreign Courts, Delhi, Hydrabad, Luck-
now, and Nagpore, at 66,000; 2,64,000. 2 ditto, Indore and Owa-
lior, at 60,000; 1,20,000. I ditto, Katmoondoo, at 42,000; 42,000;
Governor-General's Agent, Moorshedabad, 42,000. 1 Commissioner,
Nerbttddah, 50,000. I Superintendent, Ajmere, 36,000. Secretary to

Commissioner at Delhi, 13 Political Agents including Military,

as now, 2,59,680. Head Assistant and Deputy Agent, Indore, 20,400. 3
Head Assistants to Residents at Delhi, Hydrabad, and Nepaul, 27,000. 1
ditto, Ajmere, 8,400. 2 Second Assistants to Residents at Delhi, Hydra-
bad, at 7»200; 14,400. 3 Assistants to Commissioner at Delhi, at 4,800;
14.400. 19 Military Assistonts,' aa now, 1,40,400. Total St. Rs.
10,38,680.

Mi8CBLLANBon8.~4 Secretaries to Government, at 52,200 ; 2,08,800»

Second Assistant to Sudder Board not included, St. Rs. 6,000.

^82 RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE NATIVE ARMY OF INDIA.

1 Penian Secretery and Deputy ditto. Political Departmoit, 48,000. 3
Deputies, 36,000. 2 Assistant Secretaries to Qoverament, at 8,400;
16,800. Accountant General, 52,200. Deputy ditto, and the Military
Accountant, 37»200. Sub ditto Accountant, Revenue and Judidal De-
partments, and Civil Auditor, 31,200. Commercial Accountant also in
salt and opium, &c. with the Bank, 26,200. Deputy Accountant, and De-
puty Civil Auditor, with office of Secretary to Annuity Fund, 19,200.
Head Assistent to Accountant General, 12,000. Sub-Treasurer,* 43,200.
Head Assistant to ditto, 8,400. Postmaster-genend, 37,200. Mint-mas-
ter, 37,200. Superintendent of Stamps, 63 Writers attached to the

College on Ist February, 2,26,800. Total St. Rs. 8,39,400.

MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS.

The Anglo-Indian army, amounting to nearly SOO^OOO men,
well deserves examination, whether in reference to numbers,
discipline, gallantry in the field, or fidelity to its govem-
ment : —

RISE, PROGRESS, AND CHARACTER OF THE NATIVE ARMY

OF INDU.t

Though Bombay wis the first possession which the EDgUsh otytained in the Ewt,
the establishment on that island was, for a very long period, on too limited a scale
to obtain more than its European garrison, and a few companies of disciplined
sepoys. On the coast of Coromandel, which became towards the middle of the
last century a scene of warfare between the English and French, who mutually
aided and received support from the princes of that quarter, the natiYes of India
were instructed in European discipline. During the siege of Madras, which took
place in A.D. 1746, a number of peons, a species of irregular infantry, armed with
swords and spears, or matchlocks, were enlisted for the occasion ; to those some
English officers were attached, among whom a young gentleman of the dTil aer-
▼ice, of the name of Haliburton, was the most distinguished. This gentleman,
who had been rewarded with the commission of a lieutenant, was employed in the
ensuing year in training a small corps of natives in the European manner ; he dki
not, however, live to perfect that system, which he ^>pearB to have kitroduced
into the Madns service.^

* Junior Assistant Accountant-General's department not included, St. R. 6,000.

t This brief account was written by the late gallant and patriotic Sir John Mal-
colm, who had the fullest opportunity for judging of the qualities of the sepoy
troops. I have given an abstract of his account as laid before Fsrliament.

X ' It was by one of our own sepoys' (the Council of Fort St. David observe^ in
-a despsctch dated 2d September, 1748, in which they pass an eulogium on the
character of Mr. Haliburton) 'that he had the misfortune to be killed, who shot
him upon his reprimanding him for some offence ; the poor gentleman' (they add)

FORMATION OF THE MADRAS ARMY. 288

It appears flnom other authoiitiefl, that the first sepoys who were raised by the
English were either BCahomedans or Hindoos of very high caste being chiefly Ri^jpoots.
One at the first services on which the regular sepoys of Madras were employed was
the defence of Arcot, a.d. 1751. The particulars of that siege, which fonns a
remarkable feature in the life of the celebrated Clive, have been given by an elo«>
quent and ihithful historian ;* but he has not informed us of one occurrence that
took place, and which, as it illustrates the character of the Indian soldiers, well
merited to be preserved. When provisions were very low, the Hindoo sepoys en-
treated their commander to allow them to boil the rice (the only food left) for the
whole garrison. ' Your English soldiers,' they said, ' can eat from our hands»
though we cannot from theirs ; we will allot as their share every grain of the rice,
and substst ourselves by drinkmg the water in which it has been boiled.' I state
this remarable anecdote from an authority I cannot doubt, as it refers to the moet
uneiceptionable contemporary witnesses.

During all the wars of Clive, of Lawrence, of Smith, and of Coote, the sepoys of
Madras continued to display the same valour and attachment. In the years 1780,
1781, and 1782, they suffered hardships of a nature almost unparalleled; thete
was hardly a corps that was not 20 months in arrears ; they were supported, it is
true, by a daily allowance of rice, but this was not enough to save many of their
ftffiilies fhnn being the victims of that dreadful famine which during these years
wasted the Company's dominions in India. Their fidelity never gave way in this
hour of extreme trial, and they repaid with gratitude and attachment the Idndnesa
and consideration with which they were treated by their European officers, who,
beuig few in number, but, generally speaking, very efficient, tried every means that
cottM condliste the regard, excite the pride, or stimulate the valour of those they
commanded.

In the campaigns of 1790 and 1791 against Tippoo Sultaun, the sepoys of thif
establishment showed their usual seal and courage ; but the number of European
troops which were now intermixed with them, lessened their opportunities of dis-
tinguishing themselves, and though improved in discipline, they perh^;is fell in their
own estimation. The native army in some degree became a secondary one, and
the pride of those of whom it was composed was lowered. The campaigns of Lord
Comwallis and General Meadows were certainly not inferior, either in their opera-
tions or results, to those of Sir Eyre Coote ; but every officer can tell how differ-
ently they are regarded by the sepoys who served in both ; the latter may bring to
their memory the distresses and hardships which they suffered, and perhiqiw the
recollection of children who perished from famine, but it is associated with a sense
of their own importance at that period to the Government they served, with the

next day, and the viUian did not live so long, for his comrades that stood by
cut him to pieces immediately.' The name of Mr. HaUburton was long cherished
by the Madias native troops, and about 20 years ago, on an examination of old
grants, some veterans, wearing medals, appeared as claimants, who called them-
selves Haliburton Saheb Ka sepoy, or Haliburton's soldiers.
• Oimc.

284 NATIVE CAVALRY OF MADRAS.

pride of fidelity and patient valour. The picturea of these three diatfaiguiBhed
leaders are in the great room of the Exchange at Madras ; to that (I speak of 10
years ago) when a battalion comes into garrison the old sepoys lead their fiiunllies.
Wailis and Meadows (these are the names by which the two first commanders are
known to them) are pointed out as great and brave chiefo ; but it is to the image
of their favourite, Coote, the pilgrimage is made, and the youngest of their chil*
dren are taught to pay a respect bordering on devotion to this revered leader.

In the year 1796, new regulations were introduced into the Indian army, the
whole form of which was in foct changed. Instead of single battalions of a thousand
men, commanded by a captain, who was selected from the European corps in the
Hon. Company's service, and a subaltern to each company, they were formed into
regiments of two battalions, to which officers were appointed of the same rank,
and nearly of the same number, as to a battalion in the service of His Miyesty.

The general history of the native army of Fort St. George is short. Sepoys
were first disciplined, as has been stated, on that establishment in 1748; they
were at that period, and for some time afterwards, in independent companies,
under subadars or native captains. Mahomed Esof, one of the most distinguished
of those officers, rose by his talents and courage to the general command of the
whole ; and the name of this hero, for such he was, occurs almost as often in the
page of the English historian* of India as that of Lawrence and Clive. As the
numbers of the native army increased, the form changed. In a.d. 1766, we find
10 battalions of 1,000 men each, and three European officers to each corps. In
1770, there were 18 battalions of similar strength; and 1784 the number of this
army had increased to 2,000 native cavalry and 28,000 infiEuitry ; a considerable
reduction was made at this period, but subsequent wars and conquests have caused
a great increase.

A few remarks on the appearance and conduct of this army, with some anec-
dotes of remarkable individuals, will fully illustrate its character, and convey a just
idea of the elements of which it is composed.

The native cavalry of Madras was originally raised by the Nabob of the Camatac.
The first corps embodied into a regiment under the command of European ofilcerB,
on the suggestion of General Joseph Smith, served in the campaign of 1768 in the
Mysore. From 1771 to 1776, the cavalry force was greatly augmented, but then
again declined both in numbers and efficiency. The proportion that was retained
nominally in the service of the Nabob, but actually in that of the Company, served
in the campaigns of 1780, 1781, 1782, and 1783, and was formally transferred, with
the European officers attached to it, to the Company's service in 1784. The pros-
pect of fortune which the liberality of an Indian prince oflfered, attracted to this
corps many active and enterprising European officers, and the favour which a Native
Court extended to its choicest troops filled the ranks of its regiments of regular
cavalry with the prime of the Mahomedan youthf of the Camatic. When this

* Orme.

t There cannot be men more suited, from their frame and disposition, for the
duty of light cavalry than those of which thfs corps is composed. They are, gene-

FIDELITY OP THE NATIVE ARMY. 285

corps WIS in tiie service of the Nabob of the Camatic, though it wu often very
highly distinguished, the intrigues of a venal Court and irregular payments caused
frequent mutinies. Since it has been transferred to the Company's establishment,
a period of more than 30 years, its career has been one of faithftd service and of
brilliant achievement, unstained by any example, that I can recollect, of disaffection
or of defeat. The two severest trials of the courage and discipline of this corps
-men at Assaye and Vellore ; in both these services they were associated with the
19th Dragoons.

The distinguished commander* of that gallant regiment had, from the day of its
airival in India, laboured to establish the ties of mutual and cordial regard between
the European and native soldiers. His success was complete. His own fame
while he remained in India was promoted by their combined efforts, and the friend-
ship which he established, and which had continued for many yesrs, was after his
departure consummated upon the plains of Assaye. At the most critical momjcnt
of a battle which ranks amongst the hardest fought of those that have been gained
by the illustrious Wellington, the British dragoons, when making their eztremest
efforts, saw their Asiatic fellow soldiers keep pace for pace, and give blow for blow.
A more arduous task awaited the latter, when the battalions of native infuitry,
which formed the garrison of Vellore, were led by the infatuation of the moment
to rise upon and murder the Europeans of that garrison. The fidelity of the native
cavalry did not shrink from the severe trial, and after the gates of the fortress were
blown open, their sabres were as deeplyf stained as those of the English dragoons
vrith the blood of their misguided and guilty countrymen.

But a few^ authentic anecdotes of some of the most distinguished individuals of
the native cavalry of Madras will show, better than volumes, the high spirit that
pervades that corps.

In the campaign of 1791, when Secunder Beg,, one of the oldest subadars of the
native cavalry, was riding at a little distance on the flank of his troop, two or three
horsemen of Tippoo's army, favoured by some brushwood, came suddenly upon
him ; the combat had hardly commenced when the son of the subadar, who was a
havUdar or seijeant in the same regiment, flew to his father's aid and slew the fore-
most of his opponents ; the others fled ; but nothing could exceed the rage of the
old man at his son's conduct ; he put him instantly under a guard, and insisted
upon his being brought to condign punishment for quitting his ranks without
leave. It was with the greatest difficulty that Colonel Floyd, who commanded the
force, could reconcile him to the disgrace he conceived he had suffered (to use his
own expression) from his enemy ' being taken from him by a presumptuous boy
In traat of his regiment.'

rally speaking, from five feet five to five feet ten inches in height, of light but active
make. Their strength is preserved and improved by moderation in their diet, and
by exercise common to the military tribes, and which are calculated to increase
the muscular force.

* The late General Sir John Floyd, Bart.

t This het is stated upon the high authority of a respectable officer who be-
longed to the 19th Dragoons, and was with them on this memorable occasion.

£86 GALLANTRY OF CAWDBR BEG.

Cawder Beg, late lubadar of the fourth regiment, may be deemed througlioiit
his life, as one of the most distinguished oiBcers of the native cavalrj at Madias.
In 1790, he vras attached to Colonel Floyd as an orderly sabadar, when that
officer, who had been reconnoitering with a small detachment, was attacked by a
considerable body of the enemy's horse. Nothing but the greatest exertions of
erery individual could have saved the party from being cut off. Those of Cawder
Beg were the most conspicuous, and they recdved a reward, of which he was proud
to the last hour of his life : an English sabre was sent to him, with the name of
Colonel Floyd upon it, and an inscription, stating that it was the reward of valour.
But personal coura]ge vras the least quality of Cawder Beg : his talents eminently
fitted him for the exercise of military command. During the campaign of 1799,
it was essential to prevent the enemy's looties (a species of Cossack horse], from
penetrating between the columns and the rear guard, and plundering any part
of that immense train of provisions and luggage, which it vras necessary to
carry to Seringapatam. Cawder Beg, with two or three of his relations from
the native cavalry and a select body of infantry, were placed under my orders. I
was then political representative with the army of the subah of the Deckan, and
commanded a considerable body of the troops of that prince. I had applied for
Cawder Beg on account of his reputation, and prevailed upon Meer Alium, the
leader of the subah's forces, to place a corps of 2,000 men of his best regular horse
under the subadar's orders. Two days after the corps was formed, an orderly
trooper came to tell me that Cawder Beg was engaged with some of the enemy's
horsemen. I hastened to the spot with some alarm for the result, determined if
Cawder Beg was victor, to reprove him most severely for a conduct so unsuited to
the station in which he had been placed. The fears I entertained for his safety
were soon dispelled, as I saw him advancing on foot with two swords in his
hand, which he hastened to present to me, begging at the same time I would
restrain my indignation at his apparent rashness till I heard his reasons ; then
•peaking to me aside, he said ' Thou^ the General of the Nizam's army was con-
vinced by your statement of my competence to the command you have entrusted
me with, I observed that the high-bom and high-titled leaders of the horse he
placed under my orders, looked at my close jacket,t straight pantaloons, and Eu-
ropean boots with contempt, and thought themselves disgraced by being told to
obey me. I was, therefore, tempted, on seeing a v^ell-mounted horseman of Tip-
poo's challenge their whole line, to accept a combat, which they declined. I pro-
mised not to use fire-arms, and succeeded in cutting him down ; a relation came to
avenge his death ; I wounded him, and have brought him prisoner. You will' (he
added, smiling,) ' hear a good report of me at the dubar (Court) of Meer Allum
this evening, and the service will go on better for what has passed, and I promise
most sacredly to fight no more single combats.'

When I went in the evening to visit the Meer AUum, I found at his tent a
number of the principal chiefs, and among others those that had been with Cawder
Be& with whose praises I was assailed from every quarter. ' He was,' they

t The native troops in the English service wear a uniform very like that of
Europeans.

THE governor's BODY GUARD — MADRAS. S87

' t perfiect hero, a Rustam ;* it wu an honour to be commanded by lo great a
leader.' The consequence was, as the subadar had anticipated, that the different
chiefo who were placed under him vied in respect and obedience ; and so well were
the incessant efforts of this body directed, that scarcely a load of grain was lost;
hardly a day passed that the activity and stratagem of Cawder Beg did not delude
some of the enemy's plunderers to their destruction.

It would fin a volume to give a muiute account of the actions of this gallant
officer: he was the native aide-de-camp of Generald Dugald Campbell, when that
officer reduced the ceded districts ;t he attended Sir Arthur Wellesley (the present
Duke of Wellington) in the campaign of 1803, and was employed by that officer in
the most confidential manner* At the end of this campaign, during which he had
several opportunities of distinguishing himself, Cawder Beg, who had received a
pension from the English Government, and whose pride was flattered by being
created an omraht of the Deckan by the Nizam, retired ; but he did not long ei\joy
the dbtinction he had obtained: he died in 1806, worn out with the excessive
fiitigue to which he had for many years exposed himself.

The body guard of the Governor of Madras has always been a very select corps,
and the notice and attention with which both the native officers and men of the
corps have invariably been treated, may be adduced as one of the causes which
have led to its obtaining distinction in every service on which it has been
employed.

On the 18th of May, 1791, Lord Comwallis returned his thanks in the warmest
manner to this corps and its gallant commanding officer, Captain Alexander
Grant, for a charge upon the enemy. It obtained still further distinction under
Captain James Grant, the brother of its former commander, when employed, in
the year 1801, against the Poligars, a race of warlike men who inhabit the southern
part of the Madras territory. There are indeed few examples of a more desperate
and successful charge than was made, during that service, by this small corps upon
a phalanx of resolute pikemen, more than double its own numbers ; and the beha-
viour of Shaikh Ibrahim, the senior subadar (a native captain), on that occasion,
merits to be commemorated.

This officer, who was alike remarkable for his gallantry, and unrivalled skill as a
horseman, anticipated, from his experience of the enemy, all that would happen.
He told Captun Grant what he thought would be the fate of those who led the
duuge at the same moment that he urged it, and heard, with animated delight, the
Riolution of his commander to attempt an exploit which was to reflect such glory
on the corps. The leaders of the body guard and almost one-third of its number
fdl, as was expected ; but the shock broke the order of their opponents, and they
obtained a complete victory. Shaikh Ibrahim was pierced with several pikes, one
was in the throat ; he held his hand to this, as if eager to keep life till he asked the

* The Persian Hercules.

1* These districts which were ceded to the English Government by the treaty of
Seringepatam in 1799, lie between Mysore Proper and the territories of the Subah
of the Deckan.

X He received the title of Cawder Nuaz Khan, or Cawder the (kvoured Lord.

S88 HEROISM OF SHAIKH IBRAHIM.

fiite of Ci^tain Grant. The man of whom he inquired pointed to that ofltoer, who
was lying on the ground and apparently dead, with a pike through his lungs ; the
subadar, with an expression of regret that he had disdained to show for his own
fate, puUed the pike from the wound, and instantly expired. His character and
his behaviour in the last moment of existence are fully described in the following
general order, which was issued on this occasion by the Government of Fort St.
George: —

' A rare combination of talents has rendered the character of ShiUkh Ibrahim
familiar to the officers of the army ; to cool decision and daring valour, he added
that sober judgement, and those honourable sentiments that raised him far above
the level of his rank in life. An exploit of uncommon energy and personal exer-
tion terminated his career, and the last effbrt of his voice breathed honour, attach-
ment, and fidelity.

' The Governor in Council, desirous of showing to the army his Lordship's*
sense of the virtue and attainments which have rendered the death of this native
officer a severe loss to the service, has been pleased to confer on his family a
pension equal to the pay of a subadar of the body guard, being 30 pagodas a
month. And his Lordship has further directed that a certificate to this effect,
translated into Persian and Hindoostanee, may be presented to the family, as a
record of the gift, and a tribute to the memory of the brave subadar Shaikh
Ibrahim.'

The posthumous praise given to Shaikh Ibrahim appeared to have inspired othen
with a desire to share his fate, that they might attain his fame. A jemadar of the
same corps, some days afterwards, being appointed with a few select men to watch
a road, where it was thought the chief whom they were attacking might try to
escape, with one or two followers, determined, when a whole column came out, to
make an attempt against its leader, and such viras the surprise at seeing five or six
horaemen ride into a body of between 200 or 300 men, that he had cut down the
chief before they had recovered fi-om their astonishment ; he succeeded in riding
out of the column, but was soon afterwards shot. He had, when he meditated
this attack, sent a person to inform Captain J. Grant (who had recovered of his
wounds) of his intention. • The captain will discover,' he observed, ' that there
are more Shaikh Ibrehims than one in. the body guard.' Captain Grant, when the
service was over, erected tombs over these gallant officera : a constant lamp is
kept at them, which is supported by a trifling monthly donation from every man
in the body guard, and the noble spirit of the corps is perpetuated by the contem-
plation of these regimental shrines (for such they may be termed) of heroic
valour.

Shaikh Moheedeen, a subadar of the body guard of Madras, who was one of the
first officers appointed to the corps of native horse artillery, accompanied me to
Persia, and was left with a detachment of his corps, under the command of Cap-

• Lord Clive (the present Lord Powis) was at this period Governor of Madras ;
and it is but justice to that nobleman to sUte, that virtue, talent, or vilour, either
in European or native, were certain, under his administration, of attaining distinc-
tion and reward.

THE NATIVE INFANTRY OF MADRAS* S80

tun lindsay, to aid in instructing the Persians in military tactics. This ftmall
body of men and their gallant European commander were engaged in seYeral cam-
paigns in Georgia, and this conduct has obtained not only for the subadar, but for
all the men of his party, marked honours and reward, both from the Persian Go-
▼emment and their own. Their exertions received additional importance from the
scene on which they acted, for it is not easy to calculate the future benefits which
may result from the display of the superior courage and discipline of the native'
soldien of India on the banks of the Araxes.

7%6 native infaniry q/ Madrat is generally composed of Mahomedans and Hin-
doos of good caste : at its first establishment none were enlisted but men of high
military tribes. In the progress of time a considerable change took place, and
natives of every description were enrolled in the service. Though some corps that
were almost entirely formed of tte lowest and most despised races of men obtained
considerable reputation, it was feared their encouragement might produce disgust,
and particularly when they gained, as they frequently did, the rank of officers.
Orders were in consequence given to recruit from none but the most respectable
daases of society, and many consider the regular and orderly behaviour of these
men as one of the benefits which have resulted from this system.

The infontry sepoy of Madras is rather a small man, but he is of an active make,
and capable of undergoing great fotigue, upon a very slender diet. We find no man
arrive at greater precision in all his military exercises ; his moderation, his sobriety,
his patience, give him a steadiness that is almost unknown to Europeans ; but
though there exists in this body of men a fitness to attain mechanical perfection as
soldiers, there are no men whose mind it is of more consequence to study. The
motft marked general feature of the character of the native of India is a proneness
to obedience, accompanied by a great susceptibility of good or bad usage ; and there
are few in that country who are more imbued with these feelings than the class of
which we are now treating. The sepoys of Madras, when kindly treated, have in-
variably shown great attachment^ to the service ; and when we know that this
dass of men can be brought, without harshness or punishment, to the highest dis-
cipline, we neither can nor ought to have any toleration for those who pursue a
diiiierent system ; and the commander-in-chief is unfit for his station who grants
his applause to the mere martinet, and forgets, in his temperate zeal, that no per-
liectioii in appearance and discipline can make amends for the loss of the temper
and attachment of the Native soldiers under his command.

We diaoover in the pages of Orme many examples of that patient endurance of
privations and fiitigae, and that steady valour, which has since characterized the
native in&ntry of Madras. Their conduct in the war against Uyder Ally in 1766,
was such as justly to entitle them to admiration. In the battle of Trinomalee and
Mohmgg^e they diqilayed all the qualifications of good and steady soldiers ; and it

* In old oorpa, that have been chiefly recruited within the territories which have
been kmg in the possession of the Company, desertion is of very rare occurrence.

The first battalion of the 3d native in£Emtry marched, in 1803, from near Madura
(of vriuch district, and Trichinopoly, a great proportion of its men were natives],
to the banks of the Taptee, a distance of above 1,000 miles, without one desertion I

VOL. I. U

$90 PATIENT COURAOB OF THE SEPOYS.

WIS during this mr that the dthhftttalion of native infiutry, commanded fay Capt
Calvert, distinguished itself by the defence of Amboie, and obtained the honour of
bearing a representation of that mountain fortress on one of its standards. To the
campaigns of Sir Eyre Coote m have already alluded, and have spolcen of the un-
shalcen fidelity vrhich the sepoys of Madras evinced at that trying Juncture ; but if
a moment vras to be named when the existence of the British power depended upon
its native troops, we should fix upon the battle of Portonovo. Driven to the sea-
shore, attacked by an enemy exulting in recent success,* confident in its numben.
and strong in the terror of his name, every drcumstance combined that could dis-
hearten the small body of men on whom the fiite of the war depended : not aheait
shrunk from tiie trial. Of the European troops it is of course superfluous to apeak ;
but all the native battalions appear, from every account of the action, to have been
entitled to equal praise on this memorable occasion ; and it is difilcult to say whe-
ther they were most distinguisiied when suffering vrith a patient courage* under a
heavy cannonade, vdien receiving and repulsing Ihe shock of the flower of Hydcr's
cavalry, or when attacking in their turn the troops of tliat monarch, who, baiBed
in all his efforts, retreated from this field of anticipated conquest vrith the looa of
his most celebrated commander and thousands of his bravest soldiers.

I shall not dwell upon the different actions in the war against Tippoo and tiie
Mahrattas, in which the Madras sepoys signalised themselves, but merely state some
anecdotes of corps and individuals which appear calculated to give a fur impras*
sion of the general chaimcter of this dass of the defenders of our empire in India.

The natives of India have, generally speaking, a rooted dislike to the sea ; and
when we consider the great privations and hardships to which Hindoos of high
caste are subject on a long voyage, during which some of them, from pngudicea of
caste, subsist solely on parched gram, we feel less surprise at the occasional muti-
nies which have been caused by orders for their embarkation than at the zeal and
attachment they have often shown upon such trying occasions.

A mutiny had occurred in the 9th battalion when ordered to embark fbr Bombay,
in 1779 or 1780, which however had been quelled by the spirit and decision off ita
commandant. Captain Kelly. A more serious result had acconqianied a ainilkr
order for the embarkation of some companies of a corps in the Northern Circara,
who, when they came to Visagapatam, the port where they were to take shippinf^

* The defeat of Colonel Baillie's detachment, which occurred at the
ment of this war. The defeat has been variously attributed to bad anangementa
in the general plans of the campaign, to mismanagement on the part off the com-
manding officer, and to the misconduct of the native tnx^. It is probable all
these causes combined to produce tiiis great misfortune ; but we must reooUeot
that the native battalions that were chiefiy aocuaed of bad behaviour on thia ooea-
sion vrere raw levies, who had never before aeen service, and most of whom had
hardly been in the army a sufficient time to be disciplined. The men mmporing
these corps had been hastily raised in the Circars, or northern poaseasioBa of Ma-
dras, and thefr conduct created a pngudice (whkh experience has sfaee prawl to
be unjust) against recruits from this quarter.

ATTACHMENT TO THEIR OFFICERS. 291

had risen npoD th^ European officers, and in their ^lence shot all except one or
two who escaped on board the vessel appointed to carry their men.

These events rendered Government averse to a repetition of experiments which
had proved so dangerous ; but in the year 1795, when the island of Ceylon, and the
potteasions of the Dutch in the eastern seas were to be reduced, Lord Hobart,* who
was then Governor of Fort St. George, made a successful appeal to the zeal and
attachment of the native troops, who volunteered in corps for foreign service.

A still greater call for men was necessary when an army was formed, in 1797, for
the attack of Manilla, and many of the best battalions in the service showed a for-
wardness to be employed in this expedition. Among these, one of the most re-
markable for its appearance and discipline was a battalion of the 22d regiment.
Thia fine coipe was commanded by Lieutenant-Colond James Oram,t an officer not
more distingmshed for his personal zeal and gallantry, than for a thorough know-
ledge of the men under his command, whose temper be had completely preserved,
at the same time that he had imparted to them the highest perfection in their dress
and discipline. "When he proposed to his corps, on parade, to volunteer for Ma-
iiilla» they only requested to know whether Colonel Oram would go with them :
the answer was, 'he would.' ' Will he stay with us V was the second question.
The reply was in the affirmative ; the whole corps exclaimed ' to Europe, to En*
Tope 1' and the alacrity and spirit with which they subsequently embariced showed
they would as readily have gone to the shores of the Atlantic as to an island of the
Eastern Ocean. Not a man of the corps deserted from the period they volunteered
for service till they embarked ; and such was the contagion of their enthusiasm,
that several sepoys who were missing from one of the battalions in garrison at
Madias were found, when the expedition returned, to have deserted to join the 22d
under Colonel Oimm. This anecdote is stated with a foil impression of the import-
ance of the lesson it conveys. It is through their afiiections alone that such a dasa
«f men can be wdl commanded.

I find in the Madras native army many instances of unconquerable attachment
to the service to which they belong. Among these none can be more remarkable
than that of Syud Ibrahim, commandant of the Ta^jore cavalry, who was made
prisoDer byTippoo Sultan in 1781. The character of this distinguished officer was
wdl known to his enemy, and the highest rank and station was offered to tempt
him to enter into the employment of the state of Mysore. His steady refusal oc-
casioned his being treated with such rigour, and was attended, as his fellow-pri-
(who were British oflJcers) thought, with such danger to his life, that they.

* Lord Hobart, afterwards Eari of Buckinghamshire, (at whose desire this memo-
raaidam was written), was very successful in inspiring zeal in every branch of the
Ciovenunent under his charge, and his attention was peculiariy directed to the oon-
ciHatinn of the nattves. The local information he acquired at this period was sub-
sequently matured by a study of the general interests of the Indian empire ; and
Hie lifo of this virtuous nobleman terminated at a moment when his services, from
the high statkm he had attained of President of the Board of Control, were most
vafanble to his country.

t This officer has been dead upwards of 15 years.

S92 THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON'S SEPOY REGIMENT.

from a generous feeling, contemplating his condition as a Maliomedan and a native
of India as in some essential points different fh>m their own, recommended him to
accept the offers of the Saltan ; bnt the firm allegiance of Syud Ihrafaim wcmld
admit of no compromise, and he treated evtiry overture as an insult. His virtooos
resolution provoked at last the personal resentment of Tippoo, and when the Eng-
lish prisoners were released in 1784, the commandant was removed to a dungeon
in the mountain fortress of Couley Droog, where he terminated his existence. His
sister, who had left her home, the Camatic, to share the captivity of her brother,
was subsequently wounded in the storming of Seringapatam. She, however, for-
tunately recovered, and the Government of Fort 3t. George granted her a pension
of 52 pagodas and a half per month, or £250. per annum, being the full pay of a
native commandant of cavalry. A tomb vms also erected at the place where Syud
Ibrahim died ; and Government endowed it with an establishment sufficient to
mantatn a fakeer or priest, and to keep two lamps continually burning at the shrine
of this faithAil soldier.

Among the many instances of the effect which pride in themselves, and the
notice of their superiors, inspire in this class of troops, I may state the conduct of
the first battalion of the eighth regiment of infantry, which became, at the com-
mencement of his career in India, a favourite corps* of the Duke of Wellington.
They were with him on every service ; and the men of his corps used often to call
themselves ' WeUesley ka Pulten, or Wellesley's battalion, and thenr conduct on
every occasion was calculated to support the proud title they had assumed. A
staff officer,t after the battle of Assaye, saw a number of the Mahomedans of this
battalion assembled, apparently for a funeral ; he asked whom they were about to
inter ; they mentioned the names of five commissioned and non-commissioned
officers of a very distinguished ftunily in the corps. 'We are going to put these
brothers,^ into one grave,' said one of the party. The officer, who was well ac-
quainted with the individuals who had been slain, expressed his regret, and was
about to offer some consolation to the survivors, but he was stopped by one of the
men : ' There is no occasion,' he said, ' for such feelings or expressions ; these men
(pointing to the dead bodies) were sepoys (soldiers) ; they have died in the per-
formance of their duties ; the Government they served will protect their diildien,
who will soon fill the ranks they lately occupied.'

* Tliis corps, some years before the period of which we are now speaking, at-
tained very high reputation under Captain Dunwoody, an officer whose memory
continues to be respected and cherished in the native army of Fort St. George.

t The respected and distinguished officer, the late Sir Robert Barclay, to whom
we owe this and the following anecdote of the Madras troops, concludes a note he
had been kind enough to wnte on the subject with the fbllowing remark : — * 1 have
seen (he observes) the Madras sepoys engaged in great and trifiing actions more
than 50 times ; I never knew them behave ill, or backward, but once, when two
havildars (or seijeants) that were next to me, quitted thdr post, fh>m se^g the
fire chiefly directed to me ; but it is (he adds) but justice to state that, on other oc-
casions, T have owed my life to the gallantry of my covering havildar."

X The term ' brothers' extends, in India, to first cousins.

ORIGIN OF THB NATIYB ARMY OF BOUBAY. 298

Though sensible I have dwelt too long upon this part of my subject, I cannot
. foitcar recording an example of that patience with which the native tn)ops meet
priYation and distress. In 1804, the subsidiary force in the Deccan, commanded
by Colonel Haliburton, was inclosed between two rivers, which became suddenly so
swollen as to cut off their supplies of provisions. It was a period of general famine,
and the communication was cut off with the grain dealers, from whom alone they
eonld expect a supply. All the rice in camp was found to be barely sufficient for
live days' allowance, at a very reduced rate, to the European part of the force,
laaaes to the sepoys were stopt, but while they were left to the scanty subsistence
they might be able to procure for themselves, they were appointed the sole guards
over that grain, from all share in which they^were finom necessity excluded. This
duty was performed with the strictest care, and the most cheerful submission.
Fortunately the waters subsided, and an ample supply prevented their feeling that
extreme of Cunine, the prospect of which they had contemplated with an attention
to discipline and a composure of mind which even astonished those best acquainted
with their habits of order and obedience.

Bambaif Army, — ^It was at Bombay that the first native corps vrare disciplined by
the English. Of the exact date I am ignorant, but regular sepoys are noticed in the
account of the transactions of that part of India some time before they were em-
bodied at either Madras or Bengal. A corps of 100 sepoys from Bombay, and 400
firom Tellicheny, is mentioned as having joined the army at Madras in a.d. 1747,
and a company of Bombay sepoys, which had gone vrith troops from Madras to
Bengal, were present at the victory of Plassey. The sepoys at Bombay continued
long in independent companies, commanded by subadars or native captains. As
the poaacBsiwis and political relations of that settlement were enlarged, its army in-
creased. Tbe companies were formed into battalions under Eurc^iean officers ; and
during the war with the Blahrattas, a. d. 1780, we find the establishment consisting
of 15 battali<ms. These, at the termination of the war with Tippoo, 1783, were re-
duced to six, and one battalion of marines. In 1788, its numbers were augmented
to twelve battalions. In 1796, it was reformed into an establishment of four regi-
ments of two battalions each, from which it has been progressively raised, by the
acquisition of territory and subsidiary alliances, to its present establishment

The men of the native infantry of Bombay* are robust and hardy, and capable of
enduring great fktigue upon very -slender diet. This army has, from its origin to
tlie present day, been indiscriminately composed of all classes, Mahomedans, Hin-
does, Jews, and some few Christians. Among the Hindoos, those of the lowest
tribes of Bfahrattas and the Purwarrie, Soortee and Frostf sects, are much more
numeitMis than the Rajpoots and higher castes. Jews have already been fiavourite
aokfiers in this army, and great numbers of them attain the rank of commissioned

* Since this was written, a considerable change has taken place in the composi-
tion of the Bombay native army.

'^ The Purwarrie are generally from the southward of Bombay, the Frosts and
Soortees from the northward. These are men of what is termed very low caste,
being hardly above what are called pariahs, on the coast of Coromandel.

894 MIXED CUAEACTER OF BOMBAY ARMY.

offlcera.* It is probably owing to the pecoliar oomposidon, and to the local titui-
tion of the territories in which they are employed, that the tepoys of Bombay have
at all periods been found ready to embark on foreign service. They are, in ikct,
familiar to the sea, and only a small proportion of them are incommoded in a voy-
age by those privations to which others are subject from prc^dices of caste. Bat
this is only one of the merits of the Bombay native soldier : he is padent, fdtfaftd,
and brave, and attached in a remarkable degree to his European officers. Tliere
cannot be a dass of men more cheerM under privation and dUBcnlties. I question,
indeed, if any army can produce more extraordinary examples of attaehmeiit to the
government it served and to its officers than that of Bombay.

Towards the close of the war with Tlppoo, in 1782, the whole of the force under
General Mathews were made prisoners. The Sultan, sensible of the advantages he
might derive from the accession of a body of well-disciplined men, made every
oifor that he thought could tempt the English sepoys into his service, but in vain.
He ordered them to woric upon his fortifications, particulariy Chitdedroog, whidi
was very unhealthy, upon a seer (two pounds) of raggy (a small grain like mustanl
seed) and a pice (about a hal4>enny) per day. On this piftance they were rigkily
kept at hard labour through the day, and in close confinement at night, subject to
the continued insults of their guards ; but neither insults, oppression, nor sfak-
ness, could subdue their fidelity; and at the peace in 1783, l,500t of the nadvct
of India, who had been made prisoners near the mountains of die coast of Malabar,
marched a distance of 500 miles to Madras to embark on a voyage of six or dght
weeks, to r^in the army to which they bdonged at Bombay. During the mareh
from Mysore the guards of the Sultan carefolly separated those men, whenever
they encamped, by a tank (a large reservoir) or some other supposed insmnnoant^
able obstacle, from the European prisoners, among whom were their officers. Not
a night passed (I write from a paper of an officer of dSsdnctkm vrho vras a vritneaa
of what he states) that some of the sepoys did not dude the vigilance of thdr
guards by swimming across the tank, or by passing die sentries, tiMt they night
see thenr officers, to whom they brought sudi small sums as they had saved from
thdr pittance, begging they would condescend to accept the litde all they had to
give. " We can live upon any thing (they used to say,) but you requhre mutton
and beef."

To the service in Egypt, in 1800, the Bombay troops proceeded with die same
alacrity as to every other, and ndther the new disorders (to them) of the opdml*
mia or plague, from both of which they suffered, abated in the least degree thdr
ardour. It happened that this force, and that from Bengal, were too late to share
in the fiune which our arms acquired in Egypt : but we can hardly contemplate an

* I write from a memorandum of an officer of rank and experience in the Bom«
bay army. He observes, ' the Jews are dean, obedient, and good soldiers, make ex-
cdlent non-commissioned and commissioned officers, undl they arrive at an ad-
vanced age, when they often foil off, and turn drunkards.'

t A considerable number of the sepoys-taken with General Mathews had, at the
hazard of their lives, made their escape from the Sultan, and reached Bombay,
through the Mahratta territories.

INDIVIDUAL HEROISM. 295

tvnt in any history more calcalated to inspire reflection on the character of that
twmwcmdwit power which our country had attained, than the meeting of her
European and Indian army on the shores of the Mediterranean.

Daring the progress of the war with France, subsequent to 1803, several parties
of the Marine battalions of Bombay sepoys were captured on board of the Com*
patty's cruiaers and carried to the Isle of France, where they were treated in a
manner that reflects no credit upon the local government of the island, which
probably expected that the hardships they endured would make them give way to
the temptations continually held out, and induce them to take service ; but in this
they were disaiq[x)inted : not one of those men could be persusded to enter into
the eraploymeoft of the enemies of Great Britain ; and when the Isle of Frsnoe
was captured, they met with that notke which they had so well merited. The
Government of Bombay granted to every individual who survived his cq)tivity a
silver medal, as a memorial of the sense which it entertained of bis proved fidelity
and attachment.

Fh>m the documents in my possesion, many examples of individual heroism in
the Bombay B^>oy might be given, but I shall content myself vrith two, vriiich will
show in a very strong point of view the nature of their attachment to their Euro-
pean officers.

Four years ago, when the commanding ofBcei* of a battalion on the Bombay es-
tablishment was proceeding along the banks of a ravine, with eig^t or ten men of
his corps, to search for some lions, which had been seen near the cantonment of
. Kaira, in Guaent, a royal tiger suddenly sprang upon him. The ground gave way^
and the tiger and Mi^ Hull rolled together to the bottom of the ravine. Though
this fall prevented the latter fh>m bemg Idlied by the first assault, still his fate
seemed certain ; and those who know, firom having witnessed it, the terror which
the attack of this fierce animal inspires, can only appreciate the character of that
fading which led every sepoy who was with him to rush at once to his succour.
The tiger fell under their bayonets, though not before it had wounded two of the
asttiianta most desperately ; one having lost lus leg, and the other been so lacerap
ted as to be rendered unfit for ftiture service as a soldier. These wounds, however,
were deemed trivial by those who sustained them, when they saw that the officer
whom tfaey loved had escaped unhurt from lus perilous situation.

The second example of this strong feeling of duty is still more remarkable, as it
was not merely encountering danger, but a devotion to certain death. I take the
nooount of the tnnsaction fkt>m a documentf in which it was recorded at the period
of its occurrence.

In 1797, Captain Packenham, in His Majesty's ship Resistance, accompanied by
some small vessels of war belonging to the Company, took possession of Copang, the
Aief Btttdi settlement on the eastern Isle of Timor. lieutenant Frost, of the
Bombay marine, wwnm«nii^ of the Intrepid eruixer, who was to be ^>pointed Go^
vemor of Copang, had taken a house on shore, where he expected Captain Pack-
enham to meet the Dutch Governor, and make arrangements for the fixture ad-

* The present Lieutenant-Colonel Hull,
t Madras newspi4>er, 27th Sept. 1797.

296 THE BENGAL NATIVE ARMY.

muustnitioa of peace. The Malays had fonned a plan» by which it WM aettted thai
the momeot Captain Packenham landed to attend thia meeting, they were to riae
and murder all the EngUahmen on shore. Fortunately something oocoired to in*
dace Captain Packenham to defer his yisit; but he sent his boat, and ha reaching
the beach was the signal for the commencement of the massacre. Nearly 20 per-
sons were slain. A large party had rushed to Lieutenant Frost* s houae« The
head of his surgeon had been struck off, and his own destructioii aecmed inetitafale,
when two sepoys of the Bombay marine battalion, whom he had landed fimn his
Yeasd, exclaimed to him, ' Save yourself by flight, we will fight and die;' at the
same time exposing themselves to the fury of their aaaailants, and giving their com*
mander time to escape to a boat. The sepoys, after a resistance as protractedas
they could render it, were slain, and their heads exposed on pikes explained their
fiite to their lamenting companions on board the Intrepid. Captain Pkuckenham
took prompt and ample vengeance of this treachery ; he opened a heavy fire upon
the place, under which he landed an efficient force, which defeated the Malays, who
fled after losing 200 men.

Bengal Army, — ^I shall not dwell on details connected with the progress of this
army, from a few companies who landed with Lord Clive in 1756, to its preaent
number, which is nearly 100,000 effective native soldiers, commanded by about
2,248* European officers, but content myself vTith noticing those &cts which sp-
pear best calculated to illustrate the disposition and character of the materiala of
which it is composed.

The first battalion raised in Bengal were 10 companies of 100 men each, com-
manded by a captain, with one lieutenant, one ensign and one or two seqeants.
Each company had a standard of the same ground as the fiadngs, with a dilferent
device, (suited to its subadar, or native captain), of a sabre, a crescent, or a dagger.
The Company's colours, with the union in one comer, were carried by the grena-
diers. The first battalions were known by the name of the captain by vi^m they
were commanded, and though, in 1764, 19 corps received a numerical rank, cor-
responding with the actual rank of their commandants at that period, this did not
prevent them from continuing to be know under their former appellation, or from
assuming the name of a favourite leader ; the 15th battalion, was raised in Calcutta
in 1757, and called the Mathews, from the name of its first commander. This corps
was with Colonel Ford in 1759, when that able officer, with 346 Eunqieans and
1,400 sepoys, besieged and took by storm the strong fortress of MasuUpatam,
making prisoners a French garrison, who, both in Europeans and natives, vrere
nearly double his numbers. In this daring and arduous enterprise we are told
by the historian of India that ' the sepoys (who lost in killed and vrounded on
the storm 200 men) behaved vrith equal gaUantry as the Europeans, both in the
real and false attacks.'f In 1763, in the wars with tlfrATizier of Oude, the ' Ma-
thews,' which was with the force under the command of M^at Adams, is stated

* This is independent of the officers of artillery and engineers, and of invalid
corps. In 1760, the whole of the European officers in the service of the Company
in Bengal amounted to 18 captains, 26 lieutenants, and 15 ensigns.

t Orme's History of India, vol. iii. p, 489.

CAUSES AND TERMINATION OF THE MUTINY IN 1782. S97

when the ComiMUiy'B European regiment wis broken by cavalry, to have nobly
aopported his Miyeaty's 84th regiment, whoae courage restored the action. Mijor
Adams died shortly afterwards, and a general mutiny of the whole force took
plaoe^ in which the sepoys at flist joined, but were soon after reclaimed to their
dvty. At ttte battle of Bazar, which was fought in 1764, all the native corps ap-
pear to have behaved wdl.

In 1782, ' the Mathews' was one of three Bengal corps who mutined, under an
apprehension of being embaiked for foreign service ; and though the conduct of
thoae Goips* was remarkable for the total absence of that spirit of general insubor-
dination and disposition to outrage by which mutinies of soldiery are usually
nailced, they were in the ensuing year broken and drafted into some other batta-
lions. 'Thus fell 'the Mathews' (says Captain Williams), a corps more hi^y
spoken of during the 26 years it existed than any battalion in the service ; and at
this day (he adds), if you meet any of the old fellows who once belonged to it, and
ask them what corps they came from, they will erect their heads and say, ' Mathews
ka Pttltan,' or, ' Mathews* battalion.' '

The present second battalion of the 12th regiment appears, firom Captain Wil-
liams's account, to have been raised some months before 'the Mathews.' He in-
deed calls it the first raised battalion. This corps was at the battle of Plassey. It
was named by the sepoys the LaI Pultan, or the Redf Battalion, and afterwards
GSallis,^ finom the name of one of the first captains. It was associated vdth the

* I cannot refrain from giving the following account of this mutiny, which is
written by an officer who vritnessed it. It is very characteristic of the Bengal se-
poys-*' The mutiny, (this officer observes), excepting a general spirit of murmur
and discontent, was confined to the single instance of refusing the service, and
whilst in that state, preventing the march of two companies which were ordered to
protect stores, &c. prepared for the expedition. The men vrere guilty of no violence
of any description, and treated their officers with the usual respect. The discipline
of the corps was carried on as usual; and notwithstanding some of the native
officers and men who had acted the most conspicuous part were confined in the
quarter-guards of their respective regiments, no attempt was made to release them.
After a lapse of several vreeks, a general court-martial was held, and two subadars
and one or two sepoys were sentenced to death, by being blown away from the
mouth of the cannon. The sentence was carried into execution, in the presence of
those troops which had mutinied ; excepting one other regiment, which' was at the
station^ vrithout the smallest opposition or even murmur; and the troops were
marched round the spot of execution, amidst the mangled remains of their fellow
soldiers, vrithout any other apparent feeling than the horror which such a scene
was cakiilat/ed to excite, and pity for their &te'. (It was thus also at Barrackpore
when the mutiny took place relative to proceeding to Rangoon. — ^R.M Ji(.)

The intended service was given up, and the regiments which had mutinied were
pardoned in general orders ; but on the return to the Bengal provinces of General
Goddard'a detachment, the officers and men of the regiments which had mutinied
were drafted into those old battalions.

f Probably from its dress.

X The name of this officer (who is still alive) is Galliez. The natives of India

298 WARR£K HASTINGS AND THE BENGAL ARMT.

MathewB fai all its early service, pcrtietilarly at MasuHpatam, Gherettyt flkc. ; but ior
1764 it mutinied, on the pretext of some promises ^ieh were made to it iMvlBf
been broken. Havfng no apparent object, it was easily reduced to obediaice ; but
Mijor Monro (afterwards %it Hector Munro), who thear commanded the amy,
thought a seyere example necessary, and 28 of the most guilty were tried by a drum-
head court-martial, and sentenced to death. Eight of these were dii«cted to be
immediately blown away from the guns of the force then at Choprah. As they
were on the point of executing the sentence, three grenadiers, who happened to be
amongst them, stepped forth, and claimed the privilege of being blown away ftom
the right-hand guns. 'They had always fought on the right (they said), and they
hoped they would be permitted to die at that post of lionour.' Their request was
granted, and they were the first executed. ' I am sure (says Captain WiUiams,
who then belonged to the Royal Marines employed in Bengal? and who was an eye«
witness of this remsrlcable scene) that there was not a dry eye among the marines,
although they had been long accustomed to hard service, and two of them bad ac-
tually been in the execution party which shot Admirsl Byng in 1757.**

This corps subsequently distinguished itself in 1776 at the l>attle of Korah. It
had been known originally as the first battalion. It was afterwards numbered the
9th, from the rank of its captain. In a new arrangement of the army it was made
the 16th, then the 17th. By the regulations of 1796, it has become the Sd of the
i2th regiment; and it has of late years, as we shall hereafter have occasion to
mention, far outdone its former fsme.

A detachment, composed of six native battalions, a corps of native cavalry, and
a proportion of artillery, altogether amounting to 103 European oflicers, and 6,6M
native troops, was in 17 — sent firom Bengal to the relief of the settlement of Bom-
bay. Its first rendezvous was at Calpee, a town on tiie rig^t bank of the Jumna,
near Cawnpore, whence it commenced its march on the iSth June 1776. It
reached Rajgurh, a town in Bundiecund, on the 17th August, where it halted so
much longer than Mr. Hastings thought necessary, that he removed Colonel Leslie,
the commanding officer, and appointed Lieutenant-Colond Goddard to that diarge.
Under this active and enterprising officer it continued Its route through Malwa
and Candetsh to Surat, presenting the extraordinary spectacle of a coipa of the
natives of Hindostan, under the guidsnce of a few ofiloers, marching firom the banb
of the Ganges to the wertemmost shores of India. During the Itve years that tiwy
were absent ttom home, the men of this detachment conducted themselves in the
most exemplary manner, and acquired distinction in every service in which they
were employed. I shall not repeat the warm and animated eulogium which Mr.
Hastings passed upon this corps in one of the last general orders he issued to the
army in Bengal, but all must subscribe to the truth of his ol)servation, that tiiehr
conduct showed that ' there are no difficulties which the true spirit of milituy en-
terprise is not capable of surmounting.'

The force detached to the Camatic in 1781 was commanded by Colonel Pearse.
It consisted of five regiments, of two small battalions (500 men each) of natiw hi*

often corrupt English names in an extraordinary manner ; Dalrymple is msfde into
Dalduffle ; Ochterlony, Lonyochter ; Uttlcjohn, John Little ; Shairp, Sumtp, kc.

IF AN EUROPEAN ARMY WERE TO CROSS THE INDUS ? 899

fiiDtry, some mtvfe c&vaky, and • pro^MMrtion of aitiUary. This corpi, which
awrchMl iboat 1,100 nuks along the aea^coast, through the province of Cuttack,
and the northern Ciraan to Madras^ anived at that Pretideney at a moat eventfiol
period, and their services were eminently uaeful to the preiervatioa of our power
m that quarter. Among the many oceeaions which this detachment had of distin-
guisfafng itself, the attack on the French lines at Cuddalore in 1783 was the most
remarkable. The Bengal sepoys that were engaged on that occasion behaved
neMy. It was one of the first times that European troops and the disciplined
natives of India had met at the bayonet. The high spirit and bodily vigour of the
RafpOGta of the provinces of Behar and Benares (the dass of which three-fourths
of this army waa then composed) proved fidly equal to the contest. In a partial
action, which took ptece in a sortie made by the French, the latter virere defeated
with severe loss ; and the memory of this event continues to becherished wtth just
pride both by the ofiloers and men of the Bengal native anny. Had the result of
of this affidr, and the character of these sepoys, been more generally known, some
of our countrymen would have been freed from that excessive alarm which was en-
tertained tor the safety of our eastern poaaesaions when the late deqwt of Conti*
nental Rmipe threatened them with invasion. I trust that every event that can
•erionsly disturb the peace of our Indian empire is at a great distance ; but if an
Ruopenn amy had croased the Indas, I should not tremble for its ftte* I well
know that the approach of such a force would strike no terror into the minds of
men of whom I am writing, and that acting with British troops, and led by British
oAcers, they would advance vrith almost as assured a oonfldence of victory against
a line of weil-diacipiined Europeans as againat a rabble of their own untrained
countrymen. They might fafl ; but they are too bold, and too conscioua of thehr
own courage and strength, ever to anticipate defeat.

I should feel heaitation in stating my sentiments so strongly on this sufctiect, if I
did not know them to be those which have been entertained and avowed by many
enUnent commanders,* who have had opportunities of forming a judgment upon
this question. When Colonel Pearse's detachment, which had been reduced by
terrice from 5,000 to 2,000 men, returned to Bengal after an absence ol four yearat
the policy of Mr. Hastings heaped every distinction upon them that he thou^t
fakmhte d to reward their merits, or to stimulate others to future exertion of a
shnaar nature. He visited this corps, and his personal conduct towarda both the
European oftcters and nativea gave grace to his pubUc measures. A lasting im-
p rcari ont was made on the minds of all ; and every fevour was doubled by the
manner in which It was conferred.

* 1 can particularly quote the late Lord Lake. No officer ever oaw troops under
BMre varied and severe trials than he did the Bengal sepoys. He never spoke of
them but with admiration ; and was forward to declare, that he considered them
equal to a contest with any troops that could be brou^t against them.

t An officer of rank and distinction (M^r-General Sir Henry Worsley), who,
when a young subaltern, was an eye-witness of this scene, observes, in a letter
whfeh he has written to me on the subject, ' Mr. Hastings, dressed in a plain blue
coatf witik his head uncovered, rode along the ranks. The troops had the most

SOO THE BENGAL NATIVE CAVALRY.

The rebeUion of Cheyt Sinc^, the fUdah of Benares, in 1Y81, most be bmiliar to
all acquainted with Indian history. My purpose in mentioning it, is limited to the
object of showing the conduct of the Bengal sepoys under one of the seveKSt trials
of fidelity to which they were ever exposed.

The numerous followers of the Rijah had risen upon two companies of aepoys
appointed to guard the house in wiiich he was placed under reabrainti and killed
and wounded the whole of thenu The rashness of an European officer had led
another party to slaughter in the streets of Ramnagur. Mr. HaatingSy who was at
Benares when these events occurred, had only a few companies of sepoys to guard
his person, and even these he had no money to support. He summoned corps
firom different quarters to his aid ; but when we reflect on the impression which
the first success of Cheyt Singh had made, and consider that by far the greatest
proportion of his troops with whom Mr. Hastings had overcome the dangers with
which he was surrounded were men of the same tribe and country as those against
whom they were to act, and that the chief, who was dedareda rebel, had long been
considered by many of them as their legitimate prince^ we must respect the mind
that remained firm and unmoved at so alarming a crisis. The knowledge Mr.
Hastings had of the sepoys led him to place implicit trust in them on this trying
occasion, and his confidence was well rewarded. Their habits of disdpllQe, and
their attachment to thenr officers and the service, proved superior to the ties of
caste and of kindred. Not an instance of defection occurred, and the public in-
terests were preserved and restored by their zeal and valour.

Before I make any remarks on the more recent parts of the history of the Bengal
native infantry, I must offer some observations on the composition of the army of
that Presidency. The cavalry is oompazatively young ; its formation on the present
establishment was only just completed when the Mahratta war of 1803 commenced.
Their conduct, however, in the severe service that ensued has justly raised their re-
putatk>n, and they at present form a most efficient and distinguished branch of the
army to which they belong.* The men are rather stouter than those in the same

striking appearance of hardy veterans. They were all as black as ink, contrasted
vrith the sleek olive skins of our own corps. The sight of that day (he concludes)
and the feelings it excited, have never been absent from my mind ; to it, and to the
affecting orders (which Mr. Hastings issued), I am satisfied I, in a great degree,
owe whatever of professional pride and eniulation I have since possessed.

• It is only to peruse the despatches of the late Lord Lake to be sensible of the
excellence this corps very early obtained. I know few military exploits of cavalry
more extraordinary than that which he performed with a column of three regiments
of British light dragoons and three of native cavalry, supported by some horse artil-
lery and a small reserve of infantry. With this corps his lordship pursued Jeswunt
Row Holkar from Delhi, through the Douab, till he came up with and defeated him
at Futtyghur. Lord Lake, in a de^fMtch dated 18th November, in which he gives
an account of this operation, observes, ' The troops have daily marched a distance
of 23 or 24 miles. During the night and day previous to the action they marched
58 miles, and from the distance to which they pursued the enemy, the space pas*
sed over, before they had taken up their ground, must have exceeded 70 miles.'

THE RAJPOOT SOLDIER. 901

corps at Madras, llic latter are almost all Mahomedans, and a considerable pro-
portion of the Bengal cavalry are of the same race. The fitct is, that with the ex-
ception of the Mabratta tribe, the Hindoos are not, generally speaking, so much
di^MMcd as the Mahomedans to the duties of a trooper ; and though the Mahome*
dans may be more dissipated and less moral in their private conduct than the Hin«
doos, they are zealous and high-spirited soldiers, and it is excellent policy to ha?e
a considerable proportion of them in the service, to which experience has shewn
they often become very warmly attached. In the native inftntry of Bengal the
Hindoos are in the foil proportion of three-fburths to the Mahomedans. They con-
sist chiefly of R^poots, who are a distinguished race among the Khiteree or mili-
tary tribe. We may judge of the size of these men when we are told that the
standard below which no recruit is taken is five feet six inches.* The great pro-
portion of the grenadiers are six feet and upwards. The Rigpoot u bom a seedier.
The mother speaks of nothing to her infant but deeds of arms, and every sentiment
and action of the future man is marked by the first impressions that he has re-
ceived. If he tills the ground (which is the common occupation of this class), his
sword and shield are placed near the furrow, and moved as his labour advances.
The frame of the Rajpoot is almost always improved (even if his pursuits are those

of dvil life) by martial exercises ; he is from habit temperate in his diet, of a
generous, though warm temper, and of good moral conduct; he is, when well-
treated, obedient, zealous, and faithful. Neither the Hindoo nor the Mabomedan
Btddier of India can be termed revengeful, though both are prone to extreme vio-
lencef in points which they deem their honour, of which they have a very nice

* Before 1796 it was always five fleet six inches and a half. By an order in 1809,
men may be taken for light infantry corps as low as five feet five inches.

t One instance is given in Captain William's narrative of the action of this
violent spirit. In 1772, a sepoy of the now first battalion of the 10th regiment,
who had suffered what he supposed an injury, fell out of the ranks when the corps
was at exercise, and going up to Captain Ewens, the commanding officer, with le-
covered arms, as if to make some request, took a deliberate aim and shot him, then
patiently awaited the death he had merited. I could give several examples of
similar feeling ; two will suffice. Captain Crook, formerly of the Madras cavalry,
stmck a sentry for allowing a bullock that brought water to his tent, to step over
the threshold and dirty it. The man took no notice of what had occurred till re-
lieved from his post ; he then went to his lines, and a short time afterwards sought
his captain, and taking deliberate aim at him, shot him dead upon the spot He
made no attempt to escape. He had avenged his honour from the blows he had
received, and met with calmness and fortitude the death that was awarded as the
punishment of his crime.

An officer (still living) was provc^ed at some olEence the man had committed to
strike a Madras native trooper under his command. On the night of the same day»
as he was setting with another officer in his tent, the trooper came in, and, taking
idm at him, fired ; but, owing to the other officer striking his arm, the ball missed.
As, however, he fell in the confiision, and the light was extinguished, his com-
panion, who considered him killed, ran to obtain aid, and to seize the murderer*

SQ3 THE BEKOAL TROOPS AND TfPPOO SAIB.

•ente, to be Bligfated or iamiHed. The Rijpoots sometimes, wut eneigy, but sdiom,
if ever, coonge. It is lemaiicable in this eiess, that evea "when tliefr tnimal spirits
have been subdued so fitf as to cause a ccwstioa of exertioD, they show no tmr of
death, which they meet in every fonn it can present itself with surprising Ibititude
and resignation. Such is the general diaracter of a race of men whose numbers in
the army of Bengal amount to betsreen 30,000 and 40,000, and of whom we can
recruit in our provinces to any amount. But this instrument of power must be
managed with care and wisdom, or that which is our strength may become our
danger. It must always be recollected tliat minds of the caste we have described
are alive to every impulse, and, firom simUarity of feeling, will all vibrate at the
same touch. If we desire to preserve their attachment, we must continue to treat
them with kindness, liberality, and justice ; we must attend to the most trifling of
their pnyudioes, and avoid rssh innovations, but above all, those that are caleulated
to convey to their minds the most distant alarm in pomts connected with their
usages or region.

A detachment of Bengal native troops shared in the glory acquired by Lord Cora*
wallis in his war against Tippoo Snltan in 1790 and 1791. Flrom thst time tfll
1803, the only operation of any consequence in vrliich they were engaged was a
abort campaign, in Rohilcund, in 1794. The rude and untrained, but lleroe and
4iBidy enemies against whom Sir R. Abercrombie had to act, were perhaps too much
despised, and they toolc advantage of a conAision canaed in his right wing, by tiie
bad behacviour of the Buglish commandant of a small body of half-disciplined
cavalry, to malce a fturious charge, by which a most destructive impression was
made on two battalions of sepoys and a regiment of Europeans.

Their desperate career was checked by the Are of the English artfllery, by whose
good conduct, and the steady valour of the other parts of the line, a victory was
uttimstely gained. The native troops never, perhaps, displayed move courage than
on this trying occasion, and all regretted that the inAunous* conduct of one man
had caused such serious loss of ofBcets and men in some of the most distingQisbed
corpst of the army.

The campaigns of 1303 and 1804 present a series of actions snd sieges, hi eiery
one of which the Bengal sepoys showed their accustomed valour. At the battics of

who had another pistol in his hand. The moment he was. out of the tent , he heard
the other pistol go oif ; and, on returning with a guard of men and some ligiits, he
iiound that the trooper, conceiving that the first shot had taken efiiBct» and that his
honour was avenged by the death of the person who had insulted him, had, with
the second pistol, shot himself through the head.

* The name of this officer was Ramsay. He escaped, by desertien, tnm the
punishment he had so amply merited.

t The corps on the right of the army was the 13tii battalion, whidi had been
eminently distinguiahed against the French at Cuddalove. It had earned nwic
lauselB under its well known commander. Captain Norman Bfadeod, in the osmr
paigns of Lord ComwalUs. Captain Ramsay's cavalry rode mie iq >ec t edly over this
fine battalion, and 6,000 Rohillaa charged it, before it eould recover from the con-
fusion into which it was thrown.

COLONEL M0N8ON*8 RETREAT. 303

DeUd and Luwinree they were as emineatly distingiuBlied M«t the sieges of Agra
■nd Deeg; snd I may safely assert, that in the only two great reverses which oo
coned during the war, the retreat of Colonel Monson and the siege of Bhurtpore,
the comage, firmness, and attachment of the native troops were more conspicuous
4han in its most bziUiant periods. We know sufficient of the former operations to
regret that no ftiU and fiuthftil account of them has yet been published ; nor does
Captain Williams's narratiTe supply this blsnk. I can only express my conviction,
founded on a perusal of a private journal kept by an officer of the detachment, that
in this disastrous Retreat, the native troops (with the exception of a very few, who,
after suffering slmost unpsralleled hardships, were deluded by the offers of the
enemy to desert) behaved in the most noble manner. They endured the greatest
privations and distresses, during the march from the banks of the Chumbul in
Mshva, where the first retrograde movement was made, till their arrival at Agra, a
dirtance of nealy 400 miles. They had at once to combat the elements (for it rained
shnost incessantly) and the enemy. Scenes of horror* occurred which were
hardly ever surpasaed ; yet, though deprived of regular food and rest and harassed
with continued attacks, their spirit was unbroken. They maintained throughout
the most severe discipline, and 1 am assurred that on many occasions, when their
Sorapean officers, worn down by the climate and fatigue, appeared ftint and des-
pondmg, the men next them exdaimed ' Keep up your hesrt; Sir, we will take you
in aafety to Agn.'t When in square, and sustaining ehaiges from the enemy's
hone, it more than once happened, when a musket was fired by a young soldier,
that a veteran struck him with the butt end of his fhn^wsk, exclaiming, ' Are you
mad, to destroy our discipline and make us like the rabble that are attacking us V
The only serious impatience that the sepoys of this detachment showed was to
be led against the enemy ; and the manner in which they behaved on all occasions
given them of signalizing their valour ahowed that tins feeling had its rise in no
vain confidence. The flsnk companies, under Captain O'Donnell, were very suc-
ceasful in beating up the quarters of a considerable corps of the enemy on the 21st
July. On the 24th of August, when all the detachment, which consisted of five
bsttallons and six companies of sepoys, had been sent across the Bannas river, ex-
cept tiie 2d battalion of the 2d regiment, and some piquets, Holkar brought up

* Paiticalarly at the Chumbullee Nullah, a rapid torrent, at which the elephants
were employed to carry the troops over. The animals becoming wearied or im-
patient, shook off those on their backs, numbers of whom were drowned. But a
still more hoirid scene ensued. The fiitigued elephants could not bring over the
foBowen. The Bheds, a mountain banditti, encouraged by Holkar, came down
upon the unprotected females and children, whom they massacred in the most in-
human manner. It was on this extreme trial, that some of the gallant fellows,
who had befoie snffiered every hardship with firmness, gave way to despair. Several
of theaa, maddened with the screams of their wives snd children, threw themselves,
with tiKir fireloeka, into the rapid stream, and perished in a vain atten^tt to aid
tiuMe they loved more tiian life.

f I have been informed of this fkct by officers to whom these expressions were
uied.

304 BHURTPORE AND THE BBNOAL SEPOYS.

hiB inftmtry and guns to attack this corps, which not only defended its position;
but advanced with the utmost gallantry, and obtained possession of several pieees
of the enemy's artillery. It could not, however, be supported by the other psrts
of the force, who were divided from it by the river, and it was almost annihilated.
Tliose who witnessed the attack which it made upon Holkar's line from the op-
posite bank of the Bannas speak with admintion of the heroism of the European
officers, and of the gallant men whom they led to a momentary bat iktal victory.
At the dose of this affair they saw a jemandar (native lieutenant) retiringtowsidi
the river, pursued by five or six men. He held the standard of his battalion in one
hand, and a sword, with which he defended himself, in t£e other. "When arrived
at the river he seemed to have attained his object of saving the colours of his coips^
and, springing with them into the current, sunk to rise no more^

There have been few officers who better understood the character of soldien
than the late Lord Lake ; he had early discovered that of the Bengal sepoys ; he.
attended to their pr^dices, flattered their pride, and praised their valour. They
repaid his considention of them with gratitude and affection, and daring the whole
of the late Mahrstta war* their zeal and devotion to the public service was in-
creased by the regard and attachment which they entertained for the Conmuuider-
in-chief. Sufficient instances of this sre recorded by Captain Williams. There is
none, however, more remarkable than the conduct he pursued towards the shat-
tered corps of Colonel Monson's detachment. He formed them into a reserve,
and promised them every opportunity of signalizing themselves. No confidence
was ever better repaid, and throughout the service that ensued these corps were
uniformly distinguished.

The conduct of the 2d battallion of the 12th regiment may be taken as an ex-
ample of the spirit that animated the whole. This corps, which has been before
noticed under its first name of ' Gallis,' or the Lai Pultan, had behaved with un-
common valour at the battle of Laswsrree, where it had 100 men and three ofi&oers
killed and wounded. It was associated on that occasion with His M^esty*s 76th
regiment, and shared in the praise which Lord Lake bestowed on ' the handAil of
heroes,' as he emphatically termed those whose great exertions decided that battle.
It was with Colonel IConson's detachment, and maintained its high character in
the disastrous retreat we have alluded to. But all its former deeds were outdone
at the siege of Bhurtpore. It appears by a printed memorial which we have before
us of its European commanding officer, that on the first storm of that fortress this
corps lost 150 officers and men, kiUed and wounded, and did not retire till the
last. On the third attack, when joined with the 1st battalion of the same regiment
(amounting together to 800 men), it became the admiration of the whole army.
The 2nd battalion of the 12th regiment on this occasion not only drove back the
enemy who had made a sally to attack the trenches, but eflfected a lodgement, and
planted its colours on one of the bastions of the fort. Unfortunately this work
was cut off by a deep ditch from the body of the place ; and after the attack had
ftiled the 12th regiment was ordered to retire, which they did reluctantly, vrith the
loss of seven officers and 350 men, killed and wounded, being neariy half the warn*
ber they had carried into action.

• The war of 1803-4

NATIVE ARMY OF INDIA. 305

BnmpiM of equiii vtlour might be given firom many other corps during the
vtr, uid inituncpit of individual valoiir might be noticed in any number, but more
it not neoesHury to aatiafy the reader of the just title of the Bengal sepoys to the
bi^ name 'which they have acquired ; their conduct* throughout the arduous ser-
vice in Nepaul, where they had at once to contend with the natural obstacles of an
almost impracticable country, and the desperate valour of a race of hardy moun-
t^neers, has been worthy of their former fame. Since the conclusion of this war
a small body of these troops has had an opportuni^ of exhibiting, in a most dis-
tinguished manner, that firmness, courage, and attachment to their officers and the
service, which have alwaya chancterised this army. We allude to a recent occur-
rence of a most serious sedition at Baieilly, the capital of Rohilcund. The intro-
duction of a police-tax, intended to provide means for the security of life and
property, had spread alarm and discontent among an ignorant population, whose
pr^udices in favour of their ancient usages are so strong as to lead them to
regard any innovation (whatever be its character) with jealousy and indignation.
Acting under these feelings, the RohiUas of Bareilly, who are alike. remarkable for
their strength of body and individual courage, rose in a body to oppose the orders
of the civil magistrate. They were influenced by a priest upwards of 90 years of
age, who dug his grave, to indicate his resolution to conquer or die, and at whose
orders the green flag, or standard of Mahomet, was hoisted, that religious feelings
mi^t be excited to aid the efforts which they now proclaimed themselves deter-
mined to make to effect the downfall of their European tyrants. What rendered
this revolt more alarming, was the knowledge that the cause of the insurgents was
popular over the whole country, and a belief that their success would be the signal
for a general rise in the neighbouring provinces. All the force that could be col-
lected to suppress this revolt was a detachment of between 300 and 400 sepoys of
the 27th regiment of native infEmtry, and part of a provincial battalion, under
Captain Boscawen, with two guns, and a party of about 400 Rohilla horse belonging
to a corps lately embodied under Captain Cunningham. The former received, with
undismayed courage, the charge of an undisciplined, but furious and desperate
rabble, vrho, encouraged by their numbers, which exceeded 12,000 armed men.

* I know of few instances where more has been required from the zeal and
vaknir of the native troops than in the late campaign against the Goorkhas. The
great successes of Miyor- General Sir D. Ochterlony could only have been gained by
tlie patience and courage of the troops being equal to the skill and decision of tiieir
commander, and in the spirited and able operations of Colonel NicoUs, Quarter-
master-General of His Majesty's troops in India, against Almorah, where 800
aepoys, aided by a few irregulars, were led against 3,000 gallant mountaineers, who
occupied that mountain fortress, and the heights by which it was surrounded.
Victory could only have been obtained by every sepoy partaking of the ardour and
res<^utk>n of his gallant leader. Of their conduct on this occasion we may, indeed,
judge by the admiration with which it inspired Colonel NicoUs, who gave vent to
his feelings in an order that does honour to his character. Speaking of an attack
made by a party of sepoy grenadiers, he observes, ' this was an exploit of which the
best troops of any age might justly have been proud.'

VOL. I. X

306 MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS OF INDIA.

penevered in the attack till more than 2,000 of them were slain ; and the latter,
though of the same class and religion as the insurgents, and probably related to
many of them by the ties of kindred, proved equally firm as the sepoys to their
duty. When their priest advanced and invoked them to join their natural friends,
and to range themselves under the standard of their faith, only one man was found
wanting in fidelity ; he deserted, and was soon afterwards slain by his former
comrades, who continued throughout to display prompt obedience, exemplary
courage, and unshaken attachment to the officer by whom they were led.

However slight this affisir may seem, I do not recollect any occurrence in the
history of British India more calculated to show the dependence of our power on
the fidelity of our native troops, and the absolute necessity of adopting every mea-
sure by which their attachment can be confirmed and approved.

It is by treating the sepoys with kindness and consideration, by stimulating their
pride, and by attending, in the most minute manner, to their feelings and preju-
dices, that we can command, as has been well observed, ' their lives through the
medium of their affections ;' and so long as we can, by these means, preserve the
fidelity and attachment of that proportion of the population of our imratfisf pos-
sessions in the East, which we arm to defend the remainder, our Empire may be
considered as secure.

Subsequent to the date of this account, the native arms of India have fully main-
tained the high reputation they had achieved.

During the campaigns against the Mahrattas and Pindaries in 1817 and 1816,
that in the territories of Ava, and the siege of Bhunalpore in 1826, these troops
evinced all the military qualities of zeal, attachment to their colours, and gallantry
for which they had been so long distinguished.

Each Presidency has its separate army, commander-in-
chief, staff, &c. ; but the commander-in-chief of the Supreme
Government has a general authority over all the Presiden-
cies. The total armed force in British India is about 194,000
men : it may be said to consist of three branches, viz. King^s
cavalry and infantry ; £. I. Company's European engineers,
artillery, and infantry ; and the Company's NoHre artillery,
cavalry, and infantry.

The European officers serving in British India are at pre-
sent in number and distribution as follows :*

* I am indebted for these late returns of the Anglo-Indian army to
Colonel Salmond of the Military Department at the India Hoiue, who,
with the permission of the Court of Directors, has furnished me with much
valuable information.

EUROPEAN COMMISSIONED OFFICERS IN INDIA.

307

Corps,

Bengal.

Madras.

Bombay.

Total.

•

Hon. Company's Englneeis

135

'BwopesnHone .

118

A«Mn«»» . Ditto Foot
^"^"y iNstiTe Horse . .

150

. Ditto Poot ■ ■ «

r His Ms3esty*s Regiments

100

Cavalrj. < Hon. Company's RegoiarB

140

I«7

108

Ditto Irregxilars .
His MiOosty'B Regiments

• •

SS8

»o

13ft

687

hkfan**. . Hon. Company's Eoro. do.
"*™^- ' Do. NatiTTRegnlart .

1070

0OS

4S5

8187

^ Do. Inrcgiilars. .

• •

Stair

188

If eitieal Dsnartjueut • • . .
Commissariat ditto ....

104
S5

1S8
S5

304
03

Pioneer's Corps*

—

■~-

Wanant oOicers of Artillery

158

Total

S147

1835

oos

4487

The total number of European officers it will be observed
is 4,4874 of whom 75S are in the King's military service.
The complement of officers to each regiment is, of Euro-
peans, one colonel, one lieut.-colonel, one major, five captains,
eight lieutenants, four comets or ensigns ; of Native com-
missioned officers there are a subadar and jemadar with each
troop or company. The command of stations is given to
brigadiers, of whom there are, in Bengal 16, in Madras 12,
and in Bombay 7. The divisional commands, under general
officers, are — Bengal, King's, 2 ; E. L Company, 5 : Madras,
l^g's* 2 ; 1^* !• Company, 3 : Bombay, King's, 1 ; E. I. Com-

•

pany, S. Total, King's, 5; E. I. Company, 10.

The average number of European officers in Bengal, aii-

* There is now no separate pioneer corps. The pioneers and sappers
and miners are embodied in one corps, called the Enjpneer Corps.

f Included in European horse artillery.

X On the Beni^al establishment there are ninety-nine corps, namely ; —
3 of horse artillery, 7 of foot artillery ; a corps of engineers equal to 3
others in the strength of its officers ; 10 of native cavalry; 2 of European
infantry, and 74 of native infantry. In each of these the European com-
missioned officers consist of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 5
captains, 8 lieutenants, and 4 second lieutenants, cornets, or ensigns. The
total establishment thus, is 1,980 ; or 99 colonels, the same of lieutenant-
colonels, and of majors ; 495 captains, 792 lieutenants, 396 ensigns, and
about 180 supernumeraries of the junior rank, awaiting the process of
al>sorption.

SOB > king's and b. I. company's officers.

nually for the last 18 years^ has been 1^754 ; of casualties, 80
per annum, or 1 in SS ; of deaths, 54, or 1 in 32; and of re-
tirement, &c. 26, or 1 in 67. In Madras, total number of
officers, 1,346; of casualties, 76, or 1 in 18; of deaths, 52,
or 1 in 26 ; and of retirements, &c. 23, or 1 in 58. In Bom-
bay, total number of officers, 624 ; of casualties, 34, or 1 in
18; of deaths, 26, or 1 in 24; of retirements, &c. 8, or 1 in
78. (For tables of each department of the service, pay, al-
lowances, &c. see Appendix.)

The total casualties of commissioned officers in the E. I.
Company's army at the three Presidencies, from 1813 to 1833,
has been yearly, 169, 154, 159, 143, 150, 203, 198, 167, 194,
164, 168, 260, 233, 244, 233, 163, 193, 204, 244, 227, 228.

In 1835, the number of high ranked officers of the E. L
Company's service attached to the Indian army establishment,

Bengal. lladcai. Bombay. TotaL

Lieutenaot-Generals .6 10 16

Mtjor>General8 .9 9 3 21

Colonelt ... 84 51 34 169

99 70 37 206

In Europe . . 55 50 29 134

On service . . 44 20 8 72

The lieutenant-colonels at the same period amounted to
206, majors 206, captains 1,030, and subalterns 2,472. In
the Company's army there is no half-pay list, no sinecures,
and no pensioners under 25 years' service ; until that period
is completed^ Europemi commissioned officers are not enabled
to retire on the full pay of their rank, which is attained by
seniority. A lieutenant-colonel, major, or captain, retires on
the half-pay of his rank, if his health requires his relinquish-
icg the serrice, and a lieutenant having served 13, or an en-
sign 9 years (including 3 years for a furlough) may retire on
ill-health certificates, on the half-pay of their rank. There
are military funds to which liberal subscriptions are made by
the Company's Government, but the charges are principalljr
borne by the officers themselves. The general servitude of
the officers in the Company's army is thus shewn : —

909

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.1 II

310

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS^ RANK AND FILE.

The officers in the Company's service receive commissions
from His Majesty corresponding with those which they re-
ceive from the E. I. Company ; but westward of the Cape of
Good Hope, the Company*s officers possess no rank when on
service with the King's officers ; eastward of it they take pre-
cedence according to date and rank of commission. It is hut
justice to state, that in no part of the globe can there be
found a braver or more gentlemanly community than the
officers in the Company's service.*

The following table shews the number of European non-
commissioned officers and rank and file in India, and the
corps and presidencies to which they belong : —

Corps.

Hon. Compftoy's Eng:iDeer« ,

fBuropean Hone

ArtlUery ^ „^*^„ ^~*

' ]NatlTeHaKM

L Ditto Foot

TH. M. Eoropesn .......

¥««i.»»*« J Hon. Co.'a ditto

Inliuitry < dq. NatlTe Regulars ... .

L Do. do. Irregulars . . .

Stair

luTalidsditto

Total...

1
Bengal.

Madras.

Bombay.

a4t

28t

sot

908

498

471

«.076

1,431

847

• •

i,9oa

659

664

6,043

5,135

2.701

gss

756

788

146

104

■ •

• ■

177

il,7»8

8,961

5,649

Total.

77
IJ9V
4,SM

13,879

M71

861

47»

1M77

* The officers for the E. I. C.'s artillery and eoffineers are educated at
Addiscomb College* near Croydon, in the orieotal languages, as well as in
military discipline. Each cadet pays 65/. the first year, and 50/. the second.
The cadets are clad in uniform, and get their appointments as soon as quali-
fied. The examination is very strict, and if a lad fiiiis for the engineers or
artillery, but evinces general talent and diligence, he is recommended for
the infantry. Tlie £. I. Company purchased Addiscomb College and grounds
in 1810 for 17,251/. ; the building cost 82,869/. ; and the total expenditure
from 1810 to 1830 was 366,154/:, of which 37,136/. was for instructing
the cadets in trigonometrical surveys and the art of sapping and mining,
&c. ; for books, stationery, and mathematical instruments, 18,752/.; tM
the fewards to cadets for industry and talent amounted in four years to
1,600/. llie total number of cadets educated during the period has been
two thousand and ninety ; and to the excellence of the establishment, the
success and extraordinary formation of the E. I. Company's fine army is
pre-eminently due, while the expenditure on each cadet has not avenj^
98/. (Vide Table of College Expenditure, Appendix.)

t This includes pioneers, as well as sappers and miners, which are now
all embodied in one corps, called the Engineer Corps.

NO. OF H. M. TROOPS IN INDIA SINCE 1813. NATIVE OFFICERS. Sll

The total number of European troops in India (exclusive
of commissioned officers) is 30,975, of whom 19,540 belong to
His Majesty's cavahry and infantry regiments. The number
of King's troops serving in India from 1813 to 1830, has
been annually as follows: 21,430, 20,049, 19,828, 20,432,
18,709, 20,110, 17,680, 16,743, 16,290, 15,876, 16,652,
16,395, 16,683, 16,832, 18,249, 19,612, 20,132, 20,292.
The cost of these troops {defrayed by the natives of India,
not by the British public) varied from 800,0002. to 1,000,0002.
a year, independent of charges at home — (viz. 60,000/. a year
for half pay, &c.) The E. I. Company are authorized by
Parliament to raise annually, in the United Kingdom, a cer-
tain number of men for the supply of their Indian Army ; and
in virtue of this authority, they have recruited and sent
abroad during the last 1 1 years 17,000 men, of whom 800 were
dispatched to the St. Helena regiments. Their depot is at
Chatham, under the command of a few staff officers ; the ser-
vice is a favourite one with the public, and the finest young
men in the country annually engage in it ; if steady and intel-
ligent, they obtain rank as warrant officers, deputy commis-
saries, conductors of stores, &c.

Native commissioned officers in the Indian Army according
to the latest returns.

Corps.

{Heme
Foot
Irregulars

NstlTe DoetoFB

Totel....

Bengal.

MadTM.

Bombaj.

S8*

13*

«c

• •

130

• •

181

• •
58

130

• •

1.187

084

897

105

• •

810

100

1»918

i "»

TotaJ.

40
13

304
140
8,808
177
887

8,416

The native officers are in fair proportion to the Euro-
peans. The total number of native officers is 3,416, of
whom 387 are native doctors, carefully educated in the £u-

* This includes pioBeers as well as sappers and miners, which are now
all embodied in one corps, called the Pioneer Corps.

312

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICICUS^ RANK AND FILE.

ropean principles of medicine and chirurgery. The natiTe
officers are raised from the ranks according to their merit,
and are a most exemplary body of men, grey in yean
and experience, thay are well calculated to be the interme-
diate link between the European and the Sepoy soldier.
Their steadiness of character and dashing brayery in the
field (whether Hindoo or Moslem) has been previously shewn,
and it is regretted that they are not enabled to attain a higher
rank than subordinate to the youngest European Ensign.
Killadars or Commandants of forts should be allotted for the
veterans — and every General Officer should have one or two
native Aide-de-Camps.

The number of native non-commissioned officers and rank
and file in India, and the corps to which they belong.

Corps

Artfllay «

Cavalry

Ron. Company's Engineers

'Earopean Horse

Ditto Foot

Native Horse

Ditto Foot Regiilars.
Ditto Inregnlaxs . . .

Onn Lascars

.Ordnance Drivers ...

rHegnlaiB

I Irrei^ulars

'-*-'^ {£S!Si:::::;:::::

Invalids

Total..

Bengal.

Madras.

Bombay.

i.«ai*

1,068*

M9*

• •

too

• •

344

* •

478

• ■

1,»I7

' tf48

001

1,348

• •

5St

■ •

861

756

»7

• •

4*980

3,910

1,366

8,448

• •

836

54,801

88,988

«,647

9,598

• •

918

• •

1»878

919

78.107

47,384

84,983

TOtsl.

8,498

too

8,101

^7>l

i,89i
10,948

4,984

110,986

10,606

t,79«

160,614

These troops are composed of Hindoos and Mussulmans,
&c. mixed in every regiment, in a greater or less proportion ;
and in discipline, cleanliness, sobriety, and bravery, they are
unsurpassed by any body of men. The native artillery make
it a point of honour to be cut down at their guns rather than
desert them, and wherever a British officer will lead it has
rarely or never been found that his sepoys will not follow.
The native cavalry are excellent and fearless riders, superior
to Europeans, and good swordsmen ; they are exceedingly
fond of their horses, and take the best care of them : of the

* Thi8 includes pioneers as well as sappers and miners ; which are now
all embodied in one corps, called the Engineer Corps.
t No separate corps of horse artillery.

ORDNANCE— -CAY AIJtY AND INFANTRY — FOREIGN OFFICERS. 313

whole army it may be observed that no men are more alive to
emulation ; a medal is as highly prized by a sepoy as by a
British soldier, and hundreds of instances of heroism could
be related of them which would do honour to Greek or
Roman story. The Bengal army is considered to possess the
highest caste men^ being principally Rajpoots ; the Bombay
sepoy is more a man of all-work, and the M adrasites are,
perhaps, the hardiest race, but all are extremely tenacious of
their rights, and adhere punctiliously to the customs iidiich
their religion ordains ; any violation of either, particularly of
the latter, has ever been attended with serious consequences.
If the native troops become averse, or unfaithful, to those
whose salt they eat, all the European troops which England
could raise would be insufficient for the preservation of India.
The distribution of the Indian army according to the latest
returns.

BENGAL.

DMAout of the Army.

Presidency (Calcutta)
Dinapore ....
Fortress of Boxar
Benares ....
Fortress of Allahabad
Cawnpore ....
Meerat ....
Sirhind ....

Sangfoor ....
Rajpootanah Field Force
Meywar Do.
Malwa Do.

MADRAS.

Ceatre Division

Mysore Dirision

Malabar and Kanara

Northern Division

Southern Do. .

Ceded Districts .

Hyderabad SubsidiBry Force

Nagpore Do.

Teoaasserim P^vincet

Prince of Wales Island and its Dependeacie#

EnropeaiiB.

Katlree.

3,472

14,448

1,164

4,594

. •

932

4,248

1,500

2,144

11.837

3,306

16,105

1,407

6,797

198

6.258

192

4.375

4,395

281

4,124

13,254

68,673

Totad.

2,394
1,766

764

510
1,026

981
1,080
1,139

164
87

8,981
8,202
2,312
7,555

5,877
1,495
5,719
3,951
766
1,704

17,912

5,758

5,180

1,533

13,981

19,411

8,204

6,456

4.567
4,479
4,405

90,937

11,376
9,968
3,076
8,065
6,909;
2,476
6,799
5,090
920
1,791

9,901 46,562 | 56,493

314 SUBSIDIARY FORCES — TH£ NIZAM's, OUDB, OUICOWAR's, &C.

BOMBAY.*

DiTiiloBi of tlie Anny.

Presidency Garrison
Soathern jOinsion
Poonah Do.
Northern Do.
Sttttarah Subsidiary
Asseergurh Fortress

Natl<

978

1,060

3,012

1,167

2,896
5,936
6,559
9,760
745
742

6,252 I 26,638

TotaL

3,874

7,016

6,871

10,917

759

753

30,190

The establishment of King's regiments in India is — Ben-
gal, cavalry, S ; infantry, 8. Madras, cay., 1 ; inf., 8. Bom-
hay, cav., 1 ; inf., 4.

Grand total of King's and Company's military force: —

< ^

Corps.

Eocla<

Ar^enr

CftTalrjr

InfiMitry

lledftoat Dentftment

CoaaaiamttBt

Stair .

iDTVUdS

Bengal.

Total

1.7W

10,1SS
78,049

4ia
as

19S
177

lladna.

1.081

4,888

4,844

4S,8«6

181
9,144

98,985 59,957

Bombay.

8,090

8,008

98,959

140

110

944

Total

88,157

4,810

14.999

17.985

148,460

781

488

8,805

185,889

The subsidiary Indian forces and contingents, where they
are specified in treaties with the E. I. Company, are as fol-
lows: — SubMiary. Oude not less than 10,000 men; the
Nizamj: S regts. cavalry and 8 bats, of infantry ; the Guico-

* European Commissioned Officers on staff, employ, and leave, beyond
the limits of this Presidency, not included ; European and Native Veterans
are included in European and Native Infantry.

f Tncludinff sappers and miners, pioneer corps, &c.

\ The Hydrabad Subsidiarv Force, stationed in His Hif^hness the Ni-
zam's dominions, is fumishea from the Madras Presidency, and consisli
of the following troops : one bat. foot artil. ; two troops of horse artil. ; a
park of heavy guns ; two reg. native cavalry ; one reg. of Europeans, and
seven re^. of'native infantry.

The Nizam's regular and irregular troops under the command of Bii-
tish officers are under the immediate control of the supreme Government,
and conust as follows : four independent companies of^ardllery, with large
establishments of field pieces ana heavy guns ; one regiment of engineers ;■
eight regiments of regular infEUitry ; one garrison battalion i one invalid

RUNJ££T SINO*S SBICK ARMY.' 315

wax, 3 regts. of cav. and 4,000 sepoys ; Nagpore not stipu-
lated ; Mulhar Rao Holkar, the strength judged adequate by

battalion^ a iKKly of invalids at EUichapoor; and five regimenta of irre-
gular cavalry.

The payment of the Company's Hydrabad Subsidiary Force it provided
for by treaty, and they are paid direct from the British treasuries throuf(h
the military paymaster. As to the Nizam's troops, they are paid direct by
the Nizam's Government, the total expense of which, it is said, amounts
to about 42 or 43 lacs per annum.

The Seick Army of the Punjaub was, so late as the commencement of
the current centurv, a mere military confederacy of predatory horse, and
that ^Uant but unfortunate adventurer, George Thomas, considered them
the most contemptible troops in Hindostan. The talent of Runjeet Sing
has within the last twenty-five years established the military reputation of
the Seicks, and this Prince now possesses a regular army, accustomed to
war, fiill of ardour, and jealous of renown ; the Seicks possess many quali-
ties which admirably fit them for a military life ; they are individually brave
and athletic, and are free from those prejudices of caste, which detracts from
the military classes of the native soldiery of British India. A Seick will eat
of any thing but bee/; his religion never requires him to undress at his
meals, nor does it prescribe fasts, or inculcate any thing to interfere with
the duties of a soldier ; like the soldier of Europe, the Seicks are how-
ever not averse to the use of fermented liquors, and their Sirdars are no-
toriously addicted to the vice of drunkenness.

The French legion of Cavalry was formed by Monsieur AUard, senior ;
their unifom is blue with red facings, they are armed with the PoUsh lance,
swords, and pistols ; their system is that of the French Lancers. The men
of these corps are much attached to General AUard, and these troops only
require a few more European Officers to be nearly on a par with our regular
Native Cavalry.

The reguhir infantry, under General Ventura, are also disciplined in the
French drill ; the woitls of command are mostly French ; they are armed
with firelocks and bayonets ; these troops are regularly paid and clothed.
Runjeet Sing's own personal body guard is a kind oi legion of honour ;
these men are all arrayed in gorgeous dresses and rich armour, and compose
the eUie of the army. Their appearance in their red dresses with heron's
plumes, and their martial aspect and blunt demeanor is truly imposing; these
men are ail tried shots, ancf at eighty yards can generally hit a small brass
pot every time with a matchlock.

The foreigners or Hindoostanies of the Seick army are men from the
provinces of British India, and receive a stipulated monthly pav ; many of
the Seick soldiers receive rations of grain, besides their pav. The avarice of
Runjeet Sing has sometimes occasioned mutiny amongst tne re^lar infan-
try ; in one instance the Qhoorka Battalion, on being deprived ofa portion of
their pay, refused to receive the reskiue, and as no attention was paid to
their complaint, open revolt ensued. Runjeet Sing directed some cavalry
to charge the mutineers ; the Ghoorka Battalion formed square and beat
off the cavalry; the Maha Raja then became alarmed, and retired to the
fort of Govind Ghura, when the French officers interposed, and induced the
Oboorkas to retire to their lines.

Monneur AUard, the General of the regular cavalry, was a distingubhed
officer in the Imperial army of France, and is a man of high character and

S16 RVMJEET SINO*S SBlCK ARMY.

the British Goyemment ; Traymicore, S bats, of inf. ; Coddn,
1 bat. do. Mysore and Cutch not specified. Caniingenis of
native chiefs. The Nizam^ 10 cav« and 13,000 inf. ; Ghiicowar
S9OOO cav. ; Nagpore, 1,000 do. ; Holkar^ 3,000 do. ; Mysore,
4,000 do. (central India) : Joudpore, 1,500 do. ; Ghufiborkan,
600 do. ; Bhopaul, 600 cay. and 4<X) inf. ; and Dowlah and Pur-
tumbghur, 50 cay. and SOO inf. ; and Dewap, 100 cav. and 100
inf. The following chiefs, not included in the preceding list, are
pledged to bring forward troops to the extent of their means
when required by the Company's Government: — Rajahs of
Bhurtpore and Machery ; most of the Boondela chiefs ; chiefs
of Rajpootana and Malwa not enumerated above, and the Rajah
of Sattarah. The military force of the Rajpoot States is 7,676
cav., and 27,788 inf. of which Kotah alone has 20,700 in£,
and 4,200 cav. Sindia's army amounts to 10,000 cav., and
20,000 inf. ; Holkar's force, 3,456 cav., and 2,000 inf. ; the
Rajah of Sattarah has SOO cav., and 5,000 infantry ; Runjeet
Sing's formidable force as given in the Meerut Observer, is
detailed in the note.

conciliatory manners ; he adopts the Seick costume in allowing his beard
to grow, and has married a native woman ; this officer wishes to return to
France and has been endeavourinjr to induce the Mala Rajah to aUow his
younger brother to take charge of his command during his absence.

Monsieur Ventura, General of Infantry, served under Eugene Beauhar-
nois in Napoleon's Russian campaign; he is a brave and intelligent officer,
but a violent man.

Genkral Abstract of thb Seick Armt. — Guns in different forts, 108 ;
Do. Hoi^e Artillery, 58; Do. Foot Artillery, 142; Total guns 308. Mor-
tars, 6 ; Jamboorans on Camels, 305 ; Cavalry regular, 5,200 ; Do. irre-
gukr, 43,300 1 Total Cavaky, 48,500. Infantry regular 6,000 ; Do. irre.
guhir, 17,000; Total Infantry, 23,000. Golundaze, 1,500; Grand Total
Armv 73,000. The Horse ArtiUery of Runjeet's Army consist of guns of
small calibre, and their field equipment resemble that of our late Foot Bat-
teries ; and consequently such Artillery would be utterly unable to cope
with our Horse Artillery; still, as these guns are drawn by horses, their fire

to 73,000 men, and his revenues to one Crore and eighty lakhs of rupeoa.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARMY IN 1813 AND IN 1880. SIT

In 1813.

f.. 1PM Increase since
^ *"•• 1818.

Deorease since

1813.

BnroAL Tboom.

Borop. NatiTH.
MB8 81,899

Buop.|
6,440

Natlfaa. ' Borop.

Nativca.

Borop. ]

IfaUTOi.

Bcsgil, Btluur and Cvttack

16.776 , 8,069

• •

4,846

OMBtrf between Bahar and

1.404

6.886

1,869 4,688

• •

189

1,989

^^flOO • • • • •

1S5 8^809

148

4,809

• •

1,680

Oangcs and Jomna .

4,591 19,978

4.796

14,194

974

1,149

■ *

• •

Rohtlcand ....

47 1,948

8,868

1.990

• •

Aeiialaitioas ftmn Nepaol

• • • »

8^9

3,559

• «

a ■

Ooontry west of the Jomoa

^ 1

h north. west of Chombul

766, 19*668

9,983

16.967

1.466 ; .. i

8,071

Ri^pootana ....

• « 1 a •

357

9.102

357

9,109

• ■

• a

Ceded Districts In Nerbndda

• •

« •

946 6,167 1

946

6.167

• •

•

144

5,488

8,668

••

a ■

• a

471,800

Malwa

• •

• ■

340

4,698

840

4,698

•

• a

Attam, Sylhet, CUttaconff,

andAnacan

1,103 84 4,770 >

66 3,07s 1

•

Psnanr • . . . .

1,620 • .. I .. .. > .. 1

1,690

"*•■■■■•

Total .

9,863

76.683 . 15,909 99,170 1 5,861 j 80,956

919

14,719

EzcloaiTe of Troop* at Jmvm Fort Marl*

borou^i Bogineera, Eacort*, Ord'
BSBealmvera, Coadttciois, Staff, te.

6,160

9,499

899

4,797

(%raad Total .

16,703

86.069

15,701

96.897

MAsaAB Taoops.

Mnm'a DominiocMi

1,186

8,466

1,847

6,811

911

• ■

•

1,644

B^ah of Berar*8 ditto .

• a

• •

8I6

4,001

816

4,001

•

• •

Korthem CIrcan .

694

4,768

944

6.714

850

1.961

a a

a •

Ceded Districts

1,009

7.688

1.069

4.479

•

• •

8,116

M ysora » • . «

8,408

8,891

1,779

6,669

• •

1,694

8,989

Osniatic

4,961

19,946

8,841

19.671

7.898

1,190

* •

Foitai^eM Teirltoilaa •

464

9,890

• •

464

9,890

Malabar and Canara

•

1,180

8,076

969

9,491

• •

171

686

TkaTancove .

■

498

9,009

169

9,465

• •

394

454

MiJay Feninsoia .

1,141

9.779

1,104

9,764

•

a •

Oaadeiah and Swat

• ■

• •

•

• •

a a

Poona ... a

676

• m

• •

576

• •

9,466

9,456

• a

a *

Total .

18,940

61,881

19,140 67,495

9,693

16,497

3.793

19,409

Bxeloaivo of bglBMn. Coadnetofa of
Ordnaaeo, Maftlvo InTalida and Suff.

860

4,616 841

894

•

OnndTolal .

18,690

66,847

19,961

67,749

BoMSAT Taoora.

1
1

Cateh

• •

• a

116. 1.186

116

1,136

a •

• •

Kaliyww

• •

■ •

1,906

1,908

•

Gnscrat .

1,068 6,890

1,960

7,088

907

9,048

•

• a

Caadeiih and Sorat

43 9,905

108

6,048

9,887

• •

Bombaj Island

8,883' 6,898

1.446

3,873

•

• a

1.987

9,966

N. and 8. Concan

1,197

8.997

9,800

Poonab and Sattarah

> 953

7,886

8,660

7,869

3,897

S, BiahraWB Ooontry

* • ■

• •

861

1.196

861

1.196

•

a •

llalwah . . . .

* • •

• •

a •

• •

• *

a a

Total

4.76fl

1 88,966

7.469

39,978

4,660

11.977

1.937

9.966

Kxelaahre of BagfaMara, Coadvetert.

Total of three Prasldenciea.

199| 86 96f

1 143

Grand Total

. 4,87f

i 98,991

7,79J

r 89,491

18,18^

1 60,080

6*879

80,077

Jif

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EXPENSE OF ANGLO-INDIAN ARMY SINCE 1818.

319

The expense and strength of the Anglo-Indian army at
each Presidency, independent of Prince of Wales' Island, St.
Helena, &c., from 1818, was : —

NUMBERS.

TotaL

EXPENSE.

Teus.

Bengal.

Madnt.

Bombay.

Bengal.

Madraa.

Bombaj.

Total.

-tf.

£,

181S

101J60

60.437

98,860

900,065

3.075,049

8,048.809

1.123.583

7.947.817

18U

99,700

66,380

98.974

104,439

3,303,788

9,049,508

1,U4,804

7,901,100

1816

190,68«

68,704

98,037

997.177

3.705.483

3,106.909

1,304.369

8,906,047

1810

130,080

70,008

98,050

930.877

3,006,040

3.379.775

1.699.564

8,009,970

1817

194,896

78.196

90,633

996^185

3,858,570

3.180.070

1.545.985

8,509,034

1818

186,199

73,517

33,605

943.934

4,480,034

3.399.810

9,038,513

0.090,366

1819

139,340

76,509

36,594

945.366

4,736,407

3,726.996

1.038.016

10.300,540

1880

189,000

88,430

35,061

957.200

4,391,106

3.734,794

1.702,730

0.848,6fi0

1891

198,068

88,718

80,«77

956.078

4,475.387

3,571,149

9.170.047

10.916,576

189S

190,888

77.664

88,337

946.834

4,847,050

3,901,344

1.846.806

0.856,109

I8S8

110,473

71.483

86,475

937,371

4,996b686

8,100,700

1.781,999

0,117,567

18U

184,7»

60.446

87.885

943,066

4,613,104

8.050,041

1.704.668

0,376,708

18SS

168,804

76,499

41,514

976,940

6,I75J»19

8,814,770

1.704.663

11,105.844

1810

157,950

88,890

40.755

900,834

7,113,114

3,375,838

9.335.647

19,894,000

IM7

144,056

80,047

40,967

978,370

6,430,617

8.3154)90

9.166.869

11.019.800

18S8

186,801

75.478

47.745

950,010

3,805,075

9.856,930

1.614,131

8.975.436

1890

196,597

79.808

44,103

943,433

3,581,780

9,661,748

1,540,615

7.709,159

1888

119,588

70,780

40,148

993,461

3,353,687

9.579,890

1,507.813

7,483,890

1881

07,M9

67,660

88,760

903,000

3.431.378

9,886,180

1.355,675

7,173,188

1899

08,491

60,518

84,880

188,810

3,653,768

9,839.457

1.968.700

7,954,034

1888

09,080

50,867

83,769

186,118

3,440.085

9.407.880

1,979,431

7,190.806

1884

18SA

1886

iVate.— From 1826-90 the coBTenlon of the Indian money into sterling in the above tceonnt.
hai been made aeeordlng to tbe bvlllon Talne of tbe rnpee, wbteh cantee an apparent dtmlna*
tion In tbe military cbarget. aa compared witb tbe cbaigei in tbe yean preceding 1828^90, of
16 per cent.

The annual charge of the army in 1830 was : — *

Cofpa.

Hon. Company's Engineer!

fEoropean Horse

Ditto Foot

AitlBery * Native Horse

Ditto Foot

iGolondanxe

fH.M.*s Enropeaa Begts. ..
OaTabry \ Hon. Co.*s NatiTe Regolan

I Do. do. do. Irregolais

fH.M.'sBoropean Begb. ..
i»«..>»*« J Hon. Company's ditto ..
"™«^ 1 Do. NatiTe Biolars

IDo. do. liregnlaxa

Madieal Department

FkmeerCorpa

Commissariat D^aitment

Mttllary Charges not coming nnder the
above heads

Bengal. • Madras.

23,068

88.058

110.519

97.087

43,718

3,035

81.839

900.089

130.819

24O.80O

83.018

1,433,366

945,904

174.704
66,679
17,819

889,400

088,760

Total

94,099
50.788

84,507
46,959
39,819

40,803
907,316

967,150

49.356

1,146,000

19,080

168,501
85,134
35,308

907,846

794.816

Bombay.

4,898.587 8,916,975

35.883
60.905
67.934

91.175

40,053
130.565

48.581
190.564

47.096
599.080

19.598
145,105

30.059

91.806

94.489

590.809

Total.

1,840,510

83,874
100,141
959,843

74,930

07,705
3,035
179.588
718.853
170,308
698,619
199,400
8,109.355
970.719
488.400
189,8.18

74,511
614.897

9,178,887

0,804.388

* In the army estimsteo for 1836^, the char^ for, and ntunberi of^

3f0 INDIAN M ARIN£.

THE INDIAN MARINE,

although at one tune very considerable, is of late dwindling
away ; it is attached to the Bombay Presidency, and consists
of one frigate ; four 18 gun ships ; six 10 gun corvettes and
brigs ; 2 armed steamers and some surveying vessels. The
number of officers may be stated at 12 captains; 14 com-
manders ; 46 lieutenants ; 71 junior officers, and about 500
European seamen, (with a proportion of 4 warrant-officers to
each vessel) and a complement of from 600 to 700 native sea-
men. The latest Parliamentary returns of the annual cost of
the Marine Establishment at Bombay is«-Marine cruizers,
&c. S. R. 11,94,573; marine office establishment, &c.
1,51,105 ; water, luggage, and ferry-boats, 25,831 ; dry
docks, mooring chains, &c. 80,444; building vessels, purchase
of timber, &c., 4,24,741 ; total, S.R. 18,76,894; or in sterling
211,128/. During the European wars, the Indian navy on
every occasion where an opportunity offered, have shewn
themselves in nowise inferior in naval tactics and bravery to
His Majesty's service, while the extensive and valuable
surveys which the officers have made of the islands, rivers,
gulphs and bays in the Indian and China seas display their
scientific acquirements in a pre-eminent degree, and entitle
them to the gratitude of every nation trading to the East.

At Calcutta there is a marine establishment which, though
not of a warlike nature is nevertheless of the utmost import-

4 repments of dragoons and 20 battallioos of infantry U thus specified : —
Ctmalty, horses, number 2,804 ; officers, number 188 ; non-commissioned
ditto and trumpeters, number 268; rank and file, 2,700; total of all ranks,
3,156 ; pay and allowances of ditto, 115,233/. ; allowances to field officers,
&c. 4,836/.; agency, 1,409/.; clothing, 12,860/.; total for 365 days,
134,338/. In/antty, officers, number 1,020 ; non-commissioned ditto and
drummers, number 1,200; rank and file, number 14,780; of all r«nln»
17>000; pay and aUowances, 495,283/.; allowances to field officers, &c.
7,928/. ; agency, 5,021/. ; clothing, 46,499/. ; total, for 365 days, 554»730/.
Aggregate annual charges for cavalry and infantry (including 2,835/. for
depdts at Maidstone and Chatham), 691,904. Of staff officers belonging
to the British army, tliere are in India 24 colonels (chaige 16,000/.);
48,000 lieutenant-colonels (16,248/.) ; and 48 majors (14,970/.)

BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA MARINE ESTABLISHMENTS. 3^1

aiice, — I allude to the pilot service, which has no equal in
any country in Europe. The service consists of 12 strong,
well-fitted and quick-sailing vessels, of ^00 tons burthen,
schooner-rigged and admirably adapted for withstanding the
tempestuous weather from April to October, so frequent off
the sand-heads at the mouths of the Ganges and Hooghly,
where six or eight of the pilot vessels are constantly stationed,
either at anchor or cruising about on the look-out for vessels
coming up the Bay of Bengal ; the moment a ship is seen^
a pilot schooner makes towards her, puts a European pilot
and a European leadsman on board, and then resumes her
search for other ships approaching the port of Calcutta. (It
is projected to have a steam vessel on the station to put the
pilots on board.)

The service is one of seniority, from leadsman or volun-
teers (the lowest) to branch pilot (the highest). The jiumber
of Europeans in the pilot service is about 130; they are in-
telligent, skilful and gentlemanly men, well acquainted, from
length of service, with the difficult and dangerous navigation
of the Hooghly. There are 12 branch pilots, 24* masters, 24
iirst mates, 24 second mates, and between 70 and 80 volun-
teers or leadsmen. The salary of a branch pilot is 70/. per
month ; of a master 271. ; of a first mate 15/. and of a second
mate and volunteer 6/. per month. Each ship going up or
coming down from Calcutta (a distance of 150 miles) gives a
fatuity of about 100 rupees to the pilot and the leadsman,
who have charge of the ship. The yearly cost, according to
the latest return before Parliament is in S. rupees — pilot
schooners and buoy vessel, 3,68,585 ; steam vessels 87,454 ;
light-houses, &c. 1,08,505 ; master-attendant and establish-
ment 1,59,148 ; paymaster and store-keeper and establish-
ment 56,486 ; moorings, &c. 86,279 ; offices, establishments,
&c. 68,309; buildings and repairs 3^11,304: pensions 80,266;
total 13,26,346, or 153,856/. sterling. At Madras the marine
18 trifling, consisting of but 20 Europeans and 265 natives.
The charges are for master-attendant, establishments, &c. at

VOL. I. Y

MIHBER8 AND EXPENCE OF UEDICAL OFFICERS.

the Presidency, S.R. 1,11,955; out-porta, 35,629 ; total,SJl.
1,47,584; or in sterling, 16,867;.

MEDICAL.
The physical or medical branch of the Anglo-Indian service,
as regards the number employed in the army oad marine is
as follows;^

Numben and Expenu of tbe Medinl Officers (Enropeui ud Nattre
Docton) eroplofed ml each Preudency, utd at Penang and St. Hekoa,
aiuce 1813. N. fi. The Cml Sorgeoni in tlie E. I. Compan;'* Semes
not lacluded.

The range of professional talent is of the highest, and the
valuable additions vhich the surgeons in the E. I. Companys
service have made to our heretofore limited knowledge of the
botany, loology, geology, meteorology, &c. of the East, entitle
them to the most honoured considerations. The medical bo-

NUMBER AND COST OF ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 3S3

eieties and museums which have been established at each
Presidencyi have been the means of concentrating in a focus
the invaluable local information which the different members
of the service have an opportunity^ while serving at distant
stations^ of acquiring : and the native medical schools in which
the Hindoo and Mussulman youths are taught anatomy, the
practice of physic, surgery and chemistry; either to enable
them to serve as doctors and assistant surgeons in the Com-
pany's army, or as private practitioners, are as creditable to
the munificence of the Company, as to the talent and 2eal
which presides over them.

ECCLESIASTICAL.

The British clerical establishment in India was stated before
Parliament, in 1832, (by Mr. Lushington) to be adequate to
its purposes; the European chaplains in 1817, were in num-
ber, S9; in 1827, 51, and in 1831, they were increased to 76,
of whom 38 were at Bengal, 23 at Madras, and 15 at Bombay.
The clergy are under the charge of Diocesans at each Presi-
dency. The total charge of the establishment in 1827, was
66,943/. sterling. A late return gives the number of chap-
lainsy stations, and ecclesiastical charges, as follows :

Presidency. Stations. Chaplains. Charge.

Bengal 18 38 £40,625

Madras 18 ^ 20,199

Bombay .... 12 15 6,119

In 1830-31, the salaries and allowances paid by the Indian
Grovemment, at each Presidency, for the support of the clergy
and places of worship, was — Bengal Episcopal, sa. rs. 425,876;
Scotch Church, 20,451; Roman Catholic, 4,000; total,
450,327. Madras Episcopal, Mad. rs. 206,976; Scotch
Church, 11,760; Roman Catholic, 5,346: total, 224,082.
Bombay Episcopal, Bomb. rs. 178,578; Scotch Church,20,862 :
Roman Catholic, 820 : total, 200,280. Grand total, 874,669
rupees, or about 85,000/. (See Chapter on Religion),

Retiring Funds. — ^The military, medical and civil services
of the East India Company have established retiring funds.

324 MADRAS ARMY RETIRING FUND.

tlie principles on which they are founded may be seen in the
following sketch of the plan of the Madras Army Retiring
Fund : — ^

According to the London bills of mortality, the average duration of life at the
age of 45 is about 17$ years, and the value of an annuity of 1/. for that number of
years is 10^ 15«., the rate of interest being 6 per cent. ; the value of an annuity of
250^ for a man, at the age of 45, is, therefore, 26,825 sicca rupees, taking the sicca
rupee at 2*., or Madras rupees 28,568. The sum required, therefore, for eight an-
nuities is 228,544 rupees. Suppose each officer, on receiving the annuity, pay a
minimum, including his subscription of 10,000 rupees, vre may deduct 80,000 rs. ;
leaving a balance of 148,544 rs. to be raised, which may be done agreeably to the
following scale:— rl5 senior Lieut.-Cols. at 20 rupees each, 300 rs. ; 24 next ditto
at 35 rs. each, 875 rs. ; 30 junior ditto at 45 rs. each, 1,350 rs. ; 35 senior Migors
at 50 rs. each, 1,750 rs. ; 35 jun. ditto at 45 rs. each, 1,575 rs.; 350 Captains at
16 rs. each, 5,600 rs. ; 564 Lieutenants at 8 rs. each, 4,512 rs. ; 280 Ensigns at 4
rs. each, 1,120 rs.:— total, 17,082 rs. — ^For 12 months, 204,984 rs. Deduct on
account of absentees in Europe who pay only half subscriptions, 25,000 rs.; ditto
for secretary and writer, 2,400 rs. ; sum required 148,544 rs. — cleaving a surplus of
29,400 rs. to meet deficiencies and the gradual diminution of the minimum.

In the formation of the annexed outline plan for a Retiring Fund, the following
principles have been adopted : —

1. The principle of rank in preference to that of service.

2. The principle of annuity — ^the amount of annuity, it is proposed, be 2501. per
annum, subject to the payment of a minimum of Madras rupees 10^000, including
subscriptions.

3. The annuity to be confined to colonels, lieut.-colonels, and senior majors, in
cavalry and infantry corps, in order to prevent supercession. In the artillery and
engineers it is proposed that the annuity descend for acceptance to the junior ranks,
as the same reason does not apply. When the whole number of annuities are not
accepted in one year, those which are declined are to be added to those for distri*
bution in the following year.

4. Lieut.-colonels or senior majors may retire from the service in anticipation of
the annuity, retaining the right of accepting it, when it comes to their turn, con-
tinuing, however, their subscriptions.

The rates of subscription are calculated on the supposition that the whole army
will subscribe to the fund; but it will be observed that by the scheme there is a
surplus of rupees (29,000) to meet deficiencies, which may, upon the first estab-
lishment of the fund, be apprehended. If the Amd be supported by the whole
army there can be no doubt that, in the course of a few years, the rates of sub-
scription may be reduced, or the amount or number of annuities be increased.

It is proposed that all subscribers bind themselves to continue their subscriptions
whilst on the effective strength of the army ; and in the event of the fund being
established, the Committee hope, as in the case of the annuity branch of the Me-
dical Fund, that the Court of Directors will compel all oflicers hereafter entering
the service to subscribe.

The Committee propose that eight annuities be yearly distributed, as follows : —
one to the cavalry, one to the artillery and engineers, and six to the infantry. But
as the infantry will, by this arrangement, lose a fractional advantage to which they
are entitled, the loss will be provided for when the details of the plan are matured.
The differences of pay and allowances between ensign and lieutenant, for one month,
is equal to 1 1 months' subftription as ensign ; between lieutenant and captain 184
months, a3 lieutenant; and between captain and major, 164 months, as captain.

CADETS AND ASSIST A><T SURGEONS SINCE 1796.

n
O

INDIAN PATRONAGE.

The Directors of the East India Company have the nomi-
nation of Writers, Cadets, and Assistant Surgeons for the
Indian service, this with a salary of 300/. a year is the sole
reward which they receive for their services, for by their oath
they are bound to accept no pecuniary consideration for any
iq>pointment whatever. The number of writers, cadets, and
assistant surgeons required for the year being made known,
the number is divided into 30 shares, of which the Chairman
and Deputy Chairman have each two, the President of the
Board of Control two, and each Director one. His Majesty's
Ministers, through. the Board of Control, have the appoint-
ment of judges, bishops, officers of the King's army, and a
negative on the Court of Directors' nomination of the Go-
vernor General, Governors, Commanders in Chief, and mem-
bers of council.

AppointmeDta of Cadets and Assistant-Surj^eons in each vear^ from 1796.

•

CADETS, inclodinff Seminuy
Appointments.

Asat.

CASUALTIES amoofcst the Eard-

pean Commissioned Officers of the

Company's Army.

Snrffns.

Total.

Bengal.

Madras.

Bombay

Total.

BengaL

Madras

Bombay

Total.

1790

114

146

1797

139

161

1798

183

167

408

444

1799

116

919

946

IBM

164

901

109

474

501

1801

180S

190

891

333

1803

196

195

171

498

539

1804

• 198

138

357

399

1805

, 198

930

439

490

No Returns prepared.

1800

! 110

911

340

376

1807

140

113

981

399

1808

158

963

387

1809

114

143

1810

194

391

1811

113

197

1818

181S

107

169

1814

154

1815

149

1816

143

1817

115

150

1818

198

990

333

303

1819

178

145

409

455

198

I8M

148

834

460

533

107

1831

131

170

116

417

483

% 71

194

1891

115

107

958

317

164

18S8

807

855

174

168

1884

906

308

407

190

131

960

l8tS

809

191

807

490

983

18M

187

910

466

540

00 95

844

18^

196

186

358

419

93 1 89

333

1888

188

89 ^

354

413

87 ' 41

103

1889

117

909

966

93 , 63

193

1880

135

86 ^

904

1831

110

136

117

384

1889

116 91

305

1883

109

191

153

136

310

18S4

146

136

18U

1886

326

BENGAL CIVIL SERVICE FOR FORTY YEAII&

Number of Civil Servants appointed to the Bengal Civil Service since 1790,
and the Deaths and Retirements incident to the same.*

•

No. to the
Service.

•

1790

• •

1791

m m

• •

ITBt

9 •

• •

1793

• •

■ •

I79i

1798

183

•

1790

131

140

• •

1797

lib

105

• m

t798

103

195

• •

1799

193

310

1800

900

327

• •

IMl

334

344

1803

337

301

1803

354

380

1804

373

890

1805

384

310

1800

304

330

1807

310

333

1808

334

344

1809

334

847

1810

840

367

• •

1811

863

370

1818

308

31 .

889

•

No. In the
Service.

■

•

1813

879

400

1814

391

431

18U

410

485

1810

409

435

1817

433

1818

4J7

434

1819

413

499

1830

413

489

1831

410

427

1828

410

433

1838

418

481

1884

415

437

1825

433

444

1830

433

405

1837

450

500

1838

493

534

1839

531

505

1830

550

509

1831*

1833

1834

* This table firom 1790 to 1880 was, I believe, prepared in India, by or for Oie Bengal
Fiiian<!e Committee 1 I have compared lome of the latter yean with the ColleBe boolca at
the India House and And a dLicrepancy as to the nomber of appointments : the last ftMW
years have been Aimithed me by the aoOiorlty of the Court of Directors.

The patronage of a]!)pointinent rests only with the home
authorities, that o( promotion is thus managed. A writer on
proving his qualifications in India is allowed to fix on any
branch of the service, (revenue, judicial, or political), and
the principle of succession to office is regulated partly 1^
seniority, and partly by merit, blended so well together, as
effiictually to destroy favouritism, while a succession of offices
is still left open for the encouragement of talent and industry.
An Act of Parliament, providing that all situations exceeding
in total value 500/. per annum, must be held by a civil servant
of three years residence in India; ditto, exceeding 1,500^1
a year, by one of six years standing ; ditto, 3,000/. by one of
nine years, and of 4,000/. and upwards by a seiwant of twelve
years sojourn in the East. Thus, for vacancies under each
classification, there are a certain number of candidates of the

EDUCATION AT UAILEYBU&Y COLLEGE. 327

Mquired local experience when the selection depends on the
gotermnent^ but every care is taken to make merit the sole
ground for eligibility and success. The salaries of the whole
Civil Service are now undergoing reduction and modifications,
which it is thought will tend to stimulate the faculties of the
fiiDctionaries employed.

The Company's civil servants are educated at the £• I. Col-
lege of Haileybury, where each student must enter before he is
580 years of age, and pay 105/. per annum towards defraying
the expensive and elaborate education which he receives in
every essential branch of oriental and western literature,
philology and science, under the superintendance of a College
Council, and the most learned professors in England. The
test of examinations for a writership is severe. The nomina-
tions during the last five years from the College consisted of
sons of noblemen three; of baronets eight; of clergymen
fourteen ; of East India Directors eight ; of Company's civil
servants thirty ; of ditto, military ditto, twenty-two ; of ditto,
naval ditto, forty-two ; of His Majesty's military and naval
oflBcers, twenty-seven ; and of merchants, bankers, and private
gentlemen, one hundred and ten. The net expenditure of
the College at HaUeybury, from 1805 to 1830, was 363,427/.,
of which 96,359/. was for the building ; 33,553/. for books,
attd philosophical instruments, &c. ; the salaries paid to pro-
fessors, amount to £20,7302. and the number of students
ediiieated was 1,978. (Vide Appendix for a more detailed
account of the disbursements of the College.)

The manner in which the patronage exercised in India is
controlled by the Home Government of the East India Com-
pany, was ably explained by the talented Secretary to the
Hon. E. I. Company, in his lucid evidence before the Select
Committees of Parliament, relative to Indian affairs.

' The records, as now sent home from India, contain the most minute
description of the services, the character, and conduct of every individual
in the dvil establishment. Perhaps 1 may exemplify it by stating, that
when members of comicil for India are appointed by the Court of Directors,
of civil servants within a |(iven period of the standing of those ser^

SS8 HOME CONTROL OF THE

vaot8> from whence it is proposed to select mem ben of cooncifty n IM
before the Court of Direccors^ which list contains a complete statemeat of
the whole coarse of a servant's progress, from his arrival in Inidia as m
writer, to the date at which it is proposed to appoint him to a seat ia
council. So it is with regard to every other civil servant in the establish*
ment ; and, if it would not be tronblinj^ the Committee too much, I wiR
take the liberty of reading a letter, which has particular reference to the
course . now observed with regard to the patronage in India, aad the
scrutiny which is exercised by the authorities here, or rather the know-
ledge which they possess of the course pursued by the government abroad.
It is an extract of a letter from the chairman and deputy of the Court of
Directors to Lord Ellenborough, dated November 1829 : ' The Le^slature
has placed the local governments in subordination to the government at
home, it has exacted from them obedience to the orders issued by the con-
stituted authorities in this country. The Legislature has provided, that all
the Company's servants in India, civil and military, under the rank of
Governor-General and Governor* shall, in the first instance, recdve their
appointments from the Court of Directors ; that the members of council
shall, excepting in particular cases, be nominated by the Court, and that
the Governor-General and Governors shall likewise be appointed by'lbe
Court, with the approbation of the King. The legislature has em-
powered the Court of Directors to recall the Governor-General and other
Governors, and to remove from office, or dismiss from their service, any
of their servants, civil or military ; and as a security against exceesive
lenity or undue indulgence on the part of the Court, it has conferred upon
the Crown the power, under His Majesty's sign manual, countersigned by
the Presideni of the Board of Commissioners, of vacatmg appointments
uid commissions, and of recalling any of the Company's servants, <M1 ik
military, from the Governor-General downward. By these provisions, the
fortune of every servant of the Company in India is made dependant on the
home authorities ; and as long as the powers with which the latter are thus
entrusted continue to be properly and seasonably exercised, there appears
to us to be little ground for apprehension that the Indian functionaries
will forget they are accountable agents, and still less that this fbrgetfnl-
ness will be generated by so inadequate a cause as an occasional delay
here, not in issuing necessary instructions, nor in replying to special re-
fereiMres, but in reviewing their past proceedings.

' The Legislature having thus provided sufficient sureties against die
independence and irresponsibility of the governments in India, has with a
just appreciation of the distance and all the extraiH^nary circumstances
attending the connexion between the two countries, not only left to the
governments there the dutribution and disposal of all the Company's es-
tablishments, civil and military, and the power of suspending from the

INDIAN GOVERNMENT. S^

service socli individuals as may be guilty of misconduct,' but has delegated
to them powers of legislation, and to the Governor-General, individually
and temporally, some of the most important rights of sovereignty, such as
declaring war, making peace, and concluding treaties with foreign states ;
alid while it has enacted, that the wilful disol^eying, or the wilfully omit-
tittg, forbearing or neglecting to execute the orders of the Court of
Directors by the local functionaries, shall be deemed a misdemeanor at
law, and made it punishable as such, the enactment is qualified with the
exception of cases of necessity, the burthen of the proof of which necessity
lies on the party so disobeying, &c.

* Nor do the powers thus conferred (large as they are) exceed the exi-
gencies of the case. It would be superfluous in addressing your Lordship
to enlarge on the magnitude of the trust reposed in the local governments,
and the difficulties with which it is encompassed, difficulties so many and
so great, as to be almost insuperable, if experience had not shown that to a
great extent at least they may be surmounted. The imposition of the various
checks with which the system abounds presupposes the grant of a liberal
confidence in those to whom power is delegated. The individuals selected
for members of the different councils of government are usually men of
mature experience, who have distinguished themselves In the several gra-
dations of the service. At the head of the two subordinate governments are
generally placed persons who have recommended themselves to the home
authorities by their eminent attainments, extensive local knowledge, tried
habits of business, and useful services in India, or persons sent from this
country, who, without exactly the same recommendations, are on other
grounds supposed to possess equal qualifications. The office of Governor-
General has usually been filled by noblemen of elevated rank and character,
who in some instances have held high offices of state in England, and who
in going to India with the qualities of British statesmen, have there the
means of acquiring a personal knowledge of the country and the people
whom they are sent to govern; and the allowances of the Goveiiior-
General, other governors and members, as well of the supreme as of the
subordinate governments, are fixed on a more liberal scale, suitable not to
the character of mere executive agents, but to the greatness of discretionary
trasta and the weight of their responsibility.

' It is by no means our intention, in submitting the foregoing considera-
tions, to apologize for any want of promptitude or regularity on the part of
the local governments in reporting their proceedings to the Court, or to
absolve the Court from the obligation of carefully revising those proceed-
ings, and communicating their sentiments thereupon within a reasonable
lime, and above all of enforcing strict ol>edience to their orders where no
sufficient reason is given for suspending or modifying them : all that we
mean to infer is, that when the relative characters, position and powers of

S30 HOME CONTROL OF THE

the coBiCitiited withoritieB at home aiid aliroad are duly considered, • mi*
nute interferenoe in Ibe detaila of Indian adminiatratiott waa not coatem^
plated by the LefitUture^ and that as long as a geutnl superrisioa is
watchfully exercised^ and no proceedinifpi of importance are k^ back from
obsenration, overlooked, or neglected* its intentions are not necessarily de-
feated by an arrear of correspondence on matters of minor moment*

' It is doubtless indispensible that the home authorities shall exeicise
the utmost caution and circumapection in the sekctioo of their Indian
governors, and in the choice of fit persons for the councils of government $
that they shall constantly and vigilantly inspect the proceedings of those
goTemments, as they may affect the inttf ests of the State as well as the
ehancters and prospects of individuals : that commendation and ceasun
be impartially distributed, and that in cases of manifest incompetenoa or
gross nuscondact, the extreme measure of removal from office be resorted
to. It is incumbent on them to take care that, in our political rekuions
with foreign powers, justice and moderadon are uniformly observed, that
the disdpUne and general efficiency of the army are maintained, and that
in the business of iDtemal administration, the welfare of the naUve popu-
lation is sedulously consulted. It is obligatory on them narrowly to acm-
tintse and control the public ejpenditure, to keep a watchful eye over all
their servants, to see that dtitingutshed merit is adequately encouraged and
rewarded, that the undeserving are not promoted by favour, and that evil
doers are not improperly shiekled from the punishment due to deUnquency^.
It is also within their province to convey to the local governments such in-
structions as may from time to time be deemed expedient with a view to
these or other objects, and to enforce obedience to their orders when
transgressed or imperfectly executed without valid reason/

Your answer went in the first instance to show the existence of a con-
trol and figilant scrutiny exerdsed by the home anthorides over the patDo*
•nage of the Governor-General in India, and which control you consider
would cease to exist in the event of the substitution of some other public
organ for the Court of Directors at home ; and you have instanced this by
the care that is taken to ascertain the character and qualifications of indi-
viduals selected to be members of councils in India ; are not the membeit
of council nominated at present by die Court of Directors, and not by tho
Governor-General? — ^Whatl wished to exemplify to the Committee wa^
the minute knowledge that the Court of Directors possessed of all nomi-
nations made to India, of the progress of their servants, and of their ap*
pointment from one station to another, and of' the duties they performed.
At the present moment there is, I conceive, a check both on the part of the
Board of Control and on the part of the Court of Directors in theexerdss
by the Goverttor»General of his patronage, which patronage is made by
selecting civil lervants according to their seniority, as prescribed by the

INDIAN GOVERNMENT. S3I

Act of PkrliamcDt, unless there is any reason for a diflerent courte of pro-
etedmg ; and wliilst it is true that the OoTemor-Oeneral selects from the
mifitary service military men for dvil stations, it is a practiee objected
to, and for which he is oblififed to uAgn reasons. Unless some strict pro*
vision or check shall exist in future as now does exist, the Governor*
General will of course be at liberty to exercise his patronaf^e as he might
8€e fit, without any contrc^

fei point of Act, is it your belief that any real control is exercised over
the appointments in Indiaof the commissioners, judges of circuit, members
of tiie courts of revenue, and of other Boards ; in short, of the detail of the
pmtrooage in that country ?— I conceive that the patronage in that country
ia earned on as prescribed in .the manner I have already stated, by the re-
l^ulitionB, and if there were not the check that now exists, which I con-
ceive the Governor-General is perfectly aware of, he might exercise it to a
Isrge and imperioua extent.'

The Govenunent of the Anglo-Indian Empire is one
founded on an opinion arising out of our moral rectitude as
well as physical force, and whatever weakens it^ tends there-
fove to the diminution of our power in the East ; in the pre-
ceding sketch may be perceived^ the existence of present
benefit, as well as future advantages, and the positive danger
to both countriiss by rash and crude plans of fancied perfec-
tion being urged for adoption at this eventful crisis. Unlike
European Governments^ the East India Company's adminis-
tration has been in general in advance of the intelligence
of the people ; the increasing vigilant control of ParUament,
the fast-growing influence of public opinion in England and
in India, and the omnipotence of the press in both countries,
irin from time to time suggest, and enable the authorities to
carry into eflEect, such improvements as may be safely, and
with a prospect of permanent benefit enacted, remembering^
always that governments are not Uke a forge nail, struck out
at a single heat of the iron, but Hke the oak tree, which grows
from year to year, while the more extended its age, the deeper
and deeper become its roots. To the corporation of the
East India Company, we are indebted for the acquisition and
present progressive state of India, to that Corporation the
good and the wise stiU look for the amelioration of Hindostan,
and the preservation of the ministerial balance of power in
Britain.

iff

.pltiililiiPII

iP^I!ll||ili^ll

Liii

^ nil!

]iilPiifiiiiij|l" i!i
'I

333

CHAPTER V.

THE FINANCIAL AND MONBTART SYSTEM OF BRITISH INDIA; PRODUCB
FOR 8BVERAL TEARS OF THE OPIUM, SALT, AND LAND REVENUE ; DIF-
FERENT SYSTEMS OF LAND REVENUE, AND AGOREOATB TAXATION;
EXPENDITURE AND DEBT OF THE THREE PRESIDENCIES, WITH THE
SURPLUS, OR DEFICIT REVENUE OF EACH SINCE 1814 ; THE BANK OF
BENGAL; INDIAN DEBT; PROPORTION HELD BY EUROPEANS AND NA-
TIVES, &C.

The prosperity of a nation is materially dependant on a just
system of finance^ the leading principles of which are^ that
every individual shall contribute to the maintenance of a Go-
vernment in proportion to the property he possesses^ in order
to protect him from domestic tyranny or foreign aggression,
and that every individual contributing a quota shall have a
voice in regulating its disbursement. As the comparative
advantages of direct and indirect taxation are now deservedly
engrossing a large share of public attention, and the financial
system of Great Britain and of our possessions in India is
materially different, it will be necessary to enter into some
detail, in order that the Indian mode of finance may be more
thoroughly understood and appreciated.

The history of most ancient states show that direct taxa-
tion, or in other words, taxation on property has been the
foundation and main stay of their revenue systems ; in Eng-
land the principle has been progressively departed from since
the reign of William III. until now, out of nearly 50,000,000/.
taxes levied annually in the United Kingdom, almost
40,000,000/.* are raised on the consumption of the necessa-
ries and comforts of life. In India the ancient system of

* The volume which I have written on the 'Taxation of the British
Empve' %vil] show the effects of high taxes on articles of general con-
tamption ; especially in connection with the contraction of the currency,
which took place in 1819, a measure ruinous to the prosperity of England.

334

DIRFX'T AND INDtKECT TAXATION.

direct taxation has not been changed, the land continaing, as
it has been from time immemorial, the grand fund of 8U][>ply
to the Government, as will be seen by the proportions of the
Indian revenue derived from different sources in 1831-32, the
latest year in which the returns have been laid before Parlia-
ment complete :-—

DIRECT TAXATION.

INDIRECT TAXATION.

LMidR«Tenue

itflO.760,318

Salt Sale and Licenses

. J^,3I4,981

House Tax

40,000

Customs (Sea and lAnd)

1,380,8M

Tax on Professions

116,830

Opiam ....

1,448^78

ToHi on Ferrtis

9C,MS

PoetOfllce

1«8,881

Territories on Nerbndda

»9>S47

Tobacco ....

fl8,«48

Bormese Cessions

87»2fi6

Mint Receipts

60,618

Mysore, Travaaoore, and Cochin S49,77C

Stanpa .....

08,388

Naf pore Subsidiary

77,749

Jodidal Fees and FSnea

9ib4B9

Bhartpore ....

S4,881

Sayer and Abkaree

7UJS9

Kixams and lUJpoot Trlbnte

78.938

Marine and Pllotafe .

48.974

Cuteh Sabsidiary

13,388

Bxcisa (in Caicotta)

llUli6

Miscellaneooa

17.99fi

^ii,88ft,adi

d6im;m

Now, in making this division, I have given in the second
cohimn several items, which will detract from its amount when
examined. The tax levied upon opium is psdd indirectly, it
is true, by the Chinamen who consume it in the celestial em-
pire, but in reality the tax falls on the land which grows the
poppy, for were there no tax levied, the amount now paid by
the Chinamen would go into the pockets of the Hindoo landed
proprietors, thus we reduce the 6,600,000/. to 5,200,000/.; and
when we consider how nearly salt stamps, judicial, mint, and
post-office receipts are direct taxes, the large proportion of
the latter will be apparent, and the more so when we view
the gross revenues of the Three Presidencies during the 15
years, ending 1828-29, which were as follow : —

Bengal, £106,191,988 1 Madras, £88,848^ i Bombay, jea8J664»7*^TDlBU €889^81,9a8.

LAND REVENUE OF INDIA.

The land-tax of British India is entitled to priority of
consideration, no less on account of its financial importance
as to amount, than of its influence over the rights and in*

PRINCIPI^ES OF THB INDIAN LAND-TAX. 385

terests of the native inhabitants of the country^ and over the
general prosperity of the empire. There are three different
modes of assessing land in India, and as each has its advcH
cates and are essentially different in operation, the fiEiirest
plan which the Author can adopt in laying a detail of them
before the pubUc, will be to give a very brief abstract of the
evidence on the subject as laid before Parliament, during the
recent discussion on the renewal of the £• I. Company's
Charter ; thus no favour to any system will be shewn, and
the pubUc will be better enabled to form a comparative judg-
ment on their respective merits.*

Principles of the Land-tax. — ^Three different modes of
assessing the land-tax prevail in British India — Ist a per*
petmal settlement with the proprietors of land ; — Snd. a iem*
p&rary settlement with the heads of villages or townships ;
and Srd. a definite settlement with each individual occupant or
eoltivator of the soQ (1832, C. P. 2.f), but the acknowledged
basis of every land revenue settlement in India, is the right
of a Government to a certain share of the gross produce of
every inch of cultivated land ; the share may be alienated en-
tirely or partially, or it may be diminished by grants from
Government: it may be commuted for a money payment
under engagements more or less extended for a series of
years, or even for perpetuity, but the ground works of the
land revenue in India, is the right of Government to a share
of the gross produce of all cultivation (1832, C. P. 29).
Land is assessed with reference to the payments of former
years, and to the actual state of the cultivation, and of the
season ; if the cultivation have been increased the revenue is
increased ; if land have been thrown up it is diminished ; if it
be a bad season allowances are made for it (1830, L. 2,285);

* The source wheace each paragraph U derived verbatim, is also given ;
I have only added copulative conjunctions or articles for the purpose of
' dovetuling/ as it were, the seotimenta scattered through a vast mass of
evidence.

f C. P. in Gommonsf Paper ; Lords* is signified by L. ; the figure refers
to the number of the paper or question

386 FrNANCIAL ADVANTAGES OF THE LAND-TAX.

and in case of complaint of over-assessment it is rectified
(I83O9 L. 1,565)9 as it is well understood that nothing contri-
butes so essentially to secure the public tranquility as a low
Msessment (1831, C. 5,960).

The peculiarity of India in deriving a large proportion of
its revenue from the land, is in fact a very great advantage ;
nine-tenths probably of the revenue of the Grovemment is
derived from the rent of land never appropriated to indivi-
viduals, and always considered to have been the property of
Government : this is one of the most fortunate circumstances
that can occur in any country, because in consequence of this
the wants of the State are supplied really and truly widlout
taxation : the wants of Government are supplied without ai^
drain, either upon the produce of the man's labour, or die
produce of any man's capital (1831, C. 3,134). But the great
difficulty in raising a revenue from the land in India, is the
difficulty of ascertaining correctly the value of the land ; ap-
proximation is all that can be obtained (1831, C* 3,162) ; the
general proportion taken is extremely uncertain (1830, L.
S,537) ; because no portion of the gross produce of the land
can ever be taken as the standard for assessment, for various
proportions of the gross produce go as rent, according to all
the various qualities of the soil, some lands yielding no rent,
ot^hers a fourth, others a third, and other portions of the soil
of a still more valuable quality, yielding half or more than
half of the gross produce as rent (1831, C. 3,886); that is a
surplus of the produce of the soil after a full remuneration to
the cultivator for his labour and stock (do. 3,884). The in-
struction for many years sent from home, and impressed npon
the Governments of India is, that in no case can more be
taken than the rent of the land without both injustioe and
permanent injury to the country, not only injury to the indi-
vidual cultivators, but injury to the Government itself; and
in all doubtful cases, the instruction has been to take special
care to err on the side of lenity rather than on the side of
severity; to take less than the rent raliier than more (1831,
C. 3,162).

THE ZBMINDARY OR PERPETUAL SETTLEMENT EXPLAINED. 387

The consent of Government is not required for the culti-
vation of any new land ; Government are happy that people
should come and take up their abode; they make no enquiry,
if there be no objection made by the neighbouring villagers ;
that is to say, that they do not occupy the land that others
are in the possession of; the right of possession remaining,
unless disturbed by other claimants, which rarely or never
occurs (1830, L. 542 and 543).

THE ZEMINDARY OR PERPETUAL SETTLEMENT OF LORD

CORNWALLIS.

One of the most material points for consideration, in re-
spect to the land-tax, is the different modes of levying the
assessment now in force (183S, C. R. P* 2)» To begin with
the Zemindary Settlement, the most obvious feature of ad-
vantage in which is the facility of collection, as it is a much
more simple thing to obtain the revenue of a large district
from a certain moderate number of Zemindars or contribu-
tors, than it is to perform the collection in detail by the
officers of Government themselves, and another advantage
undoubtedly is the greater degree of certainty in the result
(1831, C. 3,339) ; the main difference in the mode of collecting
the land revenue in different parts of British India, consisting
chiefly in the different degrees of summariness, or detail
adopted in the collection of the revenue, firom the great mass
of cultivators who hold land generally in small portions, and
who have a right to the perpetual hereditary occupancy of
the soil, so long as they continue to pay the revenue demanded
by Government.

When the £• I. Company came into the possession of the
revenues of the Dewanny of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, they
found the land revenue collected in the most summary method
by the intervention of officers under the Mahomedan Govern-
ment, who had charge of districts sometimes of more, some-
times of less extent, with various titles such as Zemindars,
and.Talookdars, and who paid the revenue into the treasury

VOL. I. z

S38.LORD CORNWALLIS' MOTIVES FOR PERMANENT SETTLEMEVT.

in one sum, for which they were rewarded by the Gov^m-
menty generally with a per centage on their coQectioQs^ ki
fact Zemmdars were found managing conaderable distiicts
whose obligations consisted in paying a certain annual amouut
to the Goviemment ; many of them held thebr districts or
estates under this condition here^aiily. (1831, CL 3,1 1^*,
8,115, 3,^ 5),

On the E. I. Company becoming possessed of the JBeugal
territory, great abuses were found to prevail, and. to be prac-
tised by the different sorts of people employed in the collec-
tion of the revenue. The detail of the business was so great
that it frightened Lord Cornwallis and the Government of
the day, and they conceived that no better method for the
protection of the Ryots or small cultivators could be invented
than to create a species t)f landlords, from whom they ex-
pected much benefit to arise ; the ground upon which their
reasoning principally went was this, that those Zemindws,
having a permanent interest in the land assigned to them,
would feel an interest in the prosperity of the Ryots, in the
same manner as a landlord in England feeds an interest in ^e
prosperity of his tenants. This was expected to prodiioe two
good effects, to create a lauded aristocracy in ihe country,
and above all to afford protection to the Ryots or 6me3! cul-
tivators, from the kind of paternal feeling that was expected
to pervade the Zemindars (1881, C. 8,136). With a view to
the protection of the whole mass of the agricultural popula-
tion and with the best of motives, the Zeniindars in 1798,
whether cultivators or officers in actual charge of districts,
hereditarily or by special appointment, were created land-
holders of the country by which a property in the Boil was
vested in them, in nearly as full a sense as it is to the holder
of a fee-simple in England ; the sum which a Zemindar had
been in the habit of paying was ascertained by the observa-
tion of a few prior years, the assessment or tax was fixed for
ever, and an engagement was made that this amount of land
revenue should never be raised on him ; such is the nature of
the settlen^ent known by the name of * the Zeminpary or

AREA^ POPULATION AND REVENUE OF PERMT. SETTLEMENT. 339

Permanent Settlement' (1831, C. 3,116, 3,116, 3,136,
3,215; 183^ R. C,P. 21). The countries settled on the
permnnent Zemindary tenure include under the Bengal Pre-
sidency^ an extent of 119,782 square miles, embracing the
whole of Bengal, Bahar, Benares, and Orissa (Cuttack alone
excepted), with a population exclusive of the Benares pro-
vince of 35,518,645, assessed in 1829-30, at a permanent
Jumma or revenue of 32,470,858 sicca rupees. Under the
Madras Presidency, the Zemindary settlement includes nearly
the whole of the five northern Circars, lying immediately ad-
jacent to the Bengal frontier; rather more th^n one-third of
the Salem, and about one-third of the Chingleput districts
included under the head of Madura ; and a small portion of
the southern division of Arcot, consisting of some of the
£. I Company's ancient lands near Cuddalore ; these coun-
tries include a territory of 40,607 square miles, with a popu- .
lation of 3^941,021, assessed in 1829-30, at 8,511,009 sicca
rupees. The permanent, or Zemindary Settlement has never
extended to any portion of the provinces under the Bombay
Presidency, which contain 59,438 square miles, with a popu-
lation estimated at 6,251,546; and 5,500 square miles in the
northern Concan, of which the population is unknown ; far
the greater part of the Madras territories, to the extent of
92,316 square miles, with a population of 9,567,514, has also
been exempted firom it; as has also been the case in the pro-
vince of Cuttack, under the Bengal Government, containing
9,040 square miles, and a population of 1,984,620; neither
has the Permanent Settlement been extended to the upper or
Western Provinces under the Supreme Government, embrac-
ing 66,510 square miles, and a population of 32,206,806 ; nor
to the districts ceded on the Nerbudda, and by the Rajah of
Berar in 1826, containing 85,700 square miles, of which the
population is unknown; thus of the British territorial pos-
sessions on the continent of Asia, including an area of 512,878
sqiiare mile's, the Permanent or Zemindary Settlement ex-
tends over but 199,389 square miles (1832, R. C. P. 21).
We may now proceed to the consideration of the village

SYSTEM.

340 VILLAGE LAND REVB19UB STYSTEM.

VILLAGE LAND REVENUE SYSTEM.

The landed property in Upper India may be safd to belong
to the community of a village, each tillage having head men,
leaders, or principals, called Mocuddims, ' or Pofails, who
either by descent, or sometimes by their personal influence,
obtain a superiority in the village, and the management of its
affairs ; they are selected by the villagers, and removable at
their pleasure.

The lands are let out to men sometimes in the same village,
sometimes in the neighbouring village, while certain portions,
and certain rights are possessed by the different craftsmen or
artizans of the village, such as the schoolmaster, the washer-
man, the barber, the carpenter, the blacksmith, the watch-
man, the village accountant, &c., who have each a light to a
certain share in the produce of the soil, of which there is also
a certain portion set aside for certain recognised expenses 6t
the village, and for defraying its hospitality towards strangers
(1830, L. 398, 399, 405, 406, 529). These village communi-
ties* are little republics, having nearly everything that they
want within themselves, and almost independent of any foreign
relations. Dynasty after dynasty tumbles down ; revolution
succeeds to revolution; Hindoo, Patau, Mogul, Mahrattft,
Seik, English, are all masters in turn, but the village com-
munities remain the same. In times of trouble they arm and
fortify themselves ; an hostile army passes, through the coun-
try ; the village communities collect their cattle within their
walls, and let the enemy pass unprovoked. If plunder and
devastation be directed against themselves, and the force em-
ployed be irresistible, they flee to firiendly Tillages at a
distance, but when the storm has passed over, they returniltid
resume their occupations. If a country remain for a serieii of
years the scene of continued pUlage and massacre, so that life
village cannot be inhabited, the scattered vSIagets ne'vet'-
theless return whenever the power of peaceable possession
revives : a generation may pass away, but the succeeding
generation will return: the sons will take the place of their
fathers, the same site for the village, the same position for
the houses, the same lands will be occupied by the descend-

VILLAGE COMMUNITIES OR REPUBLICS IN INDIA. 341

ants of those who were driven out when the village was depo-
pulatedy and it is not a trifling matter that will drive them out,
for they will often maintain their post through times of dis-
turbance and convulsion, and acquire strength sufficient to
resist pillage and oppression with success. This union of the
viUage communities each one forming a separate little state in
itself, has contributed more than any other cause to' the pre-
servation of the people of India, through all the revolutions
and changes which they have suffered, and is in a high de-
gree conducive to their happiness, and to the enjoyment of a
great proportion of freedom and independence. (183S, Com-
mons* Rev. Committee, p. 29).

It is difficult to state the proportion of the produce of the
viUage paid to Government ; the authorities know little of the
precise property of any of the proprietors, it is not the in-
terest or the wish of the village that the Government should
scrutinize and know their possessions, therefore, if any one
of the brotherhood fails to pay his proportion, that is a matter
£6r the village at large to settle, they will often come forward
to pay it for him, but those are all private arrangements kept
to themselves; and the Mocuddim has no power from the
Government to enforce the assessment, what each man in the
village haa to pay is an internal arrangement, which it is
desirable for the Government not to interfere in, the villagers
settling among themselves what each has to pay, the total
assessment beii:^ calculated after enquiry into the state of
prosperity in the villijge ; what it has hitherto paid ; what it
i» capable of paying; the state of the village lands, and' what
assessments they ought to bear with reference to the produce ;
and if the villagers are dissatisfied with their Mocuddim, or
head man, they turn him out (1830, L. 401, 40S, 404, 528,
583^ 584.) Surveys of considerable expense have been made
by Government ; a minute account taken of the state of the
land in each village, the fields examined in the presence of
a suixeying officer, with all the assistance he can procure,
not only from his own servants, but from the. village commu-
nities, the people themselves interested, and also the ryots
and people of the neighbouring villages, who are invited to

34^ MODE OF CGLLECTlKi;^ VILLAGE LAKD REy^HITE.

AtCend. The exact limits of the village are piit down, and
even the detail of land within the village, the ^oductiont,
houses, fhiit bearing trees, and so ont Ae aasessteent is
grounded Upon these particulars (1831, C. S499.) The Uppct
or Western Provinces of Bengal, the greater paart of the Bo»-
bay territoriesi th^ ceded territories on the Nerbutddk mA
the Province of Tanjore are aU assessed by vilUges. (1231,
C. 3119, 3128, 3189, 3130.) The Ryotitar SyfrrEM,— The
peculiar principle of the third sort of assessment, €0nMd
R^otwat, is to fiat a maximum of assessment tipofti all- the
lands of the country in perpetuity ; (1831, C. 456S)-the mow^
rent of each individual cultivator for the fields in his occQpi^
tion is defined with as much permanency as possible^ Ad ag-
gregate of such rents making the total assesmnent, whkh
varies each year with the increase or decrease of cuititation.
Another main principal of the Ryotwar system is to pl^tect
the rights of all ryots or cultivatorsi as they now exist In every
viDage firom infringement ; and to prevent idl eiKSrotfchment
upon those rights (1831, C< 5156,) t^us, in the Ryotwmr sys-
tem, the details of the interest of the respective Ryots are
known completely, and not at all in the Zemindary system;
and the former effectually does what the latter prolessea t6
doi but never has don^, and never can do, that is, fix an as-
sessment upon all the lands in the country* Und^f the
Ryotwar system, the assessment goes fVom detail to the ag^
gregate ; it respects property of every class, that of the
largest landholder, and that of the smallest ; it measures and
assesses every pbrtion of an estate, and thus fadlitatas the
transfer of landed property, as the first question when taken
into the market is — what is the amount of public demaad
upon the land ? (1831, C. 4565, 4567, 4568.) The Ryotwar
system deals with the proprietor ; if the Ri^ah be the ooi»-
plete proprietor, he is the person with whom the Govemmeiit
deals ; it does not profess to interfere between him and his
tenants, but in order to ascertain what the Rigab ii to pa)%
his lands are first assessed in detail, and then in the i^ggie-
gate (1831, C. 4570). The Ryotwar settlement is appticable^
it it is said, in every state of things ; where there art propria

PRINCIPLBfr AKB PHACTICB OF BYOTWAR SETTLEMENTS. 344

t^ca it BM^y be entexed into wiA proprietors ; where there are
ne propvieters it may be conchided with farmers or cultiva-
tors^ it may be equally made £ur the largest or for the smaUest
quaotily of land ; for millions of acres> or for only a few. The
QWMai of a sisgle fidd may make his tenas directly with die
OoTermaent, and turn to lus cukiYation, knowing that he can-
not be odled <m to pay more than a certain sum. The pro*
prietor of the largest district may do the same : for^ althoij^h
the cess under this system varies according to the value of
the land«» difference of soil* population, situation^ and other
loeahties ; and although inferior land, paying the lower ces8»
becomes liable when sufficiently improved to pay the higher
cess i Aere is, nevertheless, a maximum for the best land, be*
yeod which aU produce is for the benefit of the landholder :
and there are remissions in cases of urgent distress (183@»
C.R.P.No.29.)

Another advantage which the Ryotwar system possesses
over the Zemindary^ is in the creation <^ a great body of ixh
dependent proprietors^ instead of a few who are proprietors
only in name; and there is an advantage to the revenue inas-
much as all the firuits of industry accumulate for the great
mass of the people, but in the case of. the Zemindary they
aceuBudate for the benefit of the few> while the Ryotwar sys*
tern tends also in a c<msiderable degree to the accumulation
of capital (I8»l, C. 4577, 4578, 4579.)

Eaeh of these systems (as detailed in the analysis of the
evidence before Parliament just given) find special and power-
ftd achroeates and arguments for the adoption of uniformity
throughout India ; but into this question it is not the authors
jAfovince to enter ; suffice it to say that the main points for
consideration in any system of land assessment is the low
mMtmi of the tax .-^ and the preservation of the manorial

* A Pbrifamentary document ffiva the amount of the land tax per head
in Bfliiifal, & 1827, at 22 pence pearly, ^in Madras 52 pence, and in Bom:,
bay €D pesos; and per equetre mile, Bengal 23 pence, Madras 17 pence»
and Bombay 19 pence ; the population per square mile in each Presidency

S44 LAND-TAX PER HEAD IN INDIA*

rights of the Ryots or cultirators. Adam Smitti admits liiat
a land-tax so managed as to give not only no discouHEigemeiit,
but on the contrary some encouragement to the hnp^ovement
of land ; which rises and falls with general not partial proft-
perity^ that makes it the paramount benefit of the 'Govern-
ment to preserve peace foreign and domestic ; to augment by
every possible means the quality and quantity of territorial
produce : to provide easy^ cheapo and expeditious transit by
land and water to the most profitable markets, — a hmd-tax
thus managed, pressing fairly and lightly on each individual,
and influenced by fixed and comprehensive principles of ge-
neral utility, most beneficially unites the governed and the
governor by the least dissoluble ties of mutual self^nterest.

By Lord Comwallis* permanent settlement in Lower Ben-
gal much good was effected, accompanied, however, wiA lio
small portion of evil ; the fixing for ever the assessment on
the land was admirable in principle and highly beneficial to
the proprietors, but the Government lost the advantage of in-
creased prosperity in the country in consequence of the tax
being fixed at a money instead of a com rent ; had the latter
been adopted the tenant could not complain, and the re-
sources of the state would not have suffered : the next evil
arose from considering the Zemindars as landed proprie-
tors instead of what they generally were, mere collectors or
farmers of the revenue ; the interests and rights of the Ryots
or cultivating tenants of the soil were thus entirely lost sight
of, and no measure has since been devised which would re-
store them without the allegation being raised of our in-
fringing the solemn compact of the permanent or Zemindary
settlement.

With reference to extending the system of the last named
settlements to the Upper Provinces of Bengal, it seems neither
prudent nor practicable so to do on account of the village
corporations or communities described at p. 340.

This, much, however, might be accomplished — ^the fijung
of the Government assessment every 10, ^, or SO years, at a

being, for Bengal 244, Madras 17, and Bombay 76. Land in Bengal is
▼alued at 67 y«rr#* purchase.

EXTENSION OF A FIXED OR PSAMANENT ASSESSMENT. 345

corn i«Bt ;— Hhe settlements might be made wkh each village,
leaving to the latter the choice of a longer or shorter lease :
:1bb plan might also be extended to the south of India, where
the RyaUoar system is in force ; its advantages would be that
a stimulus would be given to cultivation and improvement for
10, 20, or 30 years without the Government, like the tithe
owner in England, stepping forth to reap the reward of skill
and industry; — the assessment being at a corn rent, the Go-
Temment would not have a revenue fluctuating according to
the rise or fall in the prices of gold or silver, — and the rights
of individual cultivators as under the Madras Presidency — or
of village communities, as under the Bombay territories would
be preserved ; while the necessity for annual scrutiny, and
continuAl vexatious interference of the Government with the
fiumers would be happily annulled.

Land Revenue in British India, at Five Intervals (to shew its progress).

LAKD BXVKNUtS.

Btmgmlt Btkmrt mmd Orima.

.CvnMU, .... a.iu.

• • • • • M^9»

NotlnJwwaa Do.

D».

i,i«,on

Total

BnMTM.

NotlnJi

8.B*.

Do.

Tottl

I)*.

Do.
Do.

Do.

Convnty C«d«d Pfroviacos, 8.

CMOMiodDo. Do.

, C«4od Do. Do.

ConqoOTod Do. Do.

h^vuw, (Mod Do. Do.

CoogoBW* Do. Do.

C«4adDo. Do.

OoBfiMiod Dow Do.

TbUI

jttuUnt Fouettioiu.

iVMf CWNBtf ...

of Do Do.

17SM0.

VMMK

M«.M1

«^19/IM

ToM

Toua

CwfVOMtf ■ • • •

CMW OHrf CSp«f««rM( Protriaew.

(TttnoBty • . . .

T««al

17BB-18O0.

S4B,01,»4

S,7>,S1.S78

V»J9^

UO»>lffl(OL

'^iSSSi'iiUSi

9»jai

90,83,SW

10^0,881
41,MB

V7,i«

Iffl^-lflO.

4^471

1,00,44,072

MB,U>18S

4S,HM»

44,i6,n«

S,0O,SM»

1V4»I77

.l,9B,fiH

SSATil

SJ(M«6

21,7V»

l,8S,S8,8n
M4Jl,a87
7.I3404
6,11.800
l,84a)Bl
1,87,194
1,81,310
«J88

8,01,410

7i,»B4lB TWO

8,86,864

81,9I,M7

8,96,818

19,06g»l tOMfim

19JHM
9A0M

4,87,411

♦MOT

«,78«as

l,Se,lS,87B
1,88,79,888

9,16,808

76,a7

84,771

8,18,37,273 3,06 J7,»19

•{ftw

,184

4,84,968

S,07,O4S

34,69,868

4,32,856

69,42,744

14,28,849

l,l9,9i7lil,SlAMO

• For Btag^ th*

bl828-UB9.

346 SALT nSVEHVB OP BBNGJtL.

Sji&T.-*^The next nwbt kem of reveBmi in Bea^^iil'iB 6aS¥tidt
from the manofitctore and sale of sail bjr Oot^evmnen^' th
averts aamal poduce of mhax^ is iditet l^SOOMMOi a ytar.
It IS in eiridenoe bsfort FaAamont tbn die people «fif $i)vm
dafldj snpidinL irilfa sak^ and tbe*tftz is 1m# dMn^iNir
faiMngs a montk on Mch indindluJ* EfiinrtB faavtr been
made to anthorise 1^ Cheshire sak makers t6 ffanask Ae
BeQgalese with salt ; when the RngBsK PailiameBt veauts or
even lessena the dm^ levied on the Hindoo's sugar being iai-
ported into Ghreat Britain, tiien die Hindoos amy receive
English sab. Upper Bengal is supplied with salt partly from
the Lower Province, and pardy fiow sdk minefl in Western
India* Madras exports salt to Bengal prepared by solar eva*
poration in ezdiango for riee and other provisions, and Bonn
bay makes salt enough for its own use ; the revenue in Bom«
bay and Madras is trifling in amount compared with Bengal,
being in the latter about 300,000/. and in the former not
20,000/, a year. Mr. St George Tucker, lately Chairman
of the E. I. Company, thus details the salt revenue for 18S7,
which he states to be a fair year for judging of the average
revenue :

Populatioii of Bengal, Betar, and Oftea, oompatwt Kt* .... sOvAM^Wo

Quantity at salt conaiuued hj thia populatioD, tappUed from oar si^ca, mamnda 4S,oa,aat

Gron aale, at about sgo mpeea per 100 maandi . . . . S. nipecB ijBjMji09
Deduct coat and chargee, which coDttitate no part of the tax .... 60.M,000

Net reraniie or monopoly pfolt ny^Mt i;u,0O,000

atsv.peralcearapee ie.aieri. ifl^jm

Mediam oonanmptkm of eech iadividaal, per annom .... 6 aeen « is Iba.
Bate of contrlbotton or poll-taar, yearly . la

The charges on the salt revenue amounted in Bengal, in
1828 to S.R., 71,21,188, or 826,057/. viz. advances to manu-
facturers, S.R., 46,91,768; convention with the French go-
vernment to prevent any interference with the E.I. Com-
pany's revenue^ 4^00,000 ; ditto with the Danish government,

* It is now apwardft of 4^000^000, wMch woaid, of ooune, 4ecraaie

Che amount of the tax paid by each individuaL

OPIUM REVENUE OF BENOAL.

347

15^000; sakune^y comiBiision to agmits ob mamtfacstlii^ rtnt^
esttthliabmsnto and coEtn^^encieSy ^^1^507 ; bafldings^ &e«
1 ,^88& At Madias the cbaifge on die aalt mi^eniie for tho
aaiM .jaar was ,&&,4a». orS.R. 7,AMB1; of whicta 1^n».
nufiM^users' sbajre was 8.K. »^,B4»^ theadTanew, 1>00,8M$
tho oompendattoiis^ ft5JB4& f and Miqren Zabiteh a&d other
charges^ 3574^794.

Ac(»atiVbf the QtMtitftj of Stfft boM, the Gross Proceeds, Net Profit, and
Afmnef!b ot die Net Profit, from 18€8-4, to tbe Teirritories under tlie
Besgal Goyenuuent inbjeet to the Salt Moabpolf.

Y«an.

1M$^

1804-5

IS06-7
1867-4
1808-9

18IHKI8
1810^11

laij^iA

181»-13
1818-14
1814-15
1815-16

i8taui;
1817-18

1818-10
181IhS0
1M84I
1881-88
183i-88
1938-44
18aM^SS
1885-86

t8lS-87
1887-38
1898-89
1889-80
1880-81
1831-38
1838-33
1833-34

Quantity of
asltwtd.

Maonds.
85^>790
41,42,6d7
43»78,fti8
37,83,715
45,Q»,4fM
44,77.083
4S.97i)M
46.40,175
48,fl9»a08
48,75,386
53,90,467
46,08,308
39,34i663
44,48,076

45,18,697

47,99,343

63,34.607

«3.37»948

53.79,534

49.84,875

50,57,447

51,63,009

46.13,516

53,58,071

48,00,000

35,00,008

45.00,008

41,01,000

48,04,000

46,00,600

46,01,<

S. Ra.
M8,3S,8dK
1,47,57.189
1,40,78.999
1,30,86,813
|,60,U|441
1,65,13.168
1.4S,56^560
1,54,07,594
1,58,91.893
1,59,51,693
1.69,66,166
1,43,55,956
1,31,88,894
1,43.85,313
1,47,68,330
1,60.90,79s
1,68,63,040
1,73,63.869
1,98,55,611
8,00,13,436
1,84,88,080
1.77.95,897
1,70,36,009

8,11,34,088
3,05,36,873

1,96.10,557
1,64,34,370
8,01,87,086

NerPToAt.

8. Rs.

1,13,35,753

t,06k 18,888
88,36,538

l«aB,07.M9
1,38,77.503
l/>f,tt«6ft5
1,14,63,419
1,13,53,894
1,16,84,575
1,81,96,084

1,01,87,667
88,34,566

9^,67.«51
1,04,66,030
1,11,43,639
1,17,07,353

1,88,17,587
1,40,97,387
1,58,47,049
1,99,47,397
1,13,67.326
1,13,46,835
1,51,36,865
1,35,68,575
1.19»89,4*7

1,17.10,043
1,56»89,5S»

Averac^ of
fMPmtL

9
1

S. Ra.
i49 9 6

373 6
MS 11 It

233 4 5
978 U

387 10
341 8

347

36t 9

337 9 10

388 8
216 13 6
934 8 6
317 I 4
331 9 11

333 5 10

334 1 4

238 8 7

363 11

8lt 10

266

330 8

848 8

304 7

Avarace Price

pormidiid.

415

875

417
401
376
369

Opium. — ^The revenue derived from opium^ which is only
second in importance to salt^ is obtained in Bengal by Oovem*
ment receiving the prepared juice direct from the cultivators,
and offering it for sale at public auction to the exporter ; (no
opium is allowed to be grown in Bengal but by the cultivators
who are under engagements and advances with Government)
and in Bombay a transit duty is charged on the shipment of
the drug to China, the opium being grown and prepared in

S48 OPIUM TRADfi WITH CHINA.

states, Malwm, for instance. Under tbe bead of eosn-
merce further particulars will be found ; it is here sufficient
to say that the incidence of this tax is difficult of ascertain-
ment : on first view it appears to fall on the consumers in
China, or other foreigners in the £* Archipelago; but on a
second view of the question it is evident that if the BritiBb
Government did not levy the tax, the Bengal producer of the
opium would be at liberty to realize if possible the present
price, and pocket himself the difference which now goes into
the Indian treasury. The charges in Bengal on the opioin
revenue for 1827-28, the latest year laid before Parliament,
was 658,254/. or S.R. 56,74,606; of which the manufac-
turers received in advance, S. R. 38,79,974 : and the salaries,
agency establishments and contingencies were 7,26,024 ; and
there was also a compensation to purchasers of inferior Bahar
opium in 1824-25 of S. R. 10,68,608. It may here be ob-
served that a chest or bale of the £• I. Company's opium is
instantly purchased by a Chinese customer without any other
examination than that of the Company's mark. The total
number of chests of India opium imported into China (vide
Commerce chapter) was in 1833 chests, 23,692, the value of
which was Sp. doL 15,352,429. An official document laid
before the Revenue Sub-Committee of Parliament in June,
1832, gives the following detail to 1827 ; the subsequent years
I have filled up at the India House, the form of the retumi
it will be perceived, differs in the latter years, when the
Malwa cultivation or purchase was abandoned for a transit
duty.

BEHAR AND BBNARBS OPIUM.

{M9

Quantity of Behor and Benares Opiiun sold in India ieom 1797 to 1827,

BEHAR.

BENARES.

PrtaMCkMtsfe

Time of Sale,

Mr Factory

Maand in

SioeaRafoeOb

tpCqltiyator
or MamtfiK!*

MALWA.

Yens.

Qnantitr
S0I4 by Auctioa.

Qnantltf
Sold by Aaction.

QBOntitr

Sold by

AnottoD.

tarer in Sicca
Rnpooa.

•

Chests.

Factorj
Maondo.

Cliests.

Factory

Cb^fto.

1797s

3450

7905

799

1450

89 4 -

179^

838i

0894

789

1471

69 4

1799 \
18M/

8005

7008

905

1847

81 1 5

•1 IS 1

1800-1

3148

0598

799

1059

89 4

1MJ»S

2570

5887

799

1509

63 16 9

1809-3

9994

40t0

OlO

1275

83 5 7

1803-4

9380

4790

779

1015

89 4

•i 14 5

1804-5

3004

0904

889

1703

79 7

180MS

3978

0698

848

1701

79 1 11

18«^7

S849i

7580

880

1840

79 14 3

1807*«

3490

0909

788

1033

89 14 5

•1 14 9

f800-«

3798

^903

1580

89 8 10

1809-10

3970

8319

3053

80 9 9

ISIO-II

3888

8088

looO

9049

89 8 7

18U-1S

3959

8196

IOO7

3053

84 1 8

1819-lS

3844

7984

930

1998

84 9 10

1813-14

3093

0909

049

1300

89 9

1814*10

8881

7050

849

1750

80 1 1

I81fr-16

7317

747

1531

85 9 9

loiihir

0887

800

1039

99 8 -J

1817-18

9803

5890

089

1404

91 4 9i
OB 10 -4

1818-19

8005

0931

Oil

1957

1819-30

3101

0048

783

lOoi

89 14

1830-41

9537

4969

508

1054

108 18 1^

•1 14 8

1»008

1831-39

3397

5530

573

1159

119 3 9

- —

1,000

1898-83

9001

4473

099

1390

115 19 94

• -

4,000

IS9S-84

4148

7954

1849

9409

199 1 4

—

4,000

]8M-34i

1898-90

S830

4989

0977
9430

974
1588

]l&t

135 - 8
190 8

— —

4,900
4,600

1898-97

4098

9901

1059

9980

188 3

> -

3,4M5

1887-88'

5439

1903

17.O80.387t

19,01 1,781 1

1,0581

1898-98

5987

8133

18»133,489

18,988»885

1,848

0149

3429

15,909,099

11,115,480

1,984

1888-81

5001

SU7

19,010,848

9,410,710

1,006

1881-39

3919

9518

1,477

1888^33

7951

3087

1,109

1899^84

8970

•
•

3947

940

CustOTMf whether derived by transit or other duties on
land, or from goods exported or imported by sea^ form the
next item, and are yearly increasing. The collection of inland
or turnpike-like duties is in course of final abolition (in Bom-

* These avera^ prices, of which the maximum was rupees 2$. 2d,, were
reported to the Benj^al Government, in the year 1822, as having been
given to the cultivators of opium at the respective periods. In 1823 the
Government fixed the maximum of recompense to the cultivator at 3 ru-
pees per Seer.
t Gross receipts. X ^^^ receipts. § This is the averaging price per chest.

SSO STAMPS — SAYEE AKP ABKAREB^AND MINT REVENUE.

b«gr totdOy AlHogated) ; and the dtttiM le^ried on saa goods
¥ery light in amount, and unaocoinpanied by rexatiotts re-
stnctions*

Stamps are an increasing source of revenue sinee their
establishinent in Bengal in 1797, and in Calcutta city in 1828.
The inatnunents fiahfe to the duty in Bengal, are, contracts,
deedsi conveyanoefl, leases, powers of attorney, polietes of in-
surance, promissory notes, receipts, bail bonds and l^^al pro-
ceeding generally (bills of exdiange under S5 rupees, and
receipts under 50 rupees, are alone exempt). In Madras
stamped paper was first natroduced in 1808, chiefly on legal
proceedings; and in 1816 the duties were extended to bonds,
deeds, leases, mortgages, biUs of exchange, and reoeipta. In
Bombay the tax was first introduced in 1815 ; Delhi and smne
other territories ace not yet subjected to this duty, from the
operation of whidh (he small dealer and poor farmer is ex-
empt, while the large capitalist or inveterate litigist is made to
pay a portion of the Government expenses^ the most produc-
tive stamps in India being those on money dealing and mis-
cellaneous law papcBs. The charge on stamps for 1887-28,
WAS in Bes«al, 71,4312. or S. R. 6,15,782, vis. fees to native
commissioners in Mofussil courts, S. R* 2,27,870; purchase
of paper, 48,704 ; >commission, salary, establishment and coa-
tingency^ 8^89,708 : for Madras the total chavge was, 9y4S7/.

The sfiyfr and abkaree taxes include a variety of items, in
some places being irregnlar collections by provincial officers ;
in others licenses on professions or on manu&cti»es» such as
the distillation of spirits, which latter ^is collected by a still-
head duty, manufactured after the English fashion, at the
rate of six annas, or six sixteenths of a rupee par gallon,
London prooll There is a tobacco monopoly in some places,
and extra cesses in others ; but these and other unstatesman-
like soujeces of aevienue are aU in course of aboliiiQn.

The Mimi revenue is collected by a seignorage for ooiaing
of two per cent on the produce, after allowing ibrihe^dM^r-
ence of standard and deducting the charges of refiniag Irlien
such are chargeable ; that is. when the silver is below the

F08T OFCICS AM§> iVSiOIAL BEVSNUB. SSI

dfiUftF stimdiird^ vMah is.&mmmi 1uau» worm thm the
fgeemi Tiipae. Cofiper cmage elto ^idds to IJbe Oavero-
jBieol; a Itiige profit, Ibe copper money beu^ issued «t the r«te

iiof M-Cwdl^pUng^^^gcmn^ A»f the mpee^whkh is «bout
lOQiper cent tifaore 4ifi value of the copper. TheiCfasvges

•OB rtbe Bfiat lerentie of Abi^ was m 18e7» 48;B38^ or S. R.
S^'37t8S3, viz. jBaboriesi estdblisfaBMwfes aad ^ootingettcies,

^,01^0; .bsB of veight in meltkig the pieeiojis metals,
i;je^St; for Madras, J80,40aL aadfiombfl^, 8,6874.

The Post offiee tax is Ugkt in imioiuit, and uicreasing as
Jaat a& oan he expected horn a post ctm^ejined by numers -on

• &Mit» Thedbarges under this head of revenue were for JSSefi-
gai^-BaiiBaasB and estahhahments, S.R. 1,26,594, Dawk esta-
hfishment, 6,49,893. Total, 5. &. 7,67,887, or 89,075/.
Mlmtbtasy -salaries and astaUishaMmls, &c. S.JR. -64,973. Tap-
pdi estBfaiishnient, 1^1,744. Totel, S. R. 2,56,717, or @9,839/.
Bamiaf, 18,1484^

The charges ieet tmnsaiission of letters ihvough the Go-
vesnnentPoat Offiees of British India aore-^—

.In Bengal^ a letter is fodrwarded 1000 miles for 19 annas, or
lag<6rf. ; in Bombay, ditto 1,000 ditto for 15 ditto i>r 1«. lO^tf. ;
in Madcas, do. 1^000 do.for 17 ditto or 2<. 1^.

iJmdicifd revenue is jnused on atamps requisite 'v^ causes of
•diflBeiBeat amount jn ooder to defray le^al charges and dis-
caumge litigaiion, to which the weaklner Hindoos are mudh
prone :— ^nsnits for amns not eareeding 16 rupees, the plaint
5ar fetilifln imist (be written on paper bearing a stamp of one
jrupne. If ^he isniit eKoead 16 rupees^ and do not exceed 3S
napnea, a atnnp ^kmo rupees is requised. Above 80 rupees,
jndawt esoaeding 64«, the stamp ds fonr rapeesu Above 64
xsHpeea, and not jexcsedii^ 150, .eight lupees. Above 150
•anfmesyjttid not. exceedittg.SOO, 16 rupees. Above 800 rupees,
and not <flam«ding £Ofi, 82 rupees. Above 800 rupees, and
nntionoeefiaDg l^HJO, 50 mpees* Above 1,600 rupees, and
nol; exceeding 3,000, 100 rupees. Above 3,000 rupees, and
noleneeeding 5^000^ 150 rupees. Above 5,000 rupees, and
.tuL^aa^eimg IQ^OQS, 260 nipees. Above 10,000 rupees, and

son JUDICIAL RKVBNUB.

not^coeediiigiS^OOO^ 856 rupeeB. Above lBfiQ&nufee%^ ami
not exceeding S5»000, £00 mpees. Above 35,000 rupees, and
not eizceeding SO^OOO, 750 vupees. Above 50t»O0Or8p66S/aiid
not exceeding 100,000, 1,000 rupees. Above lOOgOOQ rapeei^
S^OOO rupees. The other stamp duties to whidi. the parties
are sutgect, besides the inatitetien stamp, are, — ^all exhibits
flied in court are requiredto be aocompaBied -widi an appli-
cation prayu^ the adnission of the same, and that applica*
don must be written on stamped paper t if in the ZiUali Ooost,
the istainp is one rupee ; in the Provineial Court andthe Sud-
der DewannyAdavlUt, two rupees. So also no summom ii
issued for the attendance of any witness without anapplica^
tion in writing, praying the attendance of such person, irfiicb
application must be written on stauqped paper, similaf ta'.ibat
prescribed in Ae case of filing exhibits. Further aBSwaei^
replications, rejoinders, supplemental pleadings, and afiagioe^
ments of comprise and petitions, are required to be written
on stamps of one rupee in the ZiUah Court, and iuar 'rupees
in the Provincial Court in the Sudder Dewanny, Misealbm^
ous petitions and applications- preferred to public authoiidesy
either revenue or judicial, are required to be written t4nr
stamps of eight annas^ if preferred to a Zillah judge oironagis*
trate, or collector; of one rupee, if to a Court of Apfpeelar
Circuit; and of two rupees, if to the Sadder Dewaniij>4ar
Nisamut Adawlut, or to the Board of Revenue. The)ii|H
pointment of the vakeels to act in eadi case is madeibjnatiiii!^'
strument bearing a. similar stamp. Copies of decrees akojais :
required to be stamped : in the ZiUab Court die'stamp laane*.
rupee ; in the Provincial Court, two rupees ^ injthe Saddest*
four rupees; and all proceedings of ihe -Sudder piepand.
fer transmission to the King in Couoctt must be transcrihed
on pap^ bearing a stamp of two rupees. Copies • of :nilsedH
laneous papers are required to be written on a ataaip*ef fight
amias, or hatf^rupee.*«^[For costs of a suit in the diffibmii
Courts, see Appendix.] .<•- . t«i<*'

The Judicial charges are exceedingly heavy, ynm»in£mgti,
the Supreme court, S. R. 4^82,387 ; Justices of the peace asd

HEAVY JUDICIAL GHARGES*-HMrPREME COURT. 8S3

diet of the priaonei's at Calcutta, S^SlfiBS ; Court of Requests,
98fiOB; Sudder Dewanny and Nisaa^ut Adawlut, 6,S8|869;
Provincial courts of appeal and ZQlah Adawluts, 6&fil^fiiO ;
Plrovincial police^ 17)89,377$ extra and ccNotiiigeiit charges,
S70,318; Pensions, 88,455. Total, S. R. 9,89,91,6M or
steriit^ 1,147,436/.— /« Madras, Supreme Court, S. R.
3,08^700; Police diarges in town of Madras, 1,33,040;
Comrt of Sudder and Fousdary Adawlut, 2,53,557 ; Provin*
pal Courts, 95,97,490 ; Pensions, &c. 7,84^ Total, S. R»
98,00,129 or S77,158/«-*-Jii Bombay, Supr^ne Court, S. R.
8,68^400; Police chains at Bombay Presidency, 1,27,540;
Court of Sudder and Fouasdary Adawlut, 2,62,891 ; Provin*
eial Courts, 19,89,774; Buildii^, &c. 76,701. Total, S. R.
27,75,806 or 812|222/. The grand total for the three Presir
deooies being. 1,886,816/. sterling, (for the charge for the past
year vide table prefixed to this Chapter.)

The Marine revenue arises from port and andborage dues,
&c* in order to keep up the useful eetabUshments at Calcutta,
Madras, and Bom1w^> m particular at the Ibraiier port.

The foregoing items axe dae principal, if not the sole;
aoiiroes of the Government revenue of 18 to 20,000,000/. a-
jFoar, and they offer a strong contrast to the manner in which
SOifiOQfifXU. a year is raised in Great Britain chiefly on the ne-
cessaries of life, or on the comforts and industry of the people.

MovsTART System.*— The Bank of Bengal, (the only char-
tered' batik in our Eastern possessions) established in 1809,
fay a ehaiter firom the 6oYemor*General in Council, under
Act of Parliament, is partly a private, partly a Government
bank, regulated as a bank of discounts and deposits, on the
principles of the Bank of England, and confined in its ao»
eotmts and transactions to Calcutta. The shares are in value
1,D002L each, and in number 500; the Government hold 100
with power to nominate three Directors, while the proprietors
elect sik; the President is elected by the Directors, and the
proprietors can vote by proxy. Natives may become Direc*
toM if ehosen by die proprietors. The premium on bank
stock is ^bout 50 per cent., and the average amount of divi^

VOL. I. A A

S54

BENGAL PAPER

dend of late years nine to ten per cent The accounts are
public^ and regularly laid be&re government twice a-year,
and of a paid-up capital of 5 fiOO flOO rupees^ part is ve^d
in GoTernment securities^ and the remainder employed in the
ttade of banking. It issues notes which vary in amount from
10 rupees to 30,000 rupees, there being no maximum or mi>^
nimum limitation* The Iturgest proportion is in notes of 100
rupees upwards : the average amount of its paper in circula-
tion is 800,000^ which is all payable on demand at sight.
The notes circulate among the natives as far as Bahar, or
wherever they are received in the Government Treasuries in
receipt for revenue^ &c. There are two restrictions upon the
issue of paper money, the first practical, namely a reservation
ci cash equivalent to a fourth of its engagements payable on
demand, and the second, that the circulation of notes shall
not exceed 3,000,000/. but there has scarcely ever been a de-.
mand for notes to half that extent; The Bank of Bengal has
BO monopoly, it is however the only chartered bank, ue, it is a
corporation^ can sue and be sued under its common seal, and
individuals proprietors are not liable beyond the amount of
their subscription ; its other exclusive advantage consists-in
Government receiving its notes solely. The following is tlie
latest return shewing the balance of the Bank of Bengal,
29th June, 1833.

Dr.

S. Rs.

Casta, ^vernment secnritles,
lixHiB on deposits of fpuv ern-
ment ttecnrities, &c., and

biUfe (MX government dia-
counted ....

Prir»te biUs jdiscoanted .

Doabtful debts

Advance for legal proceedings

Dead stock ....

12,596.498
3,918,689

719.168
3,336

117,029

Total . .

S. Rs. 17,353,509

Cr.

Bank notes and post bills
oatstanding and dalma
payable on demand

Netstock

Totid

S. Bfc

]2,1«5,44S

S. lU. 17>3i3,5*9

Rates of business^ on this date 6 per cent, for private bill
discounts, and 4 per cent, for deposit loans ; its issues aie
twelve million rupees,— a sum more than 50 p^ cent^ in ex-
cess of the minimum of 18^7, in which year the whole aoiount
of bank notes, including those of the three private banks then

AND METALLIC CIRCULATION, 355

bi existence, was not greater than the present joint circula-
tion of the Bank of Bengal and the Union Bank. The bank
has lost considerably by bad debts and by forgevies, at which
ktter the natives are extremely expert There is an esta-
blishment termed €he Union Bank at Calcutta, suppoi^ed by
the principal merchants, and qmte unconnected with Govern-
meht* Madras has no bank predsdy similar to that of Ben-
gal, and Bombay has not, I believe, any European bank issu-
ing money. Therie can now scarcely be said to be any gold
coin in circiulation in Bengal, and the highest silver denoinina*
tion is rupees, vis. tibose of Calcutta and Furriickabad. The
Furrudcabad rupee T^eighs LS0*234 grs. troy ; Calcutta rupee
191*916 grs. troy. For practical purposes the Calcutta rupee
may be valued as weighing 192 grs. trby, with 176 of silver,
and the Furru<ikabad 180 grs. with 165 of pure metal. The
Madras rupee, as established iti 1818, consists of 180 grs. and
containfl 165 grs. of pure silver, and 15 grs. of alloy. The
g€id coinage is of die same weight and fineness as the silver,
bnt the ratio between gold and silveir is liable to be varied
finxn time to time by Government proclamation. Bengal,
Madras, and Bombay have each a mint, at which are coined
nipees agreeing in standard and weight with the Furrucka-
bad' rupees, and the rupees of tiie three Presidencies are is-
sued to die army at a nominal value, termed a Sonaui rupee.
The gold coins that issue from the mint can scarcely be reck-
oned among the currencies, because the market value of gold
having risen considerably above the mint value, it has ceased
to circulate at the prescribed, or at any fixed rate The
gold mohnr of Bengal wrighs 204>*710 grs. of which the fine
gold is 187*651 grs. ; the Madras gold rupee is of the same
weight and standard with the silver, viz. 180 grs. ; and at
both Presidencies the relative value of gold to silver is
fifteen to one, the Bengal mohur being reckoned equal to
16 rupees. A copper coin, weighing 100 grs. is current
through the Bengal territories at the rate of 64 to 7 rupees,
but it is a legal tender only for the fractional parts of the
rupee; cowrees or sea shells still circulate, and to a con-

3M COINAGE AND MINTS IN INPIA.

siderable extent in some proriaoes^ but they are dkappeaving
with the prosperity of the country.

A large mint has been established at Bombay for an uni^
form coinage^ as there are a great number of different rupees
current in the Deckhan, coined in different yean^ and having
a marketable value, according to their value. The rates of
exchange vary not only between Bombay and Poonah, but
between district and district. Gold is not current in the
Deckhan; there is no paper circulation ; but native ^Hoon^
dees,* or small bills of exchange, are numerous. The circu-
lating medium is silver and copper, the relative vidoe akeiigg
in favour of the latter; all their gold has been exported to
England years ago. Ordinary interest of money with ^he na-
tives nine, and with the European mercantile houses Jlye, per
cent. At Calcutta from six to twelve per cent.

The total coinage of the four mints (Calcatte^riB^ntires,
Furruckabad, and Sagur) for the period of 81 years, baa been
53,322,600. The bullion nnportation vi& Calcutta, from
1813-14 to 1831-3S is valued at S. R. 355,637,644; frem
which, deducting the exports of bullion for the same period,
65,396,544, leave bullion disposed of in the country, 8. R.
295,446, 1 00. The coinage of the several mints for .Ae ^ove
term of 18 years wa8--€alcutta, S. R. 263^15,962? Benites,
S.R. 88,^,359 ; Furruckabad, 47,252,843 ; Sagur, 4y324s77a
Making a total of S. R. 343,522,940, being an excess of t»ne-
fifth above the imp<nrte, or S. R. 5S,076y840. The coiiage
of the native mints is estimated at one half of our owoywhidi
will give a total of 3,00,93,578, or three ^ores per ajmum
for the Bengal Presidency, being 150,000 per diem .forJUO
working days. \

The total coinage of copper pice since 1801, shears a .value
in sOver of 50} lakhs of & R, which in tale is 82| cvocet for
31 years — or one crore per annum; thus adding SO^OOOyieees
to the daily work aa above mentioned.

By a financial regulation of the Bengal Government (ISth
May, 1833,) it is enacted that,

FINANCIAL REGULATION OP BOMBAY dOYSHNMENT. SS7

meWWilltnid SCndurt of tfi» Cal^nMi Sloe* Sapec mmI lit stMlifWQDt, ud of tlM
FnrraekalMul Rupee, shall be as foUows :—

Weight. Floe. AII07.

C ^fHM'f ^ ^hpi^fifi, 4^1 ^% ^^

C9I. Sicca Rnpee ... 193 17O 16

Ditto half g6 88 B

miovonrtinr . . • . m 44 4

Fajrrodicabad Rupee ... 180 168 15

and its flractioiia In proportton heisg I.i3th altor.
Ae «M ctf tlie Sicca Weight flf 179*1160 Qraioa hltlMVto employed for ttie veoeiptirf
at the Mint, bdn^ in ftkct the weight of the Moonhedabad Ropee of the old Standard, which
'waa assumed as the Sicca Currency of the Hononrable Company's Frorinces of Bengal,
Batoar, and Oiissa»aiiall.te disooBtla«ad«asd in Its place Ike foUowiag Unit, to be caUed
the Tcda, shall be introdoced, which, from its immediate oonnesion with the Rapee of the
Uxvper ProTinces, and of the Madras and Bombay, will easily and speedily become unirenal
^BMlMit tJM British terrltorlea.

T%e Tola or 5ieea Weight to be eqnal to 180 Grains lYoy, and the other denominations of
weight to be derived from this Unit, aooarding to the following scale :«
8 Bg tti e e I Masha- u tkoy gfaias*
IS Mnshas—l Tola~l80 ditto.
80 Tdlas (or Sicca Weight)—! seer-^ nic. ditto.
40 Seera— 1 Mm, or Basar Mannd—iOOlbs. Tkoy, •

At CalcuttBi the moniefl of account are as follows :

4 cowries*s=:l gunda=16 aiina83=l S. rupee {20 gundas —
1 pann-^ punns— -1 anna) 16 S. rupees — 1 gold mohur. The
uBiial aoeounts are 4 punxis or 12 pice=:l anna — 16 annas =
1 S. rupee -^16 S* S. rupees =1 gold mohur.

Ai Madras there is a considerable variety of coins in circu-
lation; accounts are kept thus 80 cash=l fanam ; 12 fanams
r:rl rupce^ and 42 fanani6=l pagoda, star or current pagoda
worth 7i. 5id.y commonly valued at 8s. The gold rupee,
new coinage, lL9s, 2id,, according to the mint price of gold
in England. Arcot rupee (silver) and new ditto, IsAl Id. and
is* lljd. Oopperpieces coined in England of 20 cash, called
'fieet and of 10 and 5 cash, called dodees and half dodees, are
abocttrrentL

Bombay rupee divided inty 4 qrs., each qr. being 100 reas ;
there are reas in an urdee, 4 in a doogany or single pice,
^rcaa m a doreeUf 8 reas in-a fuddea or double pice, 60 pice
4MP 16 unnai in the rupee^ 5 rupees in a paunchca, and 15
rupees in a gold mohur. The annas and reas are imaginary

* Cowrie are a small shells^ plentiful on Eastern shores, particularly
cho«e of Africa ; they are, however, fast disappearing from commercial
transactions at the Presidencies.

S58 BULLION IMPTD. AND EXPTD. : — AMOUNT OF REMITTANCES.

coins ; the double and single pice, the urdeea and the doreea,
are copper coins, with a mixture of tin or lead ; the others
are the gold mohur and silver rupee, with their divisions.
The following is the assay and sterling value of the principal
gold and silver coinage of Calcutta and Bombay ; a lengthened
and elaborate document on the subject will be found in the
Appendix.

{Gold Bfohnr . "i . .

Sicca Rupees ....

Farrackabad ....

i>««w,K.«> / Gold Mobnr ....

Bombay. ^ suvcr Rapee . . . .

Madras. Rapee

QrwiWUsht

On.

Ots.

S04.710

187.051

igi.9i«

17^S»

180.234

I66.SI5

164.68

179.»

18468

189.0

1663

jff.s. d,
I 13 9i iM

% iitJB

1 III 8J»
190
O S •

By the latest accounts from India it was proposed to esta-
blish a new bank at Agra, and savings' banks were about to
be set on foot under the sanction and superintendence of
Government.

For a long period the flow of the precious metals was to-
ward^ India ; the current has now, however, changed, and the
exportations from India to Europe^ of gold and silver has been
yearly augmenting.

Net Import or Export of Treasure into and from India in each year, from
1813-14 to 1832-33 inclusive. (For a complete view of the Importa-
tions and Exportations at each Presidency see JppendiatJ)

Sa. Rs.

I81»-I4

1814-15

1815-16
I8I6-I7

1817-16
1818-19

S8,86,889

1,07,08,668
9,25,38348
4,58,09,541
4,35,83.483
6,5S,33,925

Sa. Rs.

1819-90 4;S0,aB,4»

1820-21 2,81,15,843
1821-22 1,10,49,28^

11822-23 2,02,23,9 IS
1823-84 85,81,805

,1824-25 1,17,71,980

1820-27
I8S7-21
1828-20
1829-30
1830-31

Sa. Rs.

ino-ao i,8B4lti,iM

2,03.14,288
1,89.00,970
1,43,00,302
1,15,44.764
99*32,950

Sa. Rs.

Ittl-M
1832-^
18n-84

1834-85
1885-34H

15,14,088

The treasure held in the several Treasuries of the Com*

* It will be seen by the 4ih column that there is now a prcatcr export
from tlian import into India.

LIST OF TREASURI£S IN INDIA. 359

pany^ iinder the Bengal Presidency^* amounts generally to
SfiOOfiOOf and under the subordinate Presidencies of Madras
and Bombayy the amount fluctuates from 2fiO0flO0 to
SjOOOjOOO stg. Before the breaking out of the Burmese war,
from 10;000»000 to 13,000,000 stg. was collected by the Mar-
quis of Hastings in Bengal, for the purpose of paying off the
debt. The accumulations of such large balances in the hands
(>f government has justly been objected to, as causing sudden
and excessive fluctuations in the currency of the country.
The amount of remittances from India to England is very
great I being, first, the sum requisite to pay territorial

* List op thr sbvbraii Trbasvribs in India. — Bengal {Political,
General Treasury, Lucknow^ Gwalior, ladore, NipauJ, Nagpore^ Delhi,
South Behar^, Bhopal, N. E. Frontier, Bithoor, Amheret, &c., P. W. Island,
Singapore, Malacca.

Bengal (Revenue). — Burdwan, Backergunge, Beerbhoom, Bulioooh,
CbittagODg, Dacca, Dinagepore, Hooghly, Jessore, Jungle Mehals, My-
mensing, Moorshedabad, Nuddeah, Pumeah, Rajeshahye, Rungpore,
Sylhet, Tipperah, 24 Pergunnahs, Behar, Patna, Bbangulpore, Ramgimr,
Sarun> Shahabad, Tirhoot, Hidgelee, Midnapore, Cuttack, Pooree, Bala-
sore, Rungpore (N. E. Frontier), Sherepore, Lower Assam, Upper Aseam,
Arracan, Sandowee, Ramree, Benares, Ghazeepore, Juanpore, Allahabad,
Futtehpore, Bareilly, Cawnpore, Etawah, Furruckabad, Goruckpore,
Moradabad (S. D.), Ditto (N. D.), Sbajehanpore, Agra, Allyghur, Sahe-
swar, Bolund&hhahur, Saidabad, Calpee, Delhi (Centre Division), Ditto
(N. Ditto), DUto (W. Ditto), Ditto (S. Ditto), Ditto (Rohtack Ditto),
Seharunpore, Meerut, Kuinaon, Sangor, Huttah, Jubbulpore, Nusingpore,
Seoree, Hussingabad, Baitool, Reply, Rajpootana, Banda, Pilibheet|
Deyrah, Moozuffernugger, Jaggernauth.

Madras (Po/iVfW).— General Treasury, Masulipatam General Treasury,
Travancore, Mysore, Hydrabad, Tanjore, Vellore, Paymaster of Stipends.

Madras (Revenue), ^QiMitan, Vizagapatam, R^ahmondry, Masulipa-
tam, Guatoor, NeUore, Chingleput, Arcot (N. Division), Ditto (S. Ditto),
Bellary, Cuddapali, Coimbatore, Salem, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Canara,
Madura, Tlnnivelly, Malabar.

Bcmbaif (Po/tVior/). — General Treasury, Baroda, Bushire, Bussorah,
Moclia, Catch.

Bemday (Revenue). -^Southern Concan, Northern Ditto, Surat, Broach,
E. Zillah N. of the Myhee, Ahmedabad, Kattywar, Poonah, Ahmednugger,
Carnatic, Gandeish.

S60 HOME INDIAN OHABfiSB.

charges in England, 8,000/)00/. ; Becond, a demand for remiiU
tance of private savings and fanily expensesi estimated at
l,dOO,000/»; and third, a return for the outward trade,
3,000,000t ; total, 7,600,000/.*

These returns are made through the commerce of India
and China, or of bullion from both countries.

The territorial charges of India, payable in England, con-
sist of payments on account of passage of military (68,00021),
pay to oflScers, including offreckonings, (lSO,000/»); poli-
tical freight and demurrage, (134,000/1) ; war oflSoe demand
for King's troops serving in India, (S30,000/.) ; retiring pay,
pensions, &c. to King's troops, (60,000/.) ; political charges
general ^eluding the political charge for the estabKslnneiits
at the India House, 100,000/.) ; the Board of Control, (Sa,000/.)
Haileybury, Addiscomb, (S2,000/.) ; Chatham and recruitings
&c. (44,000/.) ; miscellaneous expenses on account of Prince
of Wales Island, Singapore, &c. (140,000/.); charges of the
Taiyore Commission, (4,000/.); absentee allowance, &c. to
civil sendee, (90,000/.) ; territorial stores, (500,000/.) ; St
Helena charges (now terminating)' (1S0,000/.); Lord CHve's
fund, (83,000/.) ; political annuitants and pensioners, (58,000/.),
&c. &c.

A brief view of the Indian debt will next be requisite. In
the early period of British connexion with India, the territorial
revenues of the country probably aided commerce, in the
latter period commerce undoubtedly aided territory, and for
15 years the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay have had'
an annual deficit of the sum requisite to meet political charges.
The Indian Government was therefore obliged to have re-
course to borrow a suflSciency to meet the deficit which the
commercial profits of the tea trade foiled to supply; and
the territorial debt of India was, at four drflerent periods,
thus —

* The annual drain on India in remittances to £nj(land on aocoont of
Government, b thought by Mr. Mills, of the Auditor^geneial's de|iartiiieat,
to averan^ j£3,000,000 a year for the last 30 years, I have elsewhere akcuai
what this sum amounts to in compound interest for that period.

INDIAN DEBT^ HELD^QT EUftOPEAUB AND NATIVES. 361

1791

18U
189Q
18SS

Debt at Interect.*

rf7,«».934
i7fM9»a3i

25,970,7««
89,877.8M
35,500,000

FlootiDg Ditto.t

£8,0IS,786
3,718,810
8,048f844
7,874.404
9,300,000

Total.

A>.14a,780
301818,441
8O,919.0SO
47,aW.374
44,800,000

Of this Indian debt that of Bengal is the principal^ the
fixed or registered debt of which^ with the relative proportion
held by Europeans and natives was, in 1830 and in 1833 —

Date of Loan.

8i9C|Nr««nt.lf»a I88i
MveDo. sut Mar. 1888
FiraDttloof Laa5t«64.
Five Ditto of 1889-80. .
Ttmr OHto of 1984-86 .
FOcor Oittd of 1888-99 .
Four Do. I8tlf»y, 1839

Total* .....

Sicca Rapees.
Held by Euopoaas.

1830.

7^.48,800

7,09.87.800

5,89,74»80e

19,51,700

8,13,000

6,08,600

1833.

7«04iH.800

4,78,54,100

6^80^79.800

71.96,000

3,99,100

9,87.400

i,59»6W00

Sicca Rapees.
ByKativM.

1830.

1633.

48»68,700

9,06,39,700

4,08,79^500

7,01,300

5,86.900

5 84,100

19,74,34,400 90,47,96.600

49,44,9i0

1.4^7,900

3,5iK6ft>M6
97.79.000

8,99>500
9,44,900

i^,48»aoo

6»77.59,50O 6^73,79,400

Total.

1830.

7,47.19,900
9>16,97.500
9^1.54.300

96,53.000
8,90,900

19,47,700

1833.

7.47.38,700
6,30,69,000
8,86,35,H0
1,69.69.000
19,91,080
5,31,600
M0.1«,00O

90,59,98,900 97,91,66,000

Of the first or six per cent* remittable loani the principal,
when repaid^ is demandable in bills on England at the rate of
2s. 6J. the Sicca rupee, the interest being intermediately pay-
able half yearly, either in cash in India, or if the proprietors
reside in Europe, and demand it in that form by bills at the
rate of &• Id. The other loans, both principal and interest,
are demandable only in India ; but to the holders of the
second (five per cent, of 1823) an option was given of receiv-
ing their interest, (which is payable half yearly), in bills at
the rate otZs. Id., (subsequently reduced to 1^. lid.) during
the pleasure of the home authorities :% the third and fourth
loans have the interest thereon paid quarterly to all holders
wheresoever resident, either in cash or in bills, at the rate of

* Pducip^lly compoied of the loaos and treasury notes.

t N6i bearing interest, and consisting for the jp*eater part of arrears of
salarifs and allowances due to civil officers ; of pay due to the military,
(who in Bengal are kept two months in arrear always), and of deposits.

t Of the whole interest of the Indian debt, 927,000/. is subject to the
opIloB of having the interest payable in England, and in 1830 the sum of
450,000/. was actually demanded in England : the average rate of interest
was six per cent, in 1814^ and five per cent, in 1828.

3S&

IliJDiAN IXBfiT.

28*y during the pleasiure of the home authorities. The five
per cent, loan of 1823 is repayable only by annual instalments
of one and a half crore of rupees ; the notes first entered m
the register having the advantage of being least liable to dis-
charge. The whole debt is now fully recognised by the Le-
gislature, and the remittable loan paper bears a premium in
the Indian market of from 30 to 40 per cent., and consists
solely of the debt of 1822, viz. 7,47,38,700 rupees.

The following is a detailed comparative statement of the
Indian debt in 1809 and in 1827:—

Debt in S. Rupees on the d(Hh of April, 1809.

10 p. Cent.

9 p. Cent.

8 percent.

6 p. Cent.

Total of

Debt at

Interest.

Debt not
at Interest

Total Of
Debt.

Bengal

Madras

Bombay

86,64,500

99.88,386

7,»7,03fl

4
• •

23,25,169

]6,91»69,028

5,14,80,766

2,97,76.696

24,94,065

60,46,884

1,66,341

18,01,67,598
5,95,15,886
3,30,64,242

2.80,84^123 20.3S,«1,71<
61.47,194 0,46,6B.N9
36,27,834 S,66,9S,«76

Deduct Sinlu't
ioff Fund. J

1,28,09,821

• •

28.25,169

25,04,15,490
2,96,17,600

76,37,940

« •

97,97,4r,7«0
9,94,17,600

8,18,i9^MI

••

90,45,56,811
2,64,17,4«

1,23,69,821

28,25,169

22,09,97,900

76,37.240

24,33,30,290

8,18,09,081 97,51,SW*1

Interest 1 12,30,989

2,09,265

1.76,79,839

4,58,234

Total..

1,96,84,390

Debt, S. Rupees, 30th April, 1827.

Bengal

Madras

Bombay

Interest I

10 p. Cent

8 p. Cent.

90,607

• •

1.61.724
18,69,278

20,607

90,21,002

2,060

1,61,680

6 per Cent.

9,84,92,482

2,58,23,810

23,76,028

12,16,92,320

73,01,538

6 per Cent.

16,89,64,720
11.12,932

17,09,77,652

85,09,882

4 p. Cent.

23.57,400

1.07,898

11,60,450

87.1»,748

1,48,630

9nnfl8i

Hceper
Diem.

Total

10,700

9^,48,45,919
2,7M«.3«1

10,700; 29,7<,».W
mo!' 1.61,W,«0

Debt at Interest
SOtb AprU, 1827.

Bengal..
Madras..
Bombay.

26,48,45,909

2,72^86,364

54,05,766

29,76,38,089

Debt not bearing

Interest 90tli

April.

8,68,66,994
88,86,464
48,73,298

10,01,96,756

Tbtal

Bearing and not

Bearing.

35,17,12^3
8,66,72,838
1,02.79.654

89,76,64,785

INDIAN DEBT.

363

Public Debt, beariDg Interest outstanding^ at tbe several Presidencies on

the 30th April, 1832.

Registered Debt

Debts.

Rafteoflnterset

Annual anunuit
of Interest.

•

"Loaiif, Sicca Rupees
Do. do.
Do. do. ..

F^i Marhorgh^ do. . . /
Treasury Notes do. ..
CivU ft Military Funds do.
.Miscellaneous Deposits do.

86359099

9OS481099
13584179

6 per cent.

5 ditto.

4 ditto.

10 ditto.

Various.

6 and 8 p. cent.

6 ditto.

5per oenta
6 and 4 ditto.
8, 6, and 4, ditto.
8, 6, and 5, do.

8 and 6 per cent.
6and4dltto.

518154(1

10194085

543867

3094S4970

16848996

18605

4988600

9155809

194396

1860

943790

610618

11664

Totalis. R. ..

316793973

, I671666O

4 fOu'iiatlc Fnnd, Rape«B
E , Loans, ftc. do.
J Civil ft MOitarr Fands do.
m .MtsoellanoooB Deposits do.

98990057

187S801
6660880

866259

1199508

69091

489165

95086

Total, Rapess ..
In Sicca Rupees ..

89990507
90819725

1789845
1674088

% . civil* MUltanr Funds Rs.
g Mtscfillanaons Ppposltsdo.

5034638
1685068

847160
71609

Rupees •.

6669711

69ft649

418971
898400

Grand Total ..

858804647

18784988

InSterilBf ..

£85880466

£1878498

The debts of India in 18S3 were as follow : — Debts bearing
tniereft—BeageX, about 32,000,000/.; Madras, 3,000,000/.;
Bombay, 630,000 ; not bearing interest — ^Bengal, 8,000,000/. \
Madras, 700,000/. ; Bombay, 300,000/. The five per cent,
loan 18 the principal debt, it amounts, in Bengal to 18,000,000/. ;
and in- Madras, to 2,500,000/. ; in Bombay, n<me. The Trea-
sury notes issued by fiie Bengal Gk>Temment amount to
700,000/L

The home bond debt of the E. I. Company, amounting to
3,400,000/. is composed of securities issued by the Company
under their conunon seal. Parliament having authorised their
borrowing money to a certain extent, and limiting its subse-
quent reduction to 3,000,000/. ; the rate of interest paid in
1831 on this debt was two and a half per cent.

364

M
4)

C3
4;

•a

S3
4)

•

* ■* • * «* » " • *• _j» • * • ^p —i* _* «? «j ^f "

sil5l535|M|5|i|53n|

«4gllllll§lllllllljjlll

« lo io lo lo i4 « 40 «e to «» « « i* •) M efoQ of «>

•f M M M m M MMMM v^^i* M«« Mm MM

Mil

40 4ft CO OB QD W w QD 4B w W QD dD B Qi QB 4D OD 9 QB 40

HOME CHARGES AND ANNUAL DEFICIT SINCE 1814.

365

It only remains to be added, that by the new £. I. Charter
the Company's trade is placed in abeyance, and their whole
assets, amounting to upwards of S1>000,000/. sterling, appro-
priated to the India territory, excepting 2,000,000/. to be in-
vested as a sinking fund for the redemption of the capital
Btdck of the £« I* C. proprietors (6,000,000/.) on the termina-
tion of 40 years, at the rate of 5L 5s. for every 100/. stock ;
the remainder of the assets, as soon as realised, is to be ap-
propriated, after payment of pensions and other charges
arising out of the new arrangement, towards the liquidation
of. the six per cent, remittable loan, which amounts to about
9^000,000^ sterling. Whether the revenues of India wiU be
sufficient to meet its home and foreign charges without the aid
heretofore derived from commerce, remains to be seen.*

^ The annual deficit from 1814-15 is thus shewn :—

lodia.

Home
Charges.

Sarplns.

Deficit.

A^%»BBVI««

SUTpllM.

Deflcit.

if.

£.

1814-19

l,S48,Sr3

• •

1,301309

49.999

1819-10

876,803

• •

1,409,479

1,199.179

18I8-ir

055,491

• «

1,300.390

^v'lfWo

1817-18

497,480

■ •

1,347,059

899.563

1818-19

••

49,706

1,440,001

1,488,707

1810-90

• «

80,833

1,944,897

1,099,090

I8S0-91

1,048,706

• •

1»4I4,910

984,588

• •

18tl-Sft

9,097,091

• •

1,507,778

949,978

• •

18S0-SS

8,067,000

• •

1,098,193

1,499,807

• •

1820-M

420,387

• •

1,987,500

• .

861,173

I8M-46

• «

1,445.487

1,051,077

■ •

3,000,504

1829-48

• m

3,039,095

1317,939

4390357

I818-<r

71,80^

• •

9,499,804

• •

9.398,901

18S7-98

» •

1,190,979

2,609,141

• •

3,980.716

I8S8-9B

1,099,180

• •

1,907,405

• *

045,979

l8»-90

1,136,938

■ •

7,748,740

. .

610309

1830-31

1,790,033

• •

1,473369

896,066

• •

1831-^

1,368,998

1,570307

• •

907.961

1898-38

1,098,797

•

1»393,069

••

964,339

1833-34

The additional charges on the reyenne of India by the nevir E. I. Charter
3 and 4 William IV. c. 85.) are thus stated in a PlEurliamentary return.
No. 72, ordered to be printed 23d Marcb, 1835.

Salaries of the GovemoiwQeiieral and CoimeU, formerly S. rupees
^7.000, now (by the late Act) S. R. 624,000 ; increase R. 87,000 ; new
Government at Agra» the chief there of S. R. 120,000 ; other expenses,
900,000 ; total, R. 420,000. Increase of salaries of the other Governors
and members of Council, on a scale which will cause a net increase, of R.
12,000. Total of Goyermnent increase, S. R. 519,000. Increased expense
of Ecclesiastical establishment, R. 10,000 1 ditto on account of law commis-
siooers, established at R. 800,000] jp'and total of estimated new and lor
creased charges, S. R. 829,000.

S66

Gommerce of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, with Great Britain, North
and South America, France, Lisbon, &c. [Honse of Commons, June

1833.]

IMPORTS DftO

EXPORTS FROM

BENGAL.

By-
E. I. Oompany

BENGAL.

KoMlMUiaiM

BalUoa.

Toul.

Merekaadloc

Bolltw.

T«U1.

Great Britain.

B. Rnpees.
1,07,84,811

S.Rs.
7,608

S.Rs.
1.07,08,413

Rupees,
1,83,88,054

Rupees.
None

Rupees.
1,98,98,054

11,78,445

8,47,840

80,96,804

British Merdi.

1,10,16,838

80,91,184

1,49,38,0]6

Sooth Ditto. . •

4,06,081

None

'4,05,981

Vim AlIICIlC&* • •

89,80,844

None

99,80,844

litboii

87,1*

Ditto

37,108

South Ditto...

■ • « •

....

♦ • • •■

RUU»

9,7O0»

8,0M

8,734130

nance

87,«*.070

8,000

9747.096

Svttlen

M.878

None

85,»7«

Sweden r«....

1,06,887

None

1.00,837

Hamburg ....

80,304

Ditto

86,804

Total....

9,83,50,316

8,55,451 ja,39,17,767

Total....

9.0300,543

80,84,164

8,9490,787

MADRAS.

B. I. Company

MADRAS.

Gnat Britain.

H. Rs.

91,78,744

M. Rs.

None

M. Ra.
81,78.744

M.BS.
9,43,513

M.RS.

None

' M.Ba.

9,43,513

America. .....

15,675

Ditto.

15,675

British Merdi.

16,87,930

6,0K,064

99,33,184

France

1,73,808

5,800

1,70.308

America,

43,813

None

43,818

France

Total. . . .

9,39,783

Ditto

9,39,783

Total....

83,67,081

5,800

88,73,781

91,57,338

5,06,054

97.53,938

BOMBAY.

Great Britain.

America.

Brazils

France

Sweden

•

TotaL...

BOMBAY.

Great Britain .

America

Brazils

France

Holland

Sweden

B.Rs.

01,19,011

1,00,851

1,33,406

1,84,708

10,064

07,505

B.Rs.
4,050

None

09,800

None

Ditto

B.Rs.

0l.l6,06l

1,00.851

9,86,806

1,84,703

15,084

97,506

B. Rs.
53,85,476

90,646
50,051
31,418
88,647

B.Ra.
14,54,080

None

Ditto

B.Rs.

66,40,000

90.648
59,051
31,418
08,647

Total....

06,56,060 06,860

07,88,500

66»80.140

14,M.0M

7M8,70t

ALL INDIA.

Xastem Isles..
Arabia, ftc. . .

China

ALL INDIA.

Eaatum Isles..
AraUa,llce.,..

S.Rs.
38,89,946

86,49,910

S.Rs.
81,60.067

98,30.806

S.Rs.
7^09^808

50.89,115

S.B8.
61,84,917

79,65,673

S.R8.
5,38,989

88,900

S.lUk
7SJMB3

China

Sp. Dol.
5,300,000

Sp. Dol.
4,684,370

Sp. Dol.
0.084,470

Sp. Dol.
17,400,000

Sp. Dol.
55,000

Sp-Dd.
17,455,000

367

CHAPTER VL

CQ]IMEBCB> MARITIMB AND INTBBNAL OF BBNOAL^ MADlUS, AND BOM«
BAT ; TBADB WITH ORBAT BRITAIN^ CONTINBNTAL BUBOPB, AND
AMBBICA, CHINA, EASTERN ISLANDS, &C. ; STAPLES OF INDIA, AND
8VGOB8TION8 FOR THBIB IMPROYEMBNT AND DEYBLOPEMENT.

The commerce between Europe and India has ever been
considered one of the most important subjects which eould
engage the attention of a mercantile statesman ; and the fer-
tile regions of the eastern hemisphere are now anxiously
looked forward to as a rich field for the enjoyment of British
capital, industry and skill ; the result depends on the justice
of England towards Hindostan. No two countries could be
better adapted by Providence for the blessings of commerce
than the parent (or governing) and dependent state ; the one
a small and insulated kingdom in the western ocean, teeming
with a hardy, industrious and ingenious population, two-
thirds of whom are engaged in manipulating and vending the
produce of more genial climes ; and firom their numbers, com-
pared with the area of habitation, pressing close on national
subsistence, while peace and foreign competition are daily
excluding them firom the monopolized commerce heretofore
possessed ; — the other an almost ilUmitable territory in the
eastern world, connected, though separated by the navigable
ocean, rich to overflowing with every bounty with which na-
ture has enriched the earth, and peculiarly so in those agri-
cultural products necessary to the manufactures, comforts
and luxuries of the more civilized nation. Heretofore the
incalculable blessings to be derived from two countries thus
favourably situate, have been wantonly or wickedly or inad-
vertently neglected; let me hope that a better era is now
dawning for England as well as for India, — that the former has
now begun to perceive the suicidal folly of beggaring the
latter,-^the temporary advantages of which are as nought

368 HINDOOS* PETITION FOR REAL FREE TRADE.

compared with the permanent injury received as well as ior
flicted ;^ and that the merciful dispensations of an all and
ever-wise Being who has made the interchange of superfluous
or indigenous commodities one of the most powerful instru-
ments for exciting and sharpening the inventive industry of
man, and uniting the whole human race in bonds of fraternal
connection and christian charity, will no longer be spumed
with an apathy or impiety which sooner or later will receive
its merited punishment

I proceed to shew, firsts the value of the trade of British
India generally. Secondly ^ the shipping employed in that
trade at each Presidency. Thirdly ^ the importations into
Great Britain of Eastern produce ; and fourthly^ the staple
products received at each Presidency from the interior,-^
these preliminaries will enable the European or the non-com-
mercial reader to appreciate the value and magnitude of our
Eastern commerce.

* That the feelings against BritiBh injustice is becoming daily more pre-
valeut among the Hindoos, is evident from the following petition : —

To M« Right Honourable the LonU of Hie Mtfieetfe PH99 (kmrneU for Trade, ^. ^.-o
^e humble PeHtUm of the undenigned Mamnfaetmrere and Deatere in Option mnd
Silk-jrieee Ooode, the Fabric 0/ Bengal,

Shewcth,— Tliat, of late Twra, yoor petltionen Im^tv fonad fhelr basioMi neariy super-
teded hf tbm introdaetion of tha Ikbiies of GieMk Britain Into Bengal. Tlie ImpostatloD of
wtaieb augmeots every year, to the freat pnJvuUee of the natlre nuuraCMtaran.
. niat the fabrics of Great Britain are consuned in Bengal without any dntiea being levied
thereon to protect the natire fabrics.

That the fshrics of Bengal are charged with the following duties, when they are need in
Great Britain, vis. on mannlhctnred cottons, ten per cent. ; on manniiMtaied silks, twenty
per eent.

Yoor petltionen most hombly implofe yoor lordships* consideration of theee rlrrnmiitiiMiiie.
and they fed conHdent that no disposition exists in England to shut the door against the in-
dostry of any part of the inhabitants of this great empire.

They, thereibre, pray to be admitted to the primUgee of BriUah em^eete, and hombly en-
treat yoor Lordships to allow the cotton and silk fabrics of Bengal to be need in Great
Britain 'free of duty,* or at the same rate which may be charged on British lUwIcs eoa^
snmed in Bengal.

Yoar lordships most be aware of the immense advantages the British mannlactarenilsrtvn
from their skill in constructing and using machinery, which enables them to nndeneU the
unsdentiflc manufhcturen of Bengal in their own country ) and, although yoor petltionen
are not sanguine in expecting to derive any great advantage from having their prayer
granted, their minds would feel gratifled by such a manifestation of your lonMi^* good
wili towards them } and such an instance of Justioe to the natives of India* would not Ihfl
to endear the British Government to them.

They, tfaoreftsre, trust that your lordships* righteous oonsideration will be ctlended to
them as British sul^ects, without exception of iiect, country, or colour.

VALUE OF IMPOSTS INTO IHDIA.

Foreign Europe, and North and South America.

(Ibdiu U Bot itatad In tli* McM n

FKOlf OKEAT BUTAIK.

n TBI luT-inu cDwAn

»» tniTIBUAU.

IsS-

T—n,

TnUDRL

Total.

Mnd

Ropxa.

■omn.

Rbp«.

Rni

BnpsH.

mtsa*

K.S*Mt

stI

AS.31JM

Mjg.lH

l9,7l>.llt

lax-V

liis-ii

•1^,334

Sl.t4.B31

7B,

M>,»7,»»

I«.»,4M

U,M.4BI

Ji.ga.n4

»,13,131

jM7r.su

IBIH7

n^',»**

7t»,tM

,n.P7.«ii

»*ju,»17

«,I1,IM

4t.ai,947

>.««.

.1B.»*J1«

■8lt-ig

*1,47.7S1

1.11,

,I»,»JU

!sk;

w^7^i?

«1.<7^I

l,lt,M.<«l

:S-.S^

ini-a

•g^lsBs

«',B3>W

i,M

.M,5e.«i»

>»,i»,m

>»,

.«7.M,IM

im-M

JS,IH),8U

m;^:^^

.MM.m

13.*I.11S

u.in,in

».w

fiJM,«»

ims-it

*.BL^

l.Bl,Wl

.P1.V3.MC

UM^

s.is,Dai

1,^M«

7,3a,7M

ipBA

,M,l>l.S7l

tar-M

3.I8.3I1

i!«<^

V38,«lf

1,11,818

va.*i«

Uis,»a

Ji,(li.7«

.io.n.N7

Ii3*-31

S.M

,»>.*; .tn

"an

'iH

3,41.

.m-iMi*

ltt>-M

1 1

nOM POUiaK BUKOPB.

PVOHN

AMD B. AMRRICA,

—

TOTAL JMK)Bm

""""-""•■

Taum.

■

XOPBO.

Rapes.

RapKI. BapHt.

Ropeei,

KnpCM. 1 Rnpcc*.

RupM.,

Bdp«i.

a,4«.ti3

1«,M.7«<

14> 7.077 I,11,13,3H

48.M,B33

I.H.81.M7

17.il',««

it^MiV ej7,«i

;s.a:

11.17,171 l.lfl.ll.Tflfl'

1),»1.11J

i,7».lfl.i»*

I«l*-I4

*.<l.Ut

*.ai6

l,13|Kk M,UI

1 &fl IBB 1 ISill 10!

l,ii.«a.iM

Ml^ll

7,iB,Si>i

11.5S,eM S.II.IMl

)l^,*71

i7.»>.«iai.i7.i3ja<

«^«i[w

1,01.31,310

iiit-ia

»lli|i70

«i.M.«i3 a,ti.«H

7i;«,M*

77.»M7fl l,«,».,7»l

i.».w,o*

l,B8,4fl.Kl

iM«-i;

a.a9,ii8

81.U.bS M,M.p73

iMj»,m

l,lO.I«,»*l>,I.M,18,tll

<,fl].B8.(B7

■ ■.I74U

st^siwa

t^M.4a3. iV.ii7,t77

i.Da.iSmo

::S!!:!Siffi!Si

i.ii|«t,ii>i

I,01.1B.1BI

1118^11

■iSS

17,M,U7

flB.7S.l78 11.0B.MI

i,«i:ii.i«

».70,SD.iflB

(I.iljr«.il7

M^I.UB

SEgS'lS'"'US

71J4.771

81.M.IS1

ij4.«7.e»

1.08,17.871

1. 41.71 Ji*

<.!>.**■

MUMOO

ll,7»,Ml

«1.S3,18I

i,»o,fl7.ii«

i.ii,b;.mi

S,iajii.a7i

ini-M

»,»•.<»«

»7.3».BB1

tS.ai.lll U.HJ03

7i.i».m

fS.73.Ml

S,flB.3«,131

1,3I.31,««

4,»II.70.1U

is.g».»u

t%».l»97 B,4t,llS

<h,0«.S73

7i,n).sia

3,M.B1.)I13

1.MM81B

,,01,11.811

M«,iij

».B»,m IM1.KM

«i.«/IM

01,30.103

1.7J,«7.flM

M.78,160

3,3».0fl.W

IMfciW

«.li«77

»II.M,«U H,H,»fl

10,3i,l)W

01.11 .B«S

l,87.,-ll.«i|

11,11.17

3,13,81.800

im-M

itjum

>,•»,!"

17.77. UI 8J7.flsl

17,70,817

lfl.lB.llO

1.13,17.111

11,81.031

1.«9.1B,11B

ini-tT'

l7,7*,aM

a.w,i7>

11,1 S.Ua 1,33.111

S1,B1.7B>

»,M,B71

»,17,17.»81

107-*^

U.KkMt

31.ftl.flU •.73.M1

li.77,7«i

a7.ii.o0t

I.mIm.m;

3.7D.U,13«

it*>l3

M.(ii.7ai

«»J91I1

37>.i7B 7M.MS

I7*s,«»

11,11.3s;

),7»je.*i7

M.sa,jOj

3.BB.14.MB

ine-M

i<k7a.4W

u,UK

M, 11 ,1731 ii.nut

ll.l*.91g

i.n.te,«et

l.»3,W»

l«M-al

I4.l«jta

a,«<M

l<,7}.;i3l IMLSM

B,M,fl4S

17!Bl,'D<li

3.03, 31.07*

tAoM

3.7I.9a.lB*

»«»-•

■Jl

4,0*1

w.pt.ut

B.I&177

l«.UJ»l

»,»».77,»«

B, 10.111

S.iB,84,»li

370

VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM INDIA.

Value of Exports from Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, to Great Britain,
Forei^ Europe, and North and South America.

(Madras is not stated in the official raturns for 1811K90.)

TO GREAT BRITAIN.

■

Br raa bast intdi a roMPANr.

Merchandixe.

1811.13
1813-13
1813-U
1814.15
181S-10
1810.17
1817-18
1818.19
1819-20
1830 81
1831.23
1883-33
1833-34
1834-35
1835.20
1820.87
1837-38
1838-39
1839-30
1830.31
1831-33
1833.33;

1833-34

Rupees.
1>09»70.583
1,08,73,914
1,37.05,140
91,20,749
94.33,455
91.79,850
1,39,00,103
1,00,48,103
1,33,55,401
1,30,87,678
1,09,23,090
1,38,08,743
1,03,03,378
1,39.43.574
1,30,98,993
1,55,88,300
1,75,37,150
1,41,30.105
1,73,87.013
1,33,72,407
1,00,73,704

Tteasnre.

Rapees.

1,10,00,000

30,34,000

1,03,04,103

34,58,720

T9taL

91.99,815

Rnpees.
1,09.70.583
1,08.72,914
1»87,05,140

91.20,749
94»33,455
91,79,850
1,29,00,102
1,00,48,103
1,32,55,401
1,30,87,078
2,19,23,090
1,59,03,403
2,04,00,480
1,39,42,674
1,30.98,993
1,55,88.300
2,09.95.870
1,41,30.105
1,73,87,013

1,92,V3,679

BTIVDiriDVALS.

Merchandize.

Rnpees.
1,01,54,084

83,94.132
1,37,09,833
1,04,08,304
3,08,00,099
1,09,85,509
3.39,53,470
1,38,39.080
1,90,50,440
1,35,50,027
1,34,97,207
1,94.40,737
2,04,79.980
8,21.58,013
8.00.39.503
1,59,10.819
2,08,80,234
8,30.94,580
1,49,13,533
1,89,39,538
1,90,58,177

lYeasare.

Rapees.

9,01,083

4,53,070

18,54,308

33,054

8,813

3,500

4,100

3,93,333

72,796

17,98,022

10,04,045

80,201

11,13,177
49,48,060
33,06,238
28,48,498
50,71,758

69,76,877

Total.

Rupees.
1.11,15,766
87,47.792

1,55.04,134

1.04,30,418

j3,08,75,SlS

! 1,09.86,609

3.39.53,470
3.38,39,680
1.90.53,940
1,35.54,733
1,37,90.429
1,96,19,533
2,33.78,002
8,31,03,068

i3,07,12.3»«
1J0,S8.996
3,58,38,374
3,54,09,818
1,77.6s,
2,40,11,
3,60,35,054

TotaL

Merchan-

dtaeand

Tteasore

to Great

Britain.

8.30.93,349
3,66.80,706

2.93,39.874

2,&s,67,l67
3,03.97,967
S/Sl,«5,869
3,68,69.672
3,38^.723
3,19.08,4M1
3,66,43.411
3,67,13,619
3,64,33.926
4>t,84,482
3.71,04,032
4,04.18,817
3,30b 12,302
4,08»t4,144
8,95.85.90

.4fctt7
.68,16.961

4,68.48,617

034 3,61
2963

TO FORBIGN BUROFS.

BT INDI7XDUALS.

•g

1811-13
1813-13
1813-14
1814-16
1815-16

I8I6-I7
1817-18
1818.19
1819-80
1830-31
1831-33
1833 33
1833-34
1834-85
1835-26
1836-37
1837-38
1838-39
1839-30
1830-31
1881-33
1833.33
1833-34

Rupees.

42,07,818
10,34,342
18,08,847
33,55,376
67,68,608
47,09,633
58,63,351
35,72,298
38,50,834
18,20,628
49,27,096
3,45,772
19.51.930
23,93,635
21.80,321
32,90.003
28,01,825
25,39,437
33,17,301
19,14,478

Rupees.

0,030

77,700

■ •

33,800

19.000
8,800
3,035

01,310

• •

3,000

Total.

Rupees.

43,07,818
10,34,343
18,03.847
33,65,375
67,68,608
47.09.633
53,68,881
85,73,398
39,34,534
18,30,038
48,60,496
3,46,772
19,70,930
24,03,435
31,88,946
83,57,873
38,81,835
35,89,437
33,30,861
19,14,478

TO N. AMD 8. AMERICA.

BT INDIVIDUALS.

•

■

Rupees.

66,00,074

« •

17,83,507

• •

3,31,171

• •

17,99.104

• •

70,09,303

0,300

93,59.573

29,108

93,93,837

■ •

1,07,08,407

• •

09,30,878

• •

49,44,315

• •

58,35,131

49,600

41.00,505

• •

30,01,415

• •

34,50,585

• •

30,79,940

4,000

11.30,909

• •

84,03,843

• •

23,53,717

• •

20,35.318

11,350

23.18,755

• •

30,03,380

• •

Total.

Rnpees.
60.00,074

17,83,607
3,81,1^1
17,99,104
70,75,063
92,88,741
93,93,827
1,07.08,407
69,80,872
49,44,316
58,74,631
41,60,605
30.61,415
34,60,686
30,83,940
11.30,909
84.63,843

23,53,717
30,30,508
83,18,755
36,03,336

TOTAL EXPORTB.

I
I

Rupees.
3,77.36,741
3,11,67,861
3,88,40,486
8,91,87,0«4
4,07,13,891
4,33,98,440
4,99,68,038
4«98,48,381
4,34,09,011
3,64,39,364
3,30,66,060

4,13,03,671
3,40,89,646
4,15,08,103
4,58,13,131
3,48,16,886
4,41,77,879
4,14.36,887
8.68.66.900
3.71,63,131
3,46,39,756

Rupees-.

Q,6l,il88|Ml^4fl

4,68,070 s,if,ii,esi

18,64,88f S,f6h94J87

33,064 S,91,39^ll«

16,118 i.f7.S».0M

39.168 «,aSJS,flf

»,M.ai,01S

6,880 «.9M6,011

3,600 4.14,11,611

81,806 S,*6,S1,160

1,13.43.782 4,94,08,^3

31,80,366 4,44,aBJi;

1,20,03.134 ijmSl^

10,33,0« MaAl47

9S.0«1 lMbi>,199

ll,16.8it|4Mik057

84,07.980MMi*»9
33.06.S98k«>«.32S

a8,59b74» l,i7.l^6«s

60.74,736 4,ff^l7.in

1,61,16,698

5,irjs.4«r

SHIPPING OF EACH PRESIDENCY.

371

The shipping of each Presidency was as follows : —

Total Number of Ships and Tonnage enterin.^ the Port of Calcutta, from

1795-96.

Years.

Ships.

Tons.

Yean.

Ships.

Tons.

Years.

Ships.

Tone.

i7Wi

170

57096

1809

168

63151

1823

228

87524

1796

172

63924

1810

200

69179

1824

274

1U641

1797

139

52464

1611

225

87124 1

1825

244

97281

1798

121

43349

1812

226

84228

1826

245

97067

1799

145

47403

1813

222

77192

1827

804

111233

IMO

170

54759

1814

200

68928

1828

278

110214

IMl

isa

52944

ISlff

291

94966

1829

236

89655

IMS

SI5

81293

1816

360

142006

1830

292

102580

I8«8

t>77

65027

1817

428

161846

1831

1M4

185

69557

1818

89^

157441

1832

IMS

210

82814

1819

273

103553

1 1833

IM6

245

92652

1820

261

104932

i 1834

isar

194

72544

1821

261

102864

IMS

161

50545

1822

286

116641

Shipping Inwards at Port St. George, or Madras, and its Subordinate

Ports.

Years.

Ships.

1802*

IMS*

108

1M4«

IM5«

258

1M6*

251

1807

2045

IMS

2478

1M9

2453

1810

2251

1811

1060

1812

936

Tons.

38842
44622

39367

54442

52645

110009

119378

123224

109588

85469

76497

Years.

Ships.

Tons.

Years.

Ships.

Tons.

1813

1063

82682

1824

1490

101365

1814

1082

74354

1825

1730

106905

1815

1021

92934

1826

1874

118344

1816

939

84025

1827

1918

109539

1817

1160

90789

1828

2255

113790

1818

1066

88143

1829

2239

110578

1819

1060

75542

1830

1820

1092

77866

1831

1821

1148

87074

1832

1829

1173

97329

1833

1823

1885

96781

1834

Shipping Inwards at Bombay, Surat, &c.

Yean.

Ships.

Tons.

Yean.

Ships.

Tons.

Yean.

Ships.

Tons.

1809

33155

1813

25245

1894

116

47021

180S

29136

1814

32584

1825

107

45605

1804

, 74

29694

1815

33380

j 1826

117

44729

1805

^ 84

36822

1816

106

43800

! 1827

152

61241

1806

No Returns. |

1817

139

59804

) 1828

173

71344

1807

37069

1818

158

65409

• 1829

152

63548

1808

26931

1819

145

61240

1830

1809

34300

1820

111

46700

1831

1810

30847

1821

123

54292

1832

1811

29251

1822

120

48118

1833

1819

30481

1823

116

48180

1834

The staple exports of India may be in some degree esti-
mated by the following : —

» From 1802 to 1806 the returns exhibit Fort St. George only.

57^

8TAI»LE EXPORTS OF INDtA.

Imports into Great BriUin from all Places Eastward of the Cape of Good

Hope (except China)i

1814

ISMl

1810

1817

1818

1819,

1820!

1821

1823,

1823'

1831

1825

1826!

1827

1828

1829

1830

1831

1832

183S;

1884

lbs. I
27900
71854.
70748

70991;
100510,

72772
90995|

S9095;

31574

8937',
23370
13055

7460
23803
53852

49779
50005
20905
31084
23455
32429

)b9.

97020

40809

13474

14139

20027

70532

71517
80021
09929
78153
111045

100779
99011
55380
50075
25497

lbs.
90070

52517

139281

64470'

91504

145197

151100

08535

101234

114030

40005

20890

5443

19677,

02407

19297

lbs. I lbs.

O05OI 248754
249999 279800
442841 231296
120732 178050
270945 218350
709132' 990921
96698 1 136879
25081411074651

99667! 4406
333100; 128541
557184471435

8722 27428

892 89679

13791 92493

185959

478I9 131679

37540
292482

51197

52837
153271
179642
188241
150295

96459
292022

105228

29006

139116

379428

438479
279682

106979

209794

959654

28601

No.
1216229
4065888

4772773
2866562

1601727
1629240
1212758
950688
494950
2204109
1029920
998112
1475174
9158641
6891321
7289611
2414562
99M428
3922355

1457877
2358466

lbs. ! Ibt.
91977*

8O711 1046

60427 24405

9999 2986

28577

47464

6079

61715 19878
5196')< 90651
48501' 92114
88518' 87791

2924' 106498

11572 97498

11235' 63355

953 91106

9073' 22028
81948; 85944
41096 86758
72800 171720
67981! 75179
100S77, 42550'
64849] IO99O

lbs.
179988
212181
899924
443891
1824TI
914762
171504
908952
272868
274574
639184
481062
628090
415709
549692
814259
831296
992789
996368
I2977OS
1999778

98I5:)0i781546
416656 378114
991849 280620

66268O
993244
999494
4 « 7902
121627
899379
981029
5889731

10944

2790

0246

1I09«

99192

192044

982194k

, 29276

155930 300098

1267443 22036a

837482467596

543993 900(ll

449656' 9198

222991 124607

25798 224644

101222.100979

216679 19508S

lbs.

7I94444S

t6SoMI74
if»7 17420

19SS7V9S
2(Mi485

410T727
649J721
IpCNMl
447t$78S
4114289
S76O912
4095048
6S19B04
9872207
7364376
0939297
7025799
7«96«6
1044»7897
6195118
09O7S29

1814
1819
1810
1817
1618
1610
1880
1821
1622
1823
1624
1829
1826
1827

Cotton
nece GkMMls.

0)
u a

18901

1831

18321

1839
1894

pieces
967652
994654
978254
767499
858884

a A

s'i

pieces
296956

219077
157022
166982
244254

6290221269749

411779
275952
100998
266778
274152
351817
358820
276608

1828 203848

1829 290675

171223
17967
79090

pieces
90004
25024
90978

252998
259149
127284
181665
154728
147580
286498
190591
2I8656
178988
252569
166888
827926

50219 194996
76129129992

457I8
68952

poands
2850918
7175249
6972790

90 91007570

14025 67456411

21821 58856261

130289 23195825

252794 8897107

56479 4554925

103953 14899117

624442 16490005

957622 90994962

385042 21187900

8I965 21364804

274156 92399982

776669 24924410

579581 12512889

854671 25819579

I968O7 95219504

92799072
82924791

Dye and
Hard Woods.

tons.

294
996

188

447

994

115

• *

109
140
298
961
419
1901
111
70

a
a

tons.
910

1116
704
639

717

799

966

999

150
14
65

149

559
1095

cwts.

998

182

205

166

550

660

984

815

9145

9579

1623

126«

910

1291

1602

9179

1010

cwt.

724

20
411

7
120

•79

1496

9908
88U
9776
9190
1994

795
1561
1091

867

1098 45
94611 499

9616
8455

15465

97849

90UI

91089

19970

8199

9597

1807

718

4784

1173

6741

4917

1969

850

9509

Qnm.

lbs.

48725

86017

85174

09991

89908

98667

896745

208919

05196

196164

981630

280267

86695

199846

161226

294908

55651

190274

155990

10040)911016
918681

cwts.

1078

1908

475

583

1099
8480
9679
4094
9489
9906
6995
6409
19057
5157
1994
9746
1969
9480
9609

4471
7948

996711
48ftW0

701 Hi

U4Mm
450t7tilO7«9ll

778M4

STAPLE EXPORTS OF INDIA.

S73

Imports into Great Britain from all Places Eastward of the Cape of Good

Hope (except China)— ^n/inii^e/.

Gam.

•

•0

i
1

•

Mother o*J
Shells (Ro

•

Ibt.

cwts.

Noa.

cwta.

Iba.

cwts.

Iba.

OS.

lbs.

Ibe. cwts.

1814

44439

30937

992

6752309

104815

1219

• •

• «

392134

68899 893

ltl3

32677

99&0

10082

554S29i

256359

1394

90256

• •

743663

54779 150

1816

4288

1117

6904

7238114

38825

4507

5709365546 59477, 399

1817

254005

4682

4926105

80953

1123

• •

5 361656 69553 661

1818 502091

4418

1035

5456645

8934

2710

• •

16, 595571 102975 1503

1819

40478

5694' 6490

3688694

9631

22393

14933 192593 139859 2193

1B20

34S340

5146 4968

4922750

5887

4225

140239

163S8

89013 373832 8063

1821

58880

93 13376

8935833

13893

3830

143468

10451

35081 288661 : 8I6O

188S

18429

536 15354

2483475

16831

1292

142080

6616

45568 203461 ' 1798

1823

15517

5882 193944 & 8807! 6553354

4778

2839

333210

8869

14516; 90904 1664

1824

427

8951

11799 4584969

28519

402:1

392029

5124; 81197;990937; 4

1825

13521

3822

6379 6056753

53840

1825

304748

341

80033 235941 , 1534

I8S0

98396

6329

2375 7673710

IO6692

2260

269370

1225|338700 847122 918

1827

8835

14799

nil 540521S

23793

882

279152

1145

, 69307 139646 1469

1828

• •

13472

3329 9683626

42l.'t2

820

320481

5062; 58115 151237 2049

1829

• •

86430

3605 5980242

8833

2135

484607

449 37999 301408 3247

1830

37595

14130

5104 792665/

12963

992

465591

3320 45059441275 6484

1831

149144

11785

3376 7005246

40921

2571

510492

8447| 110039 343373 3535

1838

319373

64950

10739. 621 189^

72023

334J72I527

8129 323426 257387 IO66O

1833; 161116

34109'

88774, 633735s

11447

2966,708166

8566 40827 316785 8279

1834

1 61069

55011

42716

1 864650^

27765

3413

.611025

4804

i 54201

.685468

8739

•

Pepper of all
aoits.

•

Rice not in the

•

Senna.

Iba. oc.

cwts.

Iba.

lb*.

cwts.

lbs.

1814

55 12

6769649

• •

184059

. •

843

366

146512

2609

965414

1835

959 14

871

19710658

9435

91180

k •

2994

1796

140487

25027

863698

I8I6 3119 2

325

11985014

84839

2104

» m

2314

6490

160666 115696

805574

1817 6016 12

314

4087069

1158

88436

» •

1669

' 4929

158822, 25083

567688

1818 8544 4

640

6134791

94934|392932

1 •

657

1 7727

12461 11 28045

1011646

1819

1 4

1321

5390643

69890:874192

758

427

' 10659

137319! 27636

970489

1800

B •

1465

787947

146669 192993

2088

751

9167

196609: 68607

1906729

lltti

19 1

1254

845100

115264

73790

775

8026

5617

294848 127274

1106658

l«t2

68 19

864

7211376

46898

18868

255

8408

100

133166

68680

924299

1888

5 2

766

5955896

42688

80566

6730

> 1983

151930

48475

138175Q

1894

119 ..

1834

8801684

44488

84771

bnsh. 001

5740

8831

154749

71054

1105170

IMft

II8O9 19

8303

5396817

44805

18081

768

5102

' 4861

96637 59728

906239

laaf

6809 5

1162

18103416

88088

50044

1278

6429

' 9635

131069! e07G7

1620269

1«7

8988 19

138

P067766

82411

104337

9405

, 2881

9486

201084: 74801

1198393

liM

1784 7

2909

4978189

51875

140276

87904

, 1898

5998

204836 107153

1984654

IMP 919 ..

4679

i 9006579

127443:199366

61835

2699

446

176503 105619

2116596

aaaa' j88

4181

9749294

1572111125487

21948

2170

2661

143702^176593

17862S1

UN Ml ..

761

' 6128940

133462133887

38553

2436

2253

170722200990

1795650

1818 964 ..

3306

4630475

1152371171560

19744

5556

3877

829638i464917

1814819

USi

9671

8714068

1143111199998

12581

6372

7669

143435 400933

98961 e^

8884

• •

7406

' 7684039

16490

307702

It^O

6484

25796

257713

419883

182587(^,

374

STAPLE EXPORTS OF INDIA.

Imports into Great Britain from all Places Eastward of the Cape of Good

Hope (except China) — continued.

Silk Manafkctnres, vli.

3 i

•

m
<

a
a

•

e ja 9
a V 9
5 u S

■

I
S

"|sl

Taffaties A other
Silks in Pieces.

•

a
H

•

c
<

pieces

No.

pieces

CWU.

imp. gal.

cwts.

CWU.

lbs. ; ibs.

lb*.

fal.i^

1S14

71302

« •

• m

31115

• •

38554

43780

• •

3775' 535042

78IM

1S15

131270

• •

31603

• •

4848

124202

2113

7344 1280760

• •

738B3

1S16

130216

• •

0670

287

24001

120246

MOl

10510; 725810

3708 70041

1SI7

07232

18457

• •

81027

12330B

2400

4823' 681603

• •

91947

ISIS

73670

• fl

16707

108

111835

162386

1308

8706| 765654

1752

09583

ISIO

48248

16484

127

62856

202778

200

4713 547353

4040 101811

18S0

128908

■ •

254

10047

132

141384

277204

828

0017

014853

28832147215

1821

85270

345

3100

10054

803

2570

200143

• •

8130

413555

474401108011

1823

I0I091

208

306

, 7048

5016

218

200050

1285

10347

107557

744tl

1893

142317

106

3650

20346

4002

210576

5050

11006

100U7

2n8

115480

1824

131000

670

4760

11085

145

267012

6377

20230

521750

2904

129780

iSSft

101830

160

2138

5000

588

1061

244062

1173

20713

06567

• •

10O3I4

1826

238586

8194

20500

8824

045

342847

3000

25832

452001

• •

1I2«8

I82r

224806

051

4621

6051

252

380181

705

10407

570213

8008

llOUt

1828

160586

135

5052

5745

024

4247

518831

1800

27301

842304

42811

i2oesi

1899

0S840

• •

10085

0087

• ■

22108

487100

1863

34418 1111068

248

182318

18M

124270

513

23711

8520

41418 770087

14574

32180 1867764

• •

988885

1831

184308

082

17740

7308

7011 75044St

3472

36002 J292028

10023

903468

1832 211887

• •

11400

4525

• •

20501 703137t

26642

380041004045

1028208719

1833 293237

• •

4004

1226

21130 783318

28653

35063 582064

25185 ..

1834

374744

• •

400,

■ •

12251

605163

34757

40800

864810

7589

a •

Total Value of the Imports into Great Britain from all Places Eastward of
the Cape of Good Hope (except China), according to the Prices at the
East India Company's Sales in the respective Years.

Years.

£.

Years.

£.

Years.

£.

1814

8043275

1821

4775146

1828

7005180

1815

8130167

1822

3713603

1829

0818984

1810

8120785

1823

5032051

1830

5070071

1817

6865580

1824

5005100

1831

5720810

1818

0200147

1825

6178775

1832

0387008

1810

6615708

1826

0730U20

1833

1820

5098820

1827

5081017

1834

The increased commerce may in some degree be judged of
from the following : —

« Including Mao rititts.

t or tbis ^^510,077 was Mauritius.

X or this ^^997.904 was Mauritius; if 524,017 Mauritius sugar, 1833; ^^553,800 ditto, 1834.

PRODUCE OF THE PRESIDENCY OF BENGAL.

375

The Quantity, or, in cases where Quantity could not be ascertsuned, the
Value of each Article of Indian Production or Manufacture at the Port
of Calcutta, from the Interior of the Presidency of Bengal, so far as the
same can be ascertuned.

]81»-1S
1813-14
1814-15
18IS-10
1810-17
1817-18

1818-19
1819-20
ia20-Sl
ISSl-SS
I8da-23
1833-S4
1834-85
1835-20
1836-37
1837-38
1838-39
1839-30
1890-S1
1831-33
1883-33
1833-34

cwt.
30479
50573
34909
17831
19087
30088

82891
19155
87123
38973
39793
53237
510O9
47006

45677
61549
58017
53010

pieces.

■ •

51260
6737S
89210
66798
51611
63455
63919

cwt.
308944
407965
406401
457056
460360
360300

294919
469715
408637
638819
494434
679784
456368
351970
573494
566833
556433
607897

cwt.

75086
365883
359679
303607
536897
783411

534993
335^

382197
387768
158167
138386
383113
178687
336175
335047
319683
302974

llM.

180894
169380
336693

iiosoe

64483
89110
34372

cwt.

49
130

89
218
115

94
864
140

lis

133

109

144

111
148
134

cwt.

7571

6677

4015
3981

6793
9430
I8O94
30507
38383
1997s
19938
81451
1766s

I6757
81880
88710
17558
14836

cwt.

• m

3435

6918
II674

9374

4884

•

■

•H

■

cwt.

pieces.

cwt.

cwt*

cwt.

1813-13

187590

4334888

49476

13186

8499

1813-14

153887

4388604

60096

9804

7646

1814-16

104896

4157789

68746

3881

3899

1815-16

96376

3931388

76661

81880

830

1816-17

164487

3869891

58580

84398 •

5439

1817-18

366498

5743088

48783

16306

6180

18ia-19

S7S3S6

4688369

45649

9798

10015

1819^18

368838

8116841

70939

17iS9

11178

1898-4I

63846S

54431S8

61066

81113

6845

18SI-8S

6778«»

8948987

68176

5849

1883-CS

681400

3838461

76406

86788

*»!?

8681

lan-M

4874tt

9008719

63783

85880

9696

3086

7798

3608

i8M-ae

603314

3887864

73613

113878

19837

9188

14860

3547

lSS»-86

985106

1411438

104831

58108

7671

3701

18381

8818

1890-S7

378435

6986818

63366

78888

9681

6760

10488

1089

1837'-M

658477

6081188

101194

116676

9696

l<^s6

9365

1868

1839-49

677449

6016114

65681

834881

11S83

667s

16880

3706

183»-«8

630838

5838143

89O86

306058

14696

5008

11018

4315

1839-«1

•

18S1-33

1831-33

1833-34

876

PRODUCE FROM THB IKTBRTOR OF BBROAL.

Quantity or Value of Articles of Indiaii Production or Manofactiire re-
ceived at Galeattay from the Interior of the Pteideaey of BcDf{sl-<0ii-
tifwed.

•

Fleoe Goods

•

__•

•

cwt.

Chests.

pieces.

cwt

cwt.

pieces.

181S-1S

—

4000054

• •

SO79

• I7B0O

5996

181S-14

941798

9770570

• •

1887

34885

5456)

1814-16

916538

3451685

• •

8018

69403

9888

1815-16

195396

5588766

• •

4666

00808

8389

181(^17

108839

7868701

#«

9098

106587

9478

1817-18

976795

5707070

« •

9850

187315

4096

1818-10

845688

4176 171

• •

1909

133878

2546^

18Il^-<0

909470

4069

4699433

864530

m m

1097

840679

4778

1890-81

978897

4300

3586380

877179

m •

9869

809809

4888

189I-aS

98S5I8

8158

3034053

550950

• •

4838

980717

5689

18SS-S3

818679

3066

8077034

500995

* •

8417

108871

4108

18S8-S4

980889

3367

3781144

468336

9999

7638

986708

5880

18S4-Sft

805749

7808

9440883

564864

9064

7698

189988

48 18

1886-90

139444

5810

8431109

480504

15995

4909

158806

8787

1896-97

106069

6788

9697381

456430

3731

3177

815868

4098

]897-^

104101

6350

1879818
1608806

454898

1670

3609

994909

809«

1898-90

880481

7700

456714

858

9049 .

958638

SS8S

1890-80

967949

8778

1834395

406966

998

9909

836719

Xt\

l8S»-ftl

1881-«9

1889-88

•

1
8

cwt.

owt

1819-I8

7006

190180

9440

16498

8936

1867

1813-14

5333

190049

1009

19605

15864

1196

1814-15

11944

197694

9515

4019

9648

1145

1815-16

0013

159488

9989

8988

8875

K885

1816-17

5601

811783

1761

15549

18608

1358

1817-18

6861

845973

1480

89850

40806

18969

8408

1818-10

6887

447870

8477

15098

1989

1810-90

13090

469668

1844

0988

41678

95058

8419

1890-91

17166

381400

1916

4901

74605

81M

9191

1891-99

13634

333914

9998

9596

188486

710s

9158

1899-93

19456

903508

9706

6888

107878

18849

IMl

1893-94

11509

987600

3844

8869

ng(H0

14968

1894-

1894-95

14889

849648

4601

8508

195936

noes

1418 *

1898-96

14787

100544

4998'

1883

79778

10061

849

1836-97

19794

390600

4020

9594

94169

11738

»01

1897-98

19654

107709

3848

1589

98616

18704

1196

1898-90

17007

380660

6503

1858

187885

96597

1H7

1890-30

13054

866980

4181

1855

166655

19869

1141

1830-31

1881-39

1839-83

1888-34

PROJ>lfCE PROM THE INTSRlOft OF HAS&A8. 377

The Quutity, or, in cases where Quantitv could not be Hcertained, the
Value of each Article of Indiftn ^oductton or Maoufacture received at
the Pint of HwIrM, from the Interior of the PresideDc; of Fort St.
Qeoi^, to far u the aame can be complied with.

378

.9 ^

5: «

•c

£ .3

* S-S

««.« -s .t:

* o »

••^ ^

t? «* (^

< S 5

«> a q)

«3 ci a

•a ^ §

•s s **

i 'S <£

O «0

I ^ s

J J -^

»« S "*

* S

« .2 O

ad®

^"S t:

Z p

• a^ S

*- ^ s

^ a °

s § s

«<

('ddoitia)
'eofzpang

*«p000839U

• (O ^ iQ »>»&«oa

00 MM 01 i4 M

*uonb]i

•^ • to e<$M >o«* » ^a M A 0} M le Ok^ M«M •

'silinqo

*j»dd9d

«M v4 91 «« (^ v^ M fi^ iB< 04 P4 t<^ prt ««

fi ? fi 9 9 ^ *^ ■^ !S S A ^S S *^ M A **

Q « -• •>• M >n M M m >^ ei M<e A n ^ 0*

'mofiVA

aU.

XL , . ^ m r^Z « o 9 >a ^ m 9 89 o ««> a .

,?^

ODtD

•l»a»S

^ :g^SRsifl||g|||l§0| =

•©xjiaflS

•JdAl{«3|OplO

1^ :»§iSq§lif liSIf :i :

'PWl

■

00 o e« qo M >>.««
« ^ "^ w lO r

ill

*aoiT

'jaddoo

l^iMOinK

•1«IMi

•ax»A

'iDooimojs

■nrotv

*i «DO»e«^ ia«o<»'« 09 lespfi t>>e9 ^S S*
'^ « moQM^ ■« 91 M <« m »*<•*-• lonn

^ • < ■ • • 'jS Es fiH •*•**** S !i . • • •
^ • • • • • •OICftnOQD ^ Ok • • < •

• lis"

jg... Ss" •

* OBBO

JQ •••••••• ••«*•«• q9 I

— 9> '

$& ■

\ : -.mumumm .-

s^^ -

o _ _'^.'!«A--TJ__—

*4 ^m »m mm m^ mm mm pm mm ■« «4 mm ■■« aiifl «« ^ mm mm mm ^ ^ ^

STAPLE PRODUCTS OF BRITISH INDIA.

379

The Quantity, or in cases where Quantity could not be aacertuned, the
Value of each article of Forei^ Production or Manufacture (including
the Productions and Manufactures of the United Kingdom), sent into
the Interior of the Presidency of Fort St. George from the Port of
Madras, in each year, so far as the same can be complied with.

Itfetals.

18S4
18S5

cwt

• »

lesOj 111

18S7 144
1838 S38
1830 67
18SQ 83
1831
1833
1833
1834:

cwt

1960

830

491

1365

1367

g67

1544

cwt

86
459
583
143
109
164
155

cwt
391

• •

• m

79i
631

cwt

1931

1713

769

1543

473 8834

4676
1438

H« Rs.' M> RSa

1831 8595

5093 18770

6137 18336

3019 9643

3088 10336

Uqnon—
Malt.

fll. KB.

6353

7783

1805

M.RS.

M.Bs.

43583
61880
73570
66398
83381

4704
3803
3483

M.R8.

M.Rfl.

S439 9037

9418
7891
5981
3343

5369
9581

4747
11316

M.RS,

M.iU.

8836
10316
8345
3336
5979

3137
6373

5997
8538

8778

Staples of British India. — ^The products of Hindostan,
as may be seen from the foregoing, are as various as they
are vahiable ; I begin with one of its principal staples.

IndigOf from time immemorial, has been cultivated and
manufactured in Hindostan, and in 1665 it was one of the
exports firom India to England ; the £. L Company's servants
turned their attention to it about 40 years ago, and its suc-
cessful prosecution has been principally owing (after the cir-
cumstance of the destruction of St. Domingo, which, previous
to its revolution, supplied nearly the whole world) to the small
duty levied on its importation into England, the duty at first
being little more than nominal : in 1812, l^d. per lb. ; in 1814^
2id, ; and in 1832, 3d. per lb. Its importance to India may
be judged of from the fact that in the Bengal Presidency the
cultivation of indigo is carried on firom Dacca to Delhi, occu-
pying upwards of 1,000,000 statute acres, yielding an annual
produce worth firom 2,000,000/. to 3,000,000/. sterling,
whereof one-half, or perhaps more, is expended in India for
rent, stock, wages^ interest on capital, &c. There are firom
three to four hundred factories in Bengal, chiefly in Jessore,
Kishnagur and Tirhoot. (See Appendix.) The factories are

380

STAPLE PRODUCTS OF INDIA — ^INDIOO*— SILK.

principally held by Europeans, but many natives have facto^
ries of their own, and in several instances produce indigo
equal to any manufactured by Europeans. The low price
which indigo now brings in Eurppe is diminishing the qui^n-
tity produced, the exportation some y^ars.being drOOO^OOOlbs. ;
the recent failures in India will tend to bring the tri^e withia
more profitable limits. The cultivation of indigo in Madxa»
is trifling, — there is little or none prepared in the Bombay
Presidency. The indigo produced annually in the East
Indies from 1811 was: —

Years.

Chests.

Years.

Chests.

Years.

Cheats.

Years

Chests.

Yean.

Cheats.

1811

91M0

I$l6

35000

isai

31 100

ism

SSMM

1831

SMM

181S

33600

1817

80500

1838

85700

1837

45300

I8S3

18U

S»00

1818

igioo ,

1883

39800

18BS

SOOOO

1888

1814

38500

1819

8o;oo

1834

34100

1839

4S800

18S4

1815

a«SiO

1890

97fW

1835

43500

1880

83180

1885

The price of indigo per chest in London was in 1834»
111/. ; in 1825, 140/. ; and in 1831 but 45/.; the supply aow
exceeds the demand, at least in England; but the consump*
tion of Bengal indigo is fast augmenting in France, Holland^
Germany, &c. [For the importations into England from dif-
' ferent countries see AppentUx^

Silk forms the next most important staple of India, and in
conjunction with the former, its production in our own terri*
tories is of essential advantage to silk and tabbinet manufke^
turers in England. The total quantity of raw silk imported
into England for 1834 was 3,693,512 lbs. ; and the quantity
furnished by British India alone to England in the same year
was 1,203,658 lbs.

Three species of mulberry trees are cultivated in India, and
two species of silk worm (the country worm, and the annular
Italian, or Chinese worm) ; the latter feeds also on the castof^
oil plant leaf. The silk is produced in cocoona by the Ryots
or small cultivators, to whom the E. I. Company's agents
make advances, and the Company have eleven or twelve fila-
tures or large factories for reeling it with machinery on the
simple Italian principle. The Gonatea is the best, the
Banleah the worst. The price of silk has risen Sn India with

PRODUCTS OP INDIA — COTTON. 381

the wages of labour, and some manufistcturers say the quality

has deteriorated ; probably quantity has been more attended

to than quaiity« The silk districts of Bengal are, Radnagore,

Hdrripaul, Santipore, Cossimbuzar, Bauleah, ComercoHy,

Sardah, Jungypore, Mauldah, Rungpoor, Sunna-Meekhi and

Oonnatea, all between the parallels of lat. 22** and 26% and

long. SG" to 90°.*

The superior quality of Italian silk does not demonstrate

natural inferiority in that of India, or bales of E. I. to which

attention has been paid have sold equally well with Italian

silk. Efforts are now making in the Bombay Presidency to

extend the production of raw silk, and the commencement

promises success ; we may therefore look forward to a period

when we shall be totally independent of every other country

for the raw staple of this essential and beautiful branch of

our national manufactures.

Cotton, a staple of Indian agriculture and of British manu-
fectures, wefl deserves attention, were it only for the important
cnrcumsfance that our diief branch of trade is almost totally
dependent on a rival, (and with little provocation) perhaps a
hostile state. The importation of American cotton into
England is nearly 300,000,000 lbs. yearly, that of India not
the one-twentieth part of British consumption. If we can
be made independent of France and America for indigo and
8ilk, 0Q can we become also of cotton, India producing in it-
self every variety ; the justly celebrated sea island cotton is
actually in cultivation in several parts of India, but owing to
neglect it degenerates into an annual, whereas in America it
is careftdly cultivated as a triennial plant. The Dacca muslins,
so celebrated all over the globe, (and of which the manufiic*
tuxe is now lost, owing to the inundation of Manchester goods),
were made from India cotton, and if the late duty had been
kept on American raw cotton, sufficient encouragement would
have been given to the Hindoos to attend to its cultivation, as
it is we have not only ruined the Indian manufacturer, but in
return we have offered no encouragement to the raw pro-
ducer. The cotton grower in India ought to be stimulated
to greater efforts on examining the consumption of cotton
wool in England : —

* Th« Company's factories «re now, I believe, being sold to private
speculators.

382

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00

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cir*cov?*o©"^??c^^y50*eoe5

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QUANTITY OF EAST INMA OPIUM EXPORTED TO CHINA. 383

As the surest means of inducing a more careful attention to
India cotton, both in the cultiyation,* cleaning and packing, a
removal of the entire duty on importation into England would
be most effectual, coupled with an absence of all transit dues
in the East.

Opium is the next important staple deserving consideration^
the value of which will be most readily appreciated, by look-
ing at the quantity annually exported from India to China for
15 years, —

No. of ChcsU

Average Price per

Cbest io Spaalali

Dollars.

SaleValne Of etch Kind

Imported.

in Spanish Dollars.

Total No.

Toul val. of

of Chests

Importation.
8p. Dol.

•

Imported.

Patna and
Benarea.

Malwa.

Patna and
Benares.

Malwa.

Patna and
Benares.

Malwa.

1810

MIO

609

1200

875

3132000

525000

3210

36S7000

isir

S03O

1159

1269

612

3209459

703800

3680

3004250

1818

30M

1539

1000

725

3959999

1190259

4510

4150259

1810

3079

1639

1235

1175

3607099

1015259

4600

5583299

18t0

3oao

1729

1000

1515

5705999

2695899

4770

8400600

1821

S910

1718

2075

1325

6988299

2276350

4638

8314600

ims

1823

4999

1552

1200

2828039

5160000

4822

7088030

1998

2910

4172

1600

025

4656000

3850100

7062

8515100

18M

2695

0099

1175

750

3110625

4599999

8655

7610025

18i5

S442

6170

013

723

3I4I755

4464459

0621

7608205

1816

3661

6308

1092

042

3608565

5041529

0000

0610085

I8S7

3134

4401

006

1294

5125155

5200029

0535

10-125075

18W

5969

7791

049

068

5694235

6088889

13132

12538115

18W

7843

0857

800

862

6140577

5007589

14000

12057157

1890

6009

12199

870

588

5700294

7114050

18760

12904263

1831

5039

8269

5689019

5818574

14225

11509584

1832

8M7

15493

6551050

8781700

23670

15332750

1833

0934

11715'

6080634

7016071

21250

14990005

1834

I8SA

TocI i

Here we observe a trade in a prohibited article, (opium is
smuggled into China) to the amount of upwards of 3,000,000/.
a year, and which promises yet further increase !f

* Indian cuUiyators of cotton would do well to remark that the cotton of
Egypt 16 town m drilU, as is the custom in America.

f The quantity of opium shipped from Calcutta in 1795-6, was 1,07')
^ests, and in 1829-30, 7>443 chests. The total quantity of opium ex-
ported from Calcutta during the former year was 5, 183 chests, and durinir
the latter 9,678 chests ; the grand total exported durinj^ the whole 36
years was 162,273 chests, which, at the averaji^ rate at which it sold, 1,200
dollars a chest, would ^ve a trade in this stimulating drug of nearly two
hundred million Spanish dollars I

384 QUALITIES OF MALWA, PATNA, AND BENARES OPIUM.

Malwa opium is considered by the Chinese as haying a
higher touch, but not so mellow^ nor so pleasant in flavour as
the Patna opium. The smokeable extract which each quality
of opium contains is thus intimated by the ChinesCi — (who
use opium as we do wine or spirits) Patna and Benares opium
45 to 50 touch ; avg 48 ; Malwa 70 to 75 ; aTg 72} ; Turkey
5S to 57 ; avg touch 55. The cultivation of opium in India,
as explained under the chapter in revenue, is a monopoly as
regards Patna and Benares in the hands of Government ; and
a revenue is derived from the Malwa opium by a system of
passes on shipment from Bombay ; an analysis of the recent
evidence before Parliament, relative to this curious and im-
portant smuggling trade, is interesting*

There is no secret in the opium trade ; the qaantity imported is well-
known, and the prices are always given in the Canton Register, a public
newspaper : Che opium chests being combrous things, are broken up oa
board the receiving smuggling shipjs at Lintin, and the opium placed in
bags for delivering to the Chinese, who go alongside the ships in smuggling
boats in the open face of day, frequently within view of the Chinese men-
of-war boats, and the opium is delivered to them upon their presenting
what is called an opium order from the agent at Canton. They take it
from alongside in smuggling boats that are well manned and armed ; and
as there a great many rivers, branches, and islands at different places, they
put off directly with it, and then set all the government boats at defiance.
Four Mandarin boats have been surrounding a ship when there were 90
chests of opium to smuggle, and was prevented from going to sea on ac-
count of the opium : the way that they smuggled it was thus :~they strip-
ped the chest entirely away, took nothing but the opium, and put it into
bags; the lower deck port was opened, and in one moment they put tbe
opium into the boat, and all hands were off in a second. It was done in a
very heavy shower of rain. There was a cry out about three minutes af-
terwards, but the boat was gone like a shot. Of the Mandarins* boats
lying neai^-one was lying a-head, touching the ship, aaother was lying iat
the stem, and another was lying upon the opposite side. They were there
to prevent smuggling. But these boats may not be strong enough to pre-
vent the smuggling, for there are instances of the opium boats overpower-
ing aH force where it was a very large quantity, and it was worth their
while killing and wounding men. The Hong merchants do not deal in
opium, and the persons who carry it from Canton are obliged to conceal It
about their baggage to evade the search of the Chinese oficers.

SMU6GLINQ OF OPIUM— aUAMTITY AND YAIiUE CONSUMED. 385

Tbe Glku^fle paA^tks hmjft heqpim^ iasued the stipiigeflt prodJama-
lions agMxut the entrance of opium into Oluna ; U is deaoanoed as a p4>i-
son, and an imperial edict is supposed to be indisputable ; but practice and
professions are very much at variance in China, and the smuggling trade in
ophim is carried on with the connivance of the lower government authori-
tks, periiaps with tiiBt of liwir saperiors-^eAthoagh in some instances, when
thB flfnm boato have been seised, the oresM have had their heads cut off,
«nd the cvst^^m-liouse officers hy whom t|»e opium is seized^ light a iire
upon the top of a hill, declaripyg^ the contraband opium to be burnt, while
none of it has been put into the fire— so that, although the interposition of
the revenue officers may be connected with the loss of life, it does not lead to
the ceBBstion of the trade in oprom, for .the opium finds its way to all parts
of the eoipiie, and vnthin the nivalis of tlieimperial paboe at Pekin, akhoogh
A^ smaJUag of opium is found to have lapon the persons who praDtisa it the
most demoralising effects $ to a certain extent it destroys their reaspn and
faculties, and shortens life. A confirmed opium smoker is never fit to con-
duct business, and is generally unfit for the social intercourse of his friends
or family : he may be known by his inflamed eyes and haggard counte-
nance. Formerly the opium trade was carried on at Macoa and Whampoa,
but in L820 the Chinese authorities commenced vigorous measures against
Ite smqgi^ers at Whampoa, and even threatened to search foreign vesseb
for opiunv which was the means of driving the tr^e outside ^he port to
Lintin, where the opium ships lie at anchor, the commanding officers of
those vessels receiving orders from the agents of Canton for every chest of
opium that is sold.

The quantity and value of the Indian opium, according to
the latest vetums, consumed in China was 23,693 chests,
▼slued at upwards of three million sterling !* .

* Estimate of Quantity and Total Value of Indian Opium consumed in
China during the last Six Years.

Years.

Patna.

Benares.

Malwa.

Total.

CtMiti.

CkMfeB.

Chests.

ClieilS.

Amoimt.

1827-28.

1828-29

1829-dO

1890^1

1831^

1832-93

4,006
4,831
5,564
5,086
4,442
6,410

1,128
1,130
1,579
1,575
1,518
1,880

4,401
7,171
6,857

12,100
8,265

15,403i

9,635
13,132
14,000
18,760
14,225
23,693i

S.Rs.

10,425,075
12,533,215
12,057,157
12,904,263
11,501,584
15,352,429

VOL. I.

C C

S86 . HINDOO PETITIONS RE8PBCTINO SUGAR.

SuoARy may be caltivated and manufactured to an extent in
India sufficient to supply the whole world ; its production at
present is immense, as it forms an ingredient in almost every
article of food or drink used by the Hindoos, and where the
manufacture is attended to as at Benares, the grain is large
and sparkling and pure as the best Mauritius or Demerara
sugar« The soil and climate of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay
are peculiarly suited to the production of this essential nourish-
ment to man ; every village has its patch of cane, and a rough
manufacture named Jaghery is extracted frolh the Palmyra
and cocoa-nut tree. It is in evidence before Parliament that
the sugar-cane of Bengal is as good as any of the W. Indies,
and some of a superior quality has been produced.*

The great secret of improving and extending the cultiva-
tion of sugar in India, is the reduction of the duty levied on
it in England ; the coarsest kinds of Bengal sugar now pay a
tax in Great Britain of 120 per cent, on the gross price, which
after deducting freight and charges is equal to 200 per eeni.
on the proceeds in England ! The Hindoos in their recent
petition to Parliament thus express their feelings on this
subject.

Eyery encouiB^^ement is held out to the exportation from England to la-
diSy of the growth and produce of foreign as well as English industry, while
many thousands of the natives, who a short time ago derived a livelihood
from the growth of cotton and the manufacture of cotton goods, are wiikoai

* In Bengal, in 1831, 1,000 acres were planted with cane. In a very
short time afterwards 2,000 tons of sugar, equal to the Havannahs, were
announced for our markets, besides what had been disposed of for the Per-
sian Gulf market, and the molasses and rum, which met with a ready de-
mand for internal consumption. Within the same period (six months)
there were three dwelling houses, a boiling and curing house, and a re-
finery, all built of brick and mortar, erected equal in magnitude to two
large West India establbhments — ^having a steam engine and mill, a cattle
mill, two sets of boilers, and six clarifiers in the boiling house, and a sepa-
rate one in the refinery. The cost is said to have been very moderate, al>
though an English bricklayer who saw it estimated that in En^and it would
have cost upwards of 60,000/. sterling, and that he could not haye oader-
taken to complete it on so magnificent a scale in less than two yean.—
Ntchoisan*s Commercial Gazette,

COMMERCIAL ANB FINANCIAL PROSPECTS IN SUGAR. S87

§netuk in conseqoepce of the fjaeilities affiirded to the prodace of America
and to the manufaeturiDjj^ industry of England ; but sugnr, to the prodne*
tion of which the lands of the petitioners might be turned, is loaded with
such heavy duties in England, as effectually to shut the market agaimt the
industry of the East Indians, tehen turned to thh particular commodity.

The small quantity of sugar which British India now sends
to England, notwithstanding that in the former place it is
exceeded only by rice in consumption^ will be seen by the fol-
lowing recent return of sugar imported into the United King-
dom.

Fmt 1834.
British Plantation 3,844,243 ewts. E. India Brit. Possess. 76,617 cwU.

Foreign Plantation 202,030 .. 17««.;« n« tuagut

Mauritius . . . 566,860 .. Foreign Do. 64,663 .

The quantity of sugar consumed in the United Kingdom,
averaged so high as 4^000^000 cwts. would for a population of
iMyOOOyOOO (leaving aside 1^000,000 for young infants, many
of whom, however, also consimie sugar) give only 18 lbs. a year,
or 5 oz. a week, for each individual ; now, it is well known,
that a child of one year old would consume more than 5 oz. a
week ; that the workhouse allowance is frequently 34 lbs. a
year, and the lowest domestic servant, 1 lb. a week, or 5S lbs.
a year. We might, therefore, fairly conclude that, if the
daties on all our colonial sugars were reduced and placed on
a level, the consumption and revenue would be thus in-
creased : —

\ OoDSiimplloD. Rtvenoe.

West India Plantation Sugar . . Cwte. 4,000,000

Tax at 1/. (now I/. 4f.) per cwt. . j£4,000,000

Manritius Sugar .... 600,000

Tbz at 1/. (now 1/. 4«.) per cwt. 600,000

Bast India Possessions' Sugar . 2,000,000

Tax at 1/. (now ]/. 12«.) per cwt • . 2,000,000

Foreign Sugar . • . * . 600,000

Tax at 2/. (now 3/. 3#.) per cwt . 1,000,000

Total . Cwts. 7,000,000 ^£7*600,000

Here we observe that, even at the moderate rate of con-
sumption of S21bs. a year or only 9 oz. per week, of sugar
fiyr each individual, the revenue would be augmented by

888

COFFEE (b. I.) IMPORTS INTO ENGLAND.

fi,SO0flO0L and the conmneroe, heiddi and mamrf a o i iires of
the empire wotiderfuRy mcreased. — [See Vol. 11. We^ Indies,
for full details.]

There can even be no doubt, tliat if the duty were reduced
to I2s. on West India, and to IGs. onl^ast India sugars, ami-
lar favourable results would ensues for a few years (say two
or three) the revenue would suffer, but a reduction and equa-
lization to @0^. would instantly increase the revenue, while a
prospect of eventual further diminution would prepare the
way for greater national benefits.

Coffee next deserves cohsidetation as an Indian staple,
and which like ^he last article only requires just treatment in
England to become one of the most valuable exports. In
Malabar, Coimbatore, &c. the cultivation is extensive, and the
berry of the finest flavour when attended to in the drying.
Upper Bengal and the territories acquired from the Burmese
are peculiarly adapted for the growth of coffee, and if the
duty be reduced on it in England to 6dL while the West In*
dies is reduced to 4«f., the commerce of England and the
morids of the people will be sensibly improved.

The following returns shew the quantity of cofiee imported
from the East Indies into Great Britain, — ^re-exported and
retained for home use for 15 years ; the return includes Cey*
Ion, avg. 2,8^4,998 lbs. Singapore, 3,611,456 lbs. Mauritius,
S6,646 lbs. &c. From Bengal, Madras and Bombay alone for
1831—2,780,668 lbs.

East India Coffee Imported into the United Kin^om from 1880 to 1834.

Ymn,

Re-«Bpoited.

Home use.

Ymn,

Imported. Re-exported.

HoBiMne.

lbs.

llw.

lbs.

Hh.

IbB.

1890

M»7,7ai

4,807.370

885,945

1897

5,879,511

4,055,104

688,196

18S1

1»904,091

S.536,5<M

S0fl,177

1898

7,880,499

5,064,910

976.4I0

182S

4.487,859

3,599.814

171,717

1899

fi,835,<(47

l^M

974,57tf

IMS

^,114.889

3,189,111

985,697

1830

7»0M,199

969.S&

I8S4

i»760,918

4*718,389

813,513

1831

7.fl9l,390

0,595,417

1,984,711

18S6

4,513,390

9,078.930

457,745

1839

10.797.090

9,715,894

1,976.085

itan

ft,&90,S54

5,«7<r.077

791.670

1833

0,916,999

S,990»O97

1,601,500

1834

9.951,141

0,308,509

1,500,696

It will be perceived by the
importatipn of £. L coffee is
great defalcation compared

foregoing that of late years Ihe
on the increase, )Bdll tliei:e is «
with 1815 tod 1816, when the

SALTPETRE^ TOBACCO| &C. 339

importation of cofifee by the priffote trcuie amounted in two
years to 49,381 ,478 lbs. !

Pepp&b is another valuable India staple, but its import from
the East has considerably fallen off, the importations of 1815
and 1816 being 17,863,847 lbs. and in 1827 and 18S8 but
14t,045,868 lbs. being a decrease of nearly 4,000,000 lbs«
weight. The duty on it in England is still too high ; a se*
duction of it would be beneficial to aU classes.

Saltpetre is yielded by the Indian soil in greater abund-
ance than any other country, its importation into England
by the East India Company in 181 4, was 146,000 cwt, but
the continuance of peace has much lessened both the price
and cansiunption ; both are now again on the rise, but the
ippct is still so low that the saltpetre collected in the East is
now being brought to fertilize the fields of Albion.* The im-
port of late years of saltpetre from Bengal has been about
100,000 bags, but the total quantity exported from Calcutta
has ayeraged 170,000 bags, while in the year 1795, it did
not amount to more than 13,000 bags. The total quan«
tity exported from Calcutta during the thirty-fiye years end-
ing 1829*30, was 2,S02,465 bags, of which the United King-
dom received 1,523,655 bags ; North America 278,895 bags ;
France 101,237 bags, and China 133,615 bags.

The Tobacco of Masuhpatam, made into snuff, is much
prized in England ; the quantity of tobacco grown in India
is enormous ; every class, high and low, use it, and if the
duty were reduced in England, the variety of soils in India
would afford an infinite variety of that fascinating weed for
the British market. Very rich lands produce about 160 lbs.
per acre of green leaf; excellent Havannah tobacco is grown
in Guzerat, Boglipoor, Bundlecund, &c., and some from the
Irrawaddy territories has been reported by the brokers in

* Quantities of mtrate of toda have recently l)een imported into Eng-
land and France from South America, and the commodity is becoming an
object of attention ; it is sud not to answer so well as saltpetre {niirate of
pottuk) for making gunpowder, but to be equally applicable to the uses of
most of the manufacturers and for the curers of provisions ; it is also stated
to afford a greater proportion of nitric acid than saltpetre.

390

EXPORTATION OF WHEAT, RTCE, &C.

London as equal to the best American. The want of proper
attention in the curing has been a great obstacle to its arriT-
ing in a marketable state in England after a long East Indian
Toyage. Tobacco, like hay, must undergo a heating to be fit
for use, and the slightest particle of green vegetable matter
left in the tobacco heats on the voyage, destroys the delicate
flavour of the leaf, and even rots it. Experiments are now
making at Bombay in the curing process.*

Grain is one of the staples of Bengal ; the total quantity
of grain exported from Calcutta to countries beyond the three
Presidencies amounted, during the thirty-five years, ending
1889-30, to 18,366,571 bags; for the ktter years the export
has been on the increase^ averaging 600,000 bags a year, and
of this quantity Mauritius has of late taken nearly one-^haff,
for mstance in 18S8-S9, 838,756 bags. Great Britain has re-
ceived, during the whole thirty-five years, 1,730,998 bags ; and
the export to France is yearly increasing.

The following statement exhibits the quantity and value of
rice, wheat, and all other, grain and pulse exported from the
several ports of Bengal to the several ports on the Coramandel
Coagt aUme, from 1796 to 1889, (the Isle of France Population
is almost entirely fed by Bengal rice.)

Yewm

Itagi.

lfaiiD4s.

Valae in
Sic. knpees.

YMn.

BAft.

Manads.

ValMia
SicBttp—.

1796

a.73,763

6,47,520

5,55,451

1810

1,75,512

3,51.034

3.51,034

1797

9,11,004

4,33,328

3,33,170

1817

1,00^018

3,00,080

3.08,08*

1798

8,46,341

0,92,682

0,51,001

1818

1,35,019

3,71.338

3,71,338

1790

4>60,966

9.81.993

9,58,331

1819

44,141

88,383

88^m

1800

4,88,811

9,76,423

9,72,001

1830

83,370

60,740

66,740

1801

4»89.481

9.78.862

9.87,976

1831

1.04,870

8,39,713

8,39^78S

180S

0.81,500

12,43,000

12,43,030

1883

59,350

1.18,713

1,18,713

. 1803

7»14,4M

14,88,850

14,38,850

1838

4,14,588

8.39.083

15.91,930

1804

4,38.790

8,65.580

6,05,580

1834

3,05,06l

7.30,131

11.53,945

1805

5,19.339

10,38,658

1835

4^5,144

9.64.148

11.30.849

1806

13,17.899

20,35,058

30,35,058

1830

58,414

1.15.690

1,96,«81

1807

11,15,388

22.30,766

82,30,700

1837

86.077

73,035

1,00,183

1808

3,03,408

6,00,924

0,06,924

1888

38,081

47,«s

78b79S

1809

8,31,060

4.03,230

4,03,220

1839

1810

1,60,347

3,12,494

8.12,494

1880

1811

3,44,144

0,88,288

6,98,091

1831

181S

4.73,401

9.40,802

9,46,803

1833

1813
1814

4,84,208
8,30,580

9.08,404
0,0l.000

9,68.404
6,61.000

1833
1834

Ko RotoR

itmadfeiipii

noelOIB.

1815

1,43,341

3,80,083

3,86,083

It would be tedious to particularize all the v8.877

64,08,076

5,068

0,608

#8#"0»6*0

1886-87

84W4

6,680

46,86,765

8,888

6i868

1887-88

0.801

7.817

63,60,670

5.09«

6,618

9o,4tisar

INDIA TRADE WITH CHINA.

This commerce is of great extent, though onlyof late years
brought into much notice, as will be seen by the. following de*
tail of trade between India and China, in private ships (as
contradistinguished from those of the East India Company.)

PRIVATE TRADE BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA.

399

Toiuftce.

Value Imports.

Total Value.

Tons.

DoUars.

Dollars.

DoUars.

1813

10,668

6,035,128

3,861,916

9,897,044

1814

14,659

7,302,745

4,954,112

12,256,857

1815

11,906

6,991,681

4,337,016

11,328,697

1816

20,172

7,682,600

6,765,269

14,447,769

1817

27,008

11,081,600

5,662,100

16,643,700

1818

21,611

1 1,999,272

6,814,874

18,814,146

1819

13,873

9,459,932

6,134,692

15,594,624

1820

14,987

10,127,718

6,576,494

15,704,312

1821

21,872

9,170,294

6,170,033

15,340,327,

1822

18,01 1

13,268,249

4.397,701

17,665,950

1823

13,439

11,073,010

6,633,599

17,706,609

1824

20,074

1 1,024,559

6,799,009

16,823,568

1826

21,748

15,700,878

9,605,089

25,305,967

1826

26,424

16,709,232

8,326,252

24,035,484

1827

28,249

15,845,643

9,656,767

25,502,410

1828

28,282

16,373,228

10,957,814

27,331,042

1829

...

18^447,147

12,921,153

31,368,300

1830

1831

1832

1833
1834

No)

fteturnB down

to the present

Yean.

1835

A great part of this trade^ indeed nearly one-third consists
of smuggled opium from Bengal and Bombay, but the follow-
ing invoice of the trade for 1 830-3 1> will shew the nature of
the commerce in general.

Hue Itetle with China carried on by private India Shipe onder the British Hair, so fiur as

the same can be ascertained, for the year 18S0-S1.

IMPORTS, 1830-Sl.
The Nlunber of Ships, 50 ; amounting to 96,4S7 Tons.

Cotton.

Metals.

Peppev a
l^ces.

Betel Not.

Drugs.

a Fish Maws.

Fonads.

Pecids.

f 10,IIK1
• Boxes »
I 880 J

Pecols.
is,9i6

Pecols.
8,9M

Pecols.

Pecols.
1,886

Pecols.

«,9oe

Pecols.
5,sgo

Saadaia

otter

Woods.

Opinn.

WodDans.

Cotton
Goods.

Cotton
Yam.

Clocks;,
&c.

Feiurlsand

Come*

lians.

Total Valne of
the Imports.

iMOt

Chests or
Poems.

I7,70i

Pieces.
0,106

Value in
Dollars.

16,936

Pecols.
867

NU.

Yataeln
Dollars.

Iil.i6p

Dollars.
]7,447,6tt

400

EXPORTS FROM CHINA TO INDIA.

EXPORTS, 1830^1.

Tate.

Pecols*

S,4M

Raw

SUk.

n».

9^M7

Nan.
keeot.

Sagar &
Sagar

CBDdf.

Pieces.

J»9S,M0

Ptoente.

Teas.

lb.

14S^464 8,^,633

Caada

&CaMia

bada.

Pecols^

ll;S85'<

Drugs.

Peoals.

uid a qaantttjr
(piot stated),

▼alae
4l,<S5 doUafs*

8Uk
Piece
Goods.

Value in
OoUars.

• > 405,105

BallioD.

Dollars.

4,664^a

Total
Valaeof

DoOan.

0,976,841

For an account dfthe general trade of Cluaa sae Chap. X.

Widi respect to the India trade, it is stated thatta large por-
tion of the assorted cargoes exported firom China by the Ben-
gal and Bombajr ^ahips are artkJies proUhited, or subject to
such duties that they are genecaJHy smi^led, and that with
the Jcnowledge and coBnivanee «f the Mandarins. There is
an island near Whampoa, called French Island, where those
smugglers Uve. Goods intended to be smuggled are sent to
French Island, and notice given the night before at what hour
the cargo WiH be brought. The Mandarins then surround
the ship, and wait for the smuggling boat ; when it comes
alongside, they send a man in a canoe to count the packages,
that no more may be brought to the ship than they have re-
ceived their fee for.

flow 'far the throwing open of the China trade wfll affect
^he Bengal trade with Canton remains to be seen ; it is pro-
bable that, excepting in the article of opium, the commerce
between India tand dona will decsease.

The following return of the shipping employed between
India and Canton, win convey an idea of the relative propor-
tion of tmde jcacried on by each Presidency; the return is one
of the latest laid before ParUamsnt.

SHIPPING BETWEEN CANTON AND CALCUTTA, MADRAS, &C. 401

Ftom British India to Cantoo.

From Canton to British India.

Yeun,

Calcutta.

Madras.

Bombay.

'n>taL

Calcatta.

Madras.

Bombajr.

Total.

•

»
m

•

35941

•
as

•

1808—9

8508

9359

> 81

84991

9595

2738

8642 37 20905

18fl»-10

6«SS

13001 15

19034

30817

7873

1517

19981 81

91021

1810-11

5605

3693

19897

22125

6438 9

890

5794 92

113043

1811-18

7466

17789

85335

7112

4626 92

11818

1818-13

3146

5560

13692

29388

7694

960

4324 20

13978

1813-14

13103

6789

10573

89A59

5817

875

4476 19

10668

1814-16

13998

785

lOBll

24834

5478

600

8681 95

14659

181fr-l6

18068

4800

17070

3492)8

5348

843

6216 25

11906

181ft-17

16510

4671

18023

39212

13891

• •

6381 89

2017a

1817-18

17769

9400

17310

»7

37472

15701

9101

9206 47

270O8

1818-10

16198

2767

20850

39745 j 99

10563

848

10096 39

21511

1810-80

10141

9589

16813

29486; 10

4863

• •

9010 95

13873

1880-81

18360

5375

8476 45

32211 16

6691

1534

6768 39

14987

18S1-8S

14393

9539

90016

36871 IS

6023

1789

I8O67 38

21879

18»-83

19314

4107

ige62

36283 15

6624

579

1Q808 36

18011

1818-M

10763

9654

15419

28836 11

5510

1074

6855

13430

1884-aS

14069

4054

18854

37870, 11

4854

6364

9ssa

8OO74

I8SS-86

8715

8919

17383

30010 17

6898

8841

19085

91748

1880-87

91794

667 89

96722

49113 14

6599

6087

15738

96484

1887-98

17079

6139 37

27690

49891 18

6159

6849

10748

98940

1888-89

11544

4376 36

25731

41651 14

5998

4810

17644

38389

1890-80

5373

4449 39 !

85709

35631 16

4855

6448

16604

25008

1830-81

10113

3178

36695

39985 90

7278

13704

17006 58

37988

1881-89

8485

979

•7

16656 54 1

959I8 90

7804

0711

40.

80668 76

^08

1838-83

1834-35

1835-36

1
1

TRADE BETWEEN INDIA AND THE EASTERN ISLANDS

In a work of this nature, it would be impossible to enter
more fxiUy than I have already done into the detail of Indian
commerce, but before closing so important a chapter, it will,
be necessary to shew the large trade carried on between Ben^
gal, Madras, and Bombay, and the Eastern Islands, a trad|^.
which though it may not augment under the new system, as.
regards India, will probably be extended by European mer*
chants, except in such articles as are exclusively tropical pro-
ducts ; the articles in traffic at present are British and India
piece goods, opium, indigo, spices, grain, salt, hardware, oil,
&c. &c. ; by the following return, which extends over 17
years, it will be observed that the quantity of treasure ex;.
ported from the Eastern Islands is considerable.

VOL. I.

1) D

402 COMMERCE BETWEEN BENGAL^ MADRAS^ AND BOMBAY^ &C#

Ck>mmerce between Bengal, Madras, and Bombay^ & the Eastern Islands.

Imported to India.

' Exported tnm India.

Tears.

Merchandize.

Treasare.

Total.

Menchandlze.

Treasure.

Total.

Rupees.

Rupees. '

Rupees.

1814-15

47,30.881

33.88,038

70,03,419 ;

75,89.723

6,84,106

83,78,889

1816-10

49,89.685

38,81.879

72,10,914

78.66,091

97.365

74,63,856

1816-17

49,10.977

44,06,675

98.17,653 ;

68.97,374

84,187

68,81.431

1817-18

36,97,503

50,86,483

97JS3J0M

76.18,314

96766

77,08jieo

1818-19

S8,5Sy007

44,16,209

9%e6jS79

58,97,443

75.693

54,73,195

1810-30

83.57,594

54.15,376

77J3.960 1

61,71,066

1.93.017

68.68,089

1880-31

84.08,385

46,58,868

80,66.653

86,81,534

6,57.068

9^8,596

1831-83

38,17.859

43,84,731

81,01,990

1,11,18,071

8.82^8

1,90,00,889

183^88

83.80,859

48,73,840

81.03.499

1,08,64,843

1.38,189

1,09,87,8«9

1833-34

46,37,342

30,19,804

75,66.446

93,43,665

9,30,344

1,02.74.009

1884-85

44,53.431

35,98,831

70,46,353

76,19,568

88,550

7f,5S,SI3

1885-86

29,30.706

31,53,337

50,84,038

60,78,820

61,383

61,99.553

1886-37

85,33.188

44,36,860

79.69,043

61,32,854

38,748

61,61.103

1837-88

33,98,376

31,61.493

66,59,867

69,33,159

44,133

69,77.391

1838-80

35,06.184

21,36.948

56,43,133

76,97,108

SO, 185

y7.i7.39i

1829-80

36.57,987

22.72,628

49,30,615

74,66,432

1,01,920

75,68.352

1830-81

88,38,346

81.69,967

70,03,033

61,34.217

1,53,288

€6.87.499

1831-83

30,23,779

12,62,052

93,85,881

37,97.198

84,798

28,31,994

1838^88

1833-34

1834-35

1835-36

1
rnwsr fitnA

fn nirkaa

till a arra

1
\r t\f ficrnri

Pfl. irlii/*}i

1 linnvA«D»r

monotonous is indispensable, to shew the valuable commerce
which British India carries on — a trade which however vast at
present, is not a tithe of what it may become, by England
adopting a just and generous system towards the intelligent
and industrious myriads so mysteriously subjected to her
sway ; so long as the two countries are united their interests
are identified, and a partial or temporary benefit snatched
at by the one, will be certainly succeeded by the punishment
which sooner or later overtakes injustice.

The produce of the United Kingdom is admitted into (be
ports of India at a very low rate of duty,* while we place al-

* The following are the rates of dutf chargeable on goods the produce or xnanulheturt «f
the United Kiogdom imported bj sea Into Calcutta.

EsumeratiQn of Goods.

1. Bullion and Coiu

3* Horses ■

3. Marine Stores

4. Metals, wrought and nnwrought

6. Opium

6. Precious Stones and Pearls

7. Salt

8. Spirituous liquors

0. Tobacco

10. Wines

11. WooUenK

Articles not included in the above 1 1 items

British Bottom.

firee

free

34 rs. seer of 80

sa. wt.

free

8 rs. a md. of 88

sa. wt. per sr.

10 per cent

4 an. a md. of 80

sa, wt. per sr.

10 per cent

free

2^ per cent

Foreign Bottnuu

free.

Si per cent.

9| per cent

48 rs. seer of 8f

8a.wt.
free.
6 rs. a md. of 88

8«. wt. per sr.
2 percent.
8 an. a md. of 6#

sa. wt. per sr.
20 per cent.
24 percent.
5 per cent.

BRITISH EXPORTS TO INDIA AND CHINA.

403

most prohibitory duties on the Hindoo agricultural or manu-
factured produce if exported to England ; we have by this
one-sided free trade beggared India, and utterly ruined seve-
ral hundred thousand cotton spinners ; in 1814, Bengal ex-
ported to Londt)n 2,000,000/. worth of cotton goods, we have
not only supplanted the Hindoos in this market, but also in
their own thus destroying a trade of upwards of 4,000,000/.
value^ in addition to which we must add, that by our ma-
chinery we have almost destroyed the exportation of Indian
cloths to the Eastern Archipelago, to Persia, the coasts of
Africa and Arabia ; to the continents of Europe, and Ame-
rica, and estimating according to the Custom House returns,
the total value of the cotton goods and yam exported at
17,000,000/. sterling, we may safely assume that 10,000,000/.
worth of the trade has been lost to the Hindoos since 1814.

Britisli Cotton Goods and Cotton Twist exported to India and China.

Yean.

\ITiite or Plain
Manufactures.

Printed or Dyed
Manufactures.

Total.

Cotton Twist

Yard«.

Yards,

Yards.

Lbs

)dl4

213,408

604.800

818,208

1815

489,399

866,077

1 .365,476

• • • •

1816

714,611

991,147

1.705,758

624

1817

2.468,024

2,848,705

5.316,729

2,701

1818

4«614,38l

4.227,665

8,842.046

1,861

1819

3,414,060

3.713,601

7,127,661

971

1820

6,588,266

7,584,668

14,172,934

224

1821

9,747,496

9,976,718

19,724,214

5,865

1822

11,712,639

9,029,204

20.741,843

22,200

1823

13,676,521

9,540,813

23,117,334

121,500

1824

14,858,515

9,611.880

24,470.395

105,350

1825

14,211.496

8,826,715

23,038,211

235,360

1826

15,790.601

10,159,791

25,950,392

919,387

1827

28,582,299

14.559,134

43,141,433

3.063.96S

1828

32,274,308

12,604,827

44,879,135

4,790,505

1829

34,509,009

11,424,368

45.933,367

3,190,440

1830

45,321,656

13,690,388

59,012.044

4.998,690

1831

37,672,753

15,267.035

52,939.788

6,955,623

1832

40,656,511

18,374.200

69,030,711

4,535,427

1833

43,409^2

17,132,986

60,542,328

5,038,844

1834

46,241,400

14,248,887

60,490,287

5,591,739

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405

CHAPTER VII.

THE PRB88 — EDUCATION & RELIGION, INCLUDING THE HINDOO, HU88XL-
MAN, FAR8BE, 8TRIAN8, JBW8, ROMAN CATHOLICS, AND ESTABLISHED
CHURCH, && — 8LAYBRY — ORIlfE IN INDIA AND IN ENGLAND — SOCIAL
ASPECT AND GENERAL IMPROVEMENT OF BRITISH INDIA.

The Press.— The mighty engine which has effected cruch an
extraordinary revolution among the inhabitants of the earth,
and which by its powerful operation and almost unseen influ-
ence prevents any just parallel being drawn between ancient
and modern nations, is being extended with sure and certain
steps in British India, unshackled by stamp duties, unde-
pressed by taxes on paper or on advertisements, and unim-
peded by penalty bonds and securities, devoid of all censor-
ship, and practically free for every legitimate purpose which
a good citizen can require. The state of the press will be
seen by the following authentic and official returns.

Bengal. — In 1814, there existed but the Calcutta Gov.
Gazette. In 1820, there were in addition to the foregoing,
the Bengal Httrkant, (Messenger) the Indian Gazette ; the
Calcutta Journal: and the Monthly Journal. The following
was the return for the year 1830.

1. Cattntta Got. G«z«tte. 13. Calcatta Monthly MiseeL S3. Caleottm CbroBide.

9. Bengal Hnikani. 13. Bencal Olraobiry. S4. Gospel InvertiKator.

5. Indfaa Gazette. 14. Spy. 8S. Commercial Chronicle.
4. Calcutta Monthly JonnuJ. 15. Bengid. 96. Bengal Herald (4 lang.)

6. John Boll. 16. Weekly ffleaner. 97. Calcutta Gazette.
0. Aeiatie Observer. 17. Scotsman in the East. ' 98. Kaleiftosoope.

7. QoaiterlfOrlental Review. It. Colmnhian Press. 99. Caleatta Register.

8. B.India Mfi. Repositonr. 19. Bengal Chronide. 30. Minror of the Press.

9. UAit. k, Christ. Miscellany. 90. Oriental Obsenrer. si. Aonoal Keepsake.
1t.l^er. 91. Indian Magazine. 99. Caleattn Magazine.
11. Oriental Mercory. 99. Litsnuy Gazette. S9. Commercial Goide.

At the present moment the following is the number and
cureukting state of the Calcutta Press.

406 CALCUTTA PRESS (eNGLISH) DAILY, WEEKLY, ScO.

ENGLISH DAILY NEWSPAPERS.

POLITICAL.

CircDl«tloo.

Ben^Hurkani . 726

India Gazette 378

John Bull (now Engliahman) 306
Calcutta Courier .175

THRSB TUfBS A WBEK.

Bengal Chronicle . 208 f All three
India Gazette

COMMERCIAL.

CimlatSoB.

Exchange Gazette
Daily Advertizer
Tulloh'8 Do.
Loll Bazaar Do.

TWICE A WEEK.

l§?{ponS}c<^™'** Courier
WEEKLY.

POLITICAL.

Beniral Herald
Reformer
Inouirer
Indian Register

OFFICIAL.

Calcutta Gazette

242
400
200
200

(unknown.)

COMMERCIAL.

Commercial Price Current
Calcutta Exchange Do.
Domestic retail Do.
Export and Imports Do.

LITERARY.

Calcutta Literary Gazette
Oriental Observer

Bengal Register.
Sporting Magazine
Monthly JoumaL

Calcutta Quarterly Review
Bengal Amy List

MONTHLY.
270

Asiatic Society Journal
Calcutta Christian Observer
E. I. United Service Journal

QUARTERLY.

200 Quarterly Register.
260 (name unknown.)

6
O

222

338
230

200
380
130

Bengal Annual
Oriental Pearl.
Bengal Souvenir.

ANNUAL VOLUMES.

. 350 Calcutta Directory . . 1,200
Bengal Do. and Almanac l»20O

Proportions of Classes who subscribe to the Daily Papers at Calcutta.

Harkara and Chronicle ....

IndU Gazette

Calcutta Courier

John Bidl(nowSnc^hman)

Total.

•

136

308

103

1S3

ISS

104

413

034

«>

•

sod

—

ISl

—

034 I 115 I 406 < 37

•

3
5

11
14

164

17»

4
60

59
46
U
95

934

oaa
ao6

390

178

1905

In addition to the foregoing^ several English NeMrspapers

BENGAL PRESS (nATIVE) FAST AND PRESENT, 407

have been established in the provinces, — ^viz. the Meerut Ob^
server J and Caumpore Examiner; the Delhi Gazette; the
Agra Acbar ; the Mqfussil Acbar^ &c. &c.

Of the daily English Neivspapers, the Bengal Hurkaru
may be taken as an example ; it is as large as the London
Morning Posty circulates nearly a thousand copies, has geneir
rally a page, if not more, of well paying advertisements, and
its cost (independent of postage^) is 20 rupees a quarter.*

The Bengal, or rather properly speaking, the CcdcuttQ
Native PresSff was in —

1814, NiL — i 1820, NU.

In 1834.

Sumaehur Durpun, (Bengallee with English tranBlations).

Bunga dooty or Bengal Herald, (Bengallee, Persian and Hindoostanee),

Britani Bauhak, (published at Bowampoor) English and Bengallee.

Jami Jhan Numa, Persian ; Gyananneshun and Urmoobadika, Bengallee ;
Sumachur Chundrika, do. ; Ooodunt Martund, do. ; Sumbad Coomuddy, do. ;
Rutnebulli, do.; Subha Rqjendra, Persian; Shumsui Achbar^ Bengallee;
S^ha Rafendra, do. ; Sumbad Soodbaker, do. ; Sungbad Tumul Nmaack,
do ; Sungbad Sarsungroho, Bengallee and English.

Of these papers some are published twice or thrice a-week,
(one, I believe, daily) and the remainder weekly. Before
leaving India, arrangements were put in progress by the
Author for the establishment of a Scientific and Literary
Monthly Magazine in the native languages.

It should be observed that two of the Newspapers given
in the English list, (the Reformer and Inquirer) are the pror
perty of and conducted by Natives themselves with extraor-
dinary ability. The general tone of the English Press, as
also that of the Native Journals is liberal, but some of the
Bengallee Newspapers are of a high orthodox nature ; their
prejudices are, however, ably met by their own countrymen
in the Sungbad Coomuddy, (or Moon of Intelligence) and

* The Bengal postage of a newspaper if sent to any place within ;500
miles is about l^., and from 500 to 1^000 miles 3d.

t There are a great variety of Mbart or newspapers throughout the
fiMviiices« at the lUffereat Courts of which we do not know even the names.

408 MADRAS AND BOMBAY PERIODICALS.

Other Hindoo Journals. The Reformer is, it is said^ under the.
management of a distinguished, wealth y, and highly talented.
Hindoo, Prussunu Coomar Tagore. But to no individuals da
the Indian Press under greater ^obligations than to the late
Rammohun'Roy, and the munificent Dwarkanaut Tagxure.

The Madras and Bombay Press is less extensive C^An that
of Bengal, and it has been shifting so much that we possess
less accurate details of its actual state.

Madras. — English Periodicals — Gazette, Courier, Zficr-
karu, Advertiser, The Plain MatCs Friendly Victor,, Carnor
tic Chronicle,' Literary Gazette, The Seventh Day^ Comv$er^
cial Circulator, Oriental Magazine, Army Li^t, JRegi^ter,
Almanack, and the Mir at Ulakhbar in English atkd HiudoM^^
tanee.

Bombay — English Periodicals. — Gazette, Courier, In^y
Guide, Commercial Advertizer, Oriental Christian Spectator,
Sporting Magazine, Price Current, Calendar, Roister and
Directory. Native Periodicals — Na Sumqckur, Permfn
Huekba, Manibujeia Hurharu, Chahrook Guzarattee^ (Com-
mercial Journal.) One Newspaper is in Mahratta and Eng-»
lish, one is issued daily, and arrangements are in progress fqr
publishmg new papers at Bombay as well as at the other Pre*;
sidencies.

As before observed, there is no stamp duty on thje xj^yfSr
paper press of India, and it is but justice to add that when
the E. I. Government recently and very properly extended the
stamp laws from the Mofussil into Calcutta, they did not put
any stamp on newspapers. The Censorship throughout In-
dia has been finely abolished, and the enactment^ pn.efft^^
blishing a new journal are — the name and resi4ei^ce.of the
proprietor, &c. to be registered, and the following reg^tion
complied with — ' The editors of the newspapers or other
periodical works in the English language are required to
lodge one copy of every newspaper, regular or exlra^ and of
every other periodical work published by them respectively,
in the office of the chief secretary to the Government ; and
the editors of newspapers, or other periodical works in the

EDUCATION IN INDIA* 409

lasiguages of the country^ are in like manner required to lodge
one copy of every newspaper or other periodical work-pub^
lished by them, in the office of the Persian secretary to the
OoTermnent. For these copies they receive payment at the
usual r^te paid by regular subscribers for such publicat]<uis
respectively.*

' The nuittber of printing offices in different parts of India
is considerable, but they are difficult to enumerate, a great
many of them being managed entirely by natives. The noble
establishment of Mr. Samuel Smith, at Calcutta, is a fine spe*
cimen of how much may be accomplished by the spirit and
talent of a single individual: this gentleman's subscription
library and reading rooms are more spacious, and enriched
with a more numerous and valuable collection of books, &c«
than any circulating library in this splendid metropolis; in-
deed, I may venture to say that it is superior to Ebers's, Bull
and Churton's, and Saunders* and Ottley's combined. The
library also, of Messrs. Thacker and Co. is only inferior to
Mr. Smith's in size, the collection of books being exceedingly
valisable.

^ In the native as well as in the English journals, a free dis-^
cussion of the measures of Government takes place, and the
improvements suggested by the press, or the complaints made
through its columns, receive the ready attention of the Go*
vei^tttent, which seeks or wishes for no disguise. .If no in-
judicious effort be made to obtain premature circulation for
any '8|)ectilativ6 journal, the press of India will become as
useful to the rulers as to the ruled ; and if kept free from
licentiousness, and private malice or scandal, it will indeed be
a b<k>n and blessing to the natives of the eastern hemisphere,*
into every part of which, from Persia to China,f it is now

* Litliogrftphy, 80 admirably suited for the Oriental characters, has come
to tJie aid of its eki«r skter. Typography ; there are seyeral e8tabli8hmeiit9
in Caleutta ; one at Cavrapoor even, and» I believe, one has recently been
set up )0 Persia itself.

\ There are two Eof^lish newspapers, a monthly joamal, and, I beliere,
a quarterly, and two annual periodicals published in China, at Canton and
Macao!

410 EDUCATION IN INDIA — BRITISH LITERATI.

slowly but surely finding a footing, and paving the way for
the final dissolution of uncontrolled despotism.

EDUCATION.
Let us now turn to the important subject of education;
and although the proofs of its progress may not be so easy ai
demonstration as that of the public press^ yet it would be
unnatural to suppose that such distinguished Anglo-Indian
Uterati as Yerelst^ Yansittart, H[asting8> Orme, Halhed, Glad-
wjn, Wilkins^ Law, Paterson, Jones, Harrington, Wilford,
Hunter, Colebrooke, Leyden, Scott, Baillie, Ross, Ellis,
Franklin, Erskine, Roebuck, Lumsden, Gilchrist, Malcolm,
Marsden, Elphinstone, Babington, Carey, Vans Kennedy,
Parker, M acnaghten, M arshman, Wilson, Herbert, Prinsep,
Tod, Mackintosh, and a host of others whom it would be
tedious to mention, would not make every possible exertion
for the diffusion of that knowledge of which many were, sud
many still are the richest possessors. It was stipulated at
the last renewel of the' Charter, that 10,000/. should be an*
nually devoted from the surplus territorial revenue of India,
to the purpose of education ; by the following extract from a
parliamentary return in 1832, it will be seen that the Company
have doubled, and in some years trebled the amount laid
down in the Act, although there was no surplus revenue in
India : — *

1824 jf21,884 1827 jC45,31d 1830 ^44,330 1833 £

1825 66,563 1828 35,841 1831 1834

1826 27,412 1829 38,076 1832 1835

As an instance of the efforts making for the diffusion of '
intelligence throughout the British dominions, I may quote
the testimony before ParliamentdS* the Hon. Holt Mackenzie,
who states that since the renewal of the last Charter, the
Bengal Government have established a college at Calcutta
for the Hindoos, and reformed very much the old Moslem
College; that colleges have been established at Delhi and
Agra, for both Hindoos and Moslems ; the Hindoo College
at Benares has been reformed ; at the several institutions it
has been the object of Government to extend the study of

EFFORTS OP THE E. I. COMPANY TO EXTEND EDUCATION, 411

the English language, and good books have been supplied,
&c. ; that seminaries have been established in different parts
of the country, and schools established by individuals have
been aided by Government.* With respect to Bombay,
Major-General Sir Lionel Smith, a veteran and distinguished
King's officer, observes in his evidence before Parliament
(6th Oct. 1831), ' Education is in such extensive progress,
that I hardly think it could be more extended — education is
also going on in the Deckan ; the encouragement given by
Government consists in a very Uberal establishment, under
the direction of an officer of very great attainments in the
native languages, Capt. Jarvis/

For the army, also, the Company have established schools,
and libraries have been sent out to India for the use of the
troops ; and it is in frequent evidence before Parliament, that
great pains are taken with the native regimental seminaries.
I might quote similar testimony with respect to Madras, but
perhaps the best proof that I could adduce is the statement
made by that indefatigable friend of India, Sir Alexander
Johnson, in his late able Report laid before the Royal Asiatic
Society, namely, that in Madras, ' the proportion of the inha-
bitants who have been taught reading, writing, and the rudi-
ments of arithmetic, in their own language, amount to one in
Jiver^

Now it we take the . Madras population to be no better
educated than that of Calcutta or Bombay, we shall actually

• The Calcutta School Book Society, from 1824-25 up to the 30th April,
1833, printed 13,000 copies of 24 Sauscrit works; 5,000 copies of seven
Arabic works ; 2,500 do. of five Persian authors ; 2,000 do. of four Hindu
do. and several other works were then in the Press. Tlie printing^ charges
of the Society for the foregoing period was 105,425 rupees.

f Sir Alexander also states, that the Board of Education at Madras have
recently circulated an almanack, on similar principles to the British alma-
nack published here, among the native population of the Madras presi-
dency, at thetriting expense of 48/. , and that the late Colonel Mackenzie
received from the East India Company 10,000/. for his collections on the
Idstory of the Hindoos of the Southern Peninsula. The money paid by
the East India Company for Dr. Morrison's Chinese Dictionary, was
12,000/. sterling!

412 INSTRUCTION IN PROPORTION TO POPULATION IN INDIA, &C.

have a higher right of education in India than in any other
country on earth : —

EDUCATION IN PROPORTION TO POPULATION.

In ladia . » .1 scholar to every . . 5 inhabitants.

England ... 1 do. ...... 15 do.

France ... 1 do 17 do.

United States . 1 do . 11 do.

Austria .... 1 do 15 do. '

PniAsia .... 1 do 7 do.

The Netherlands. 1 do 9 do.

PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN BENGAL.
The CaiouttQ Madm$a, of hUhmnedan College was founded in 1781, by
Warren Hastings^ who provided a building for it at his own expense,
amonnting to 57»745 rupees, but which was- afterwards charged to the
Company. The Bengal government also, at the recommendation of Mr.
Hastings, assigned knds of the estimated value of 29,000 rupees per an-
num, for the support of the institution, to promote the study of the Arabic
and F^ian langoages, and of the Mahomedan law, with a view, more es*
pecially* to the production of well qualified officers for the courts of justice*

la 1791» the government of the College was placed in the hands of a
Committee of Superintendence, consisting of the acting president of the
Board of Revenue, the Persian Translator to Government, and the pre-
parer of reports.

The students were divided into classes, and the following sciences to be
taught :— Natural Philosophy, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Geometry,
Aritlimetic, Logic, RJietoric, Oratory, Grammar.

Not more than two months' vacation allowed to the students in one year.
Every Friday to be set apart for purifications and religious worship. ' Hie
salaries of the preceptors and officers to be — Head Preceptor, 400 nipees
per month ; first Assistant, 100; second ditto, 80; third ditto, 60; fimrth
ditto, .30.

Each stndent in the five classes to receive an allowance of 15, 10, 8, 7»
or 6 rupees per month, according to his class. The number of students
to be regulated by the committee, and s^l surplus funds to be employed in
the purchase of books.

In a vohiminous report in 1819, of a retrospective view of the resooroes
and expenditure of the institution, the latter amounted, from the year
1794 to the year 1S18, a period of 25 years, to the sum of 4,94,197 rupees.
30,000 rupees per annum, is now guaranteed to the College out of the
public treasury, instead of the institution depending upon the uneertun
produce of the lands which were originally granted to it as an endowment.
The public examinations whkh take place every year demonstrate the pro*
gress of the College.

BENARES HINDOO SANSCRIT COLLEGE. 413

In 1S279 the study of Arabic, Mahomedan Law, and Mathematics was
extended, and a Medical Class instituted. The examinations were in
Arabic, Logic, Rhetoric, Philosophy, Budid, Arithmetic, Algebra and
Medicine. In 1828, an English Class was established ; Skeletons and
Anatomical Models and Surgical works prodded* All applications for
Law officers under Qovemment were to be accompanied by certificates
from the College, and a preference given to those who ftad acquired the
English language and produced testimonials of good conduct in the Col-
lege. In 1830, number of Students 99 ; examined 85.

Benares Hindoo Sanscrit College, established by Jonathan Duncan, Esq.
the resident at Benares in 1791, as a means of employing, beneficially for
the country, some part of a surplus which the public revenues yielded over
their estimated amount. The expense for the first year was limited to
14,000 rupees. In the following year it was augmented to 20,000 rupees ;
at which amount It has been continued down to the present time. The
object of this institution was the preservation and ciritivation of the laws,
literature and religion of the Hindoos, (and more particularly of their
laws) in their sacred city ; a tneasnre which it was conceived would be
eq^ually advantageous to the natives, and honourable to the British Govem«
ment among them.

The establishment originally consisted of a head pundit or rector ; eight
professors ; nine students Who enjoyed salaries ; with book*keepers, wri-
ters, peons, &c. ' The Governor-General was constituted visitor, and the
resident his deputy. Besides the scholars on the foundation, and a certain
. number of poor children who were to receive iastruetioii gratis, the in-
stitution was open to aQ persous who were willing to pay for instruction :
the teachers and students to hold their places during the pleasure of the
visitor. All the professors, except the professor of medicine, to be Brah-
mins. The Brahmins to have preference in succession to the office of rec-
tor, or to professorships. Four examinations in the year to beheld before
the resident. Each professor to compose annually for the use of his stu*
. dejBts, a lecture on his respective science. Examinations into the most
sacred branches of knowledge to be made by « committee of Brahmins.
Courses of study to be prepared by the professors^ The internal discipline
to be in all respects conformable to the Dherma Shastra, in the chapter
on education.

The prescribed course of studies in this college to comprehend.

Theology, Ritual, Medicine including Botany, &e. Music, Mechanic
. Arts, Grammar, Prosody, and Sacred Lexicography, Mathematics, Meta-
physics, Logic, Law, History, Ethics, PhilosofAy, and Poetry.

7%^ Calcutta Hindoo Sanscrit College, dates its establishment from 1821
For the support of this institutioa, the annual sum of 30,000 rupees has
been allowed by Government, and 1,20,000 rupees has abo been allotted

414 AGRA^ DELHI^ AND VIDALAYA COLLEGES.

for the erection of a college. The estafilishuient consists of 14 Pondits, a
Librarian and servants, 100 scholars on the foundation, and a Secretary.

The sum of 1,200 rupees is reserved for distribution in prizes at the
public examination, and a school for Hindoo children is connected with
the college.

In 1623 the Bengal Govf mment formed a General dmrnittee ofPuhUe
In^f%tcthn at Calcutta, for the promoting of education and of the improrei'
ment of the morals of the natives of India.

The annual sum of one lac of rupees, which, by by the 53 Geo* III., c.
155, was appropriated to the purposes of education %vas placed at their
disposal. The schools at Chlnsurah, lUjpootana, and Bbaugulpore, were
olaced under the control of this committee, and the separate grants which
had been made to those schools, amounting together to 16,800 rupees per
annum, were discontinued from the Ist January 1824.

The total amount placed at the disposal of the General Committee of
Public Instruction in the years from 1821-22 to 1825-26 was, S. R.
4,78,400.

Agra College. In 1822, the Governor-General in Council sanctioned
the institution of a college at Agra ; the sum of 42,501 Rs. was for the
erection of the college ; an expenditure of 15.420 R&, authorised, and the
number of students in the college was in 1826^1 17; 1827—210; in 1830
— ^203; of whom 73 received stipendiary allowances.

Delhi College, similar to the foregoing by its adaptation to useful in-
struction. In 1827 the number of students was 204; in 1828—199; and
in 1829-152 ; the reduction being owing to a discouragement of pecuniary
or stipendiary grants to pupils.

Fidalaya or Anglo-Indian College. "This highly interesting and pro-
mising institution," it is stated, ** owes its origin to the intellit^ence and
public spirit of some of the opulent native gentlemen of Calcutta, who
associated together in 1816, and subscribed a capital sum of Rs. 1,13,179,
to found a seminary for the instruction of the sons of Hindoos in the Eu-
ropean and Asiatic languages and sciences. It was placed under the
superintendence of the General Committee, as the condition of pecuniary
aid, to the amount of 300 rupees per month, for house-rent, afforded to it
out of the Education Fund. This institution has a growing popularity and
decided superiority, on its present footing, over any other affording tuition
to the natives in the English language ; a select library of books has been
sent from England, and some additional philosophical apparatus. The
number of scholars, all male, is stated at 200 ; and so long, the committee
add, as such a number, all respectably connected, "can be trained, in use-
ful knowledge and the English language, a great improvement may be con-
fidently anticipated in the intellectual character of the principn^ inhabi-
tants of Calcutta." In order to secure the continued attendance of the

IIISTORV OF bishop's COLLEGE NEAR CALCUTTA. 415

more promisiiif; pupils, and to enable them to complete their course of
study, a limited number of scholarships has been endowed by the Govern-
ment. The number of pupils were in January 1826 — 196 ; in 1827 — 372 ;
July 1826—280 ; 1828—437 (of whom 100 received gratuitous edueation.)
The number is still on the increase.

EnglUh College. The Government sanctioned the establishment of a
distinct English College, for the admission of a certain number of the more
advanced pupils from the Hindoo and Mahommedan colleges, for gra^
tuitous instruction in literature and science, by means of the English Ian*
guage ; for which purpose the Education Fund could afford an income of
Rs. 24,000 per annum.

The Bishop's College near Calcutta A grant of land, of about 20 acres,
was made by the Government in India, for the purposes of the College, to
which a farther grant has since been made. It stands about three miles
below Calcutta, in a fine situation, on the opposite bank of the river
Mooghly, which is there much wider than the Thames at London* The
spot IS peculiarly favourable for privacy and retirement: and the sce-
nery is such," Bishop Middletou observes, "as to gratify and soothe the
mind."

The foundation stone of the college was kid, on the 15th of December,
1820, by Bishop Middleton. The Incorporated Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, transmitted to Dr. Middleton thr sum
of 5,000/. to enable him to commence the work ; 5,000/. were contributed
by the Society for Promoting Chijistian Knowledge ; 5,000/. more were
voted by the Church Missionary Society; and the British and Foreign
Bible Society had added 5,000/. This sum of 20,000/. was augmented by
collections in all the churches in England and Wales, in consequence of a
** King's Letter," which amounted to 45,000/. with which the building has
been completed. ^

The College consists of three piles of buildings, in the plain Gothic style.
These buildings forms three sides of a qpadrangle; the fourth, or south
side, being open to the river, which in that part flows nearly from E. to VV.
The pile which fronts .the river consists of the college chapel to the E.,
divided by a tower from the hall and library on the W. The biuldings on
the E. and W. sides of the quadrangle contain the apartments for a prin-
cipal and two professors, with lecture rooms, and rooms for the students.
The whole is formed on the plan of combining comfort an^ convenience
with an elegant simplicity.

Bishop's College is under the immediate direction of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel ; but the statutes are so framed as to afford
opportunity both to the Government in India and to the religious societies
connected with the Church of England, of obtaining, under certain

416 SCHOOLS IK BENGAL.

regulations, the benefits of the coll^ife for such stadents as they may
place there.

For the regular supply of students, the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel, has adopted the measure stated in the following extract from
a late report: — "Ten theological scholarships and ten lay scholarships
have been formed by the society, for natife or European youths educated
in the principles of Christianity ; and the sum of 1 fiOOL per annum has
been appropriated to this special purpose. The ordinary age of admission
of fourteen

The Christian Knowledge Society assists in this ^]pn of scholarship ;
having placed ihe sum of 6,000/. at the disposal of the Gospel Propaga-
tion Society, for the purpose of endowing five scholarships, to be called,
in memory of the founder of the College, '* Bishop Middleton's Scholar-
ships." This grant is also intended to provide a salary for a Tamol
teacher in the College, that being the language chiefiy used in the Society's
missions.

The Church Missionary Society voted a grant of 1,000/. per annum for
several years, on account of the importance of the institution, and of the
cG-opeption it afforded in their department of labour in India.

In 1830, the Directors of Bishop's College have upwards of 50,000/ in
the 3i per cents., as a fund towards the support of that institution. There
are upon that foundation a principal, two professors^ eight missioaariet,
two catechists, and a printer

The College Council consists of three professors, and attached to the
College are four European Missionaries.

The foregoing abstract of the Colleges in Bengal is suffi-
cient to convey an idea of the good intentions of the GoYern-
ment in furthering education. There are various primary
and elementary schools, viz. at Chinsurah (where there are
1,200 scholars); at Ajmeer (in which school there are SOO
boys) ; Boglipoor school (134 pupils) ; Cawnpore (75 scholars) ;
Allahabad (50 ditto);* Dacca {25 schools and 1,414 pupils);
Mynpoory College, Etawah (40) ; Bareilly (131 schools, 300
seminaries, with 3,000 pupils) ; and an established CoUege,
with 50 students. The following statement respecting Ba-
reilly is full of interest :

In 1827, the local agents in Bareilly, Messrs S. M. Boalderson, J.
Davidson, and C. Bradford, were required to report " what schools, col*

It is proposed to establish an English College at Allahabad.

BAR£ILLY HINDOO AND PERSIAN SCHOOLS. 417

leges, or seminaries of any description whatever, existed in the towns or
Tillages" of that district. In reply they informed the Education Com-
mittee, that in the town of BareiUy there were 101 schools in which Per-
sian was taught, and 20 in which the children of the Malinjims were taught
accounts ; besides which there were 1 1 persons who taught Arabic, and
two who taught the science of medicine -, that in the villages round about
BareOly there were nine Hindoo schools and 13 Persian; and in other
parts of the district as follows : —

' In the thannah of Bhoora, 4 P. ;* in Ichonadab, 3 P . 3 H*. ; in the town
of Budaou, 34 P., besides the College of Mahasnood Ally: in the neigh-
bouring villages, 6 P. 1 H. ; in Kusbah Furreedpore, 8 P. ; in the neigh-
bouring villages, 8 P. ; in Kusbah Besulpore, 2 H. ; in the neighbouring
Tillages, 7 H. ; in the thannah of Dettagunge, 6 P. 2 H. ; in Riche, 1 H. ;
in the adjoining villages, 11 H. ; in the Busten Ojahnee, 1 P. 2 H. ; in the
villages adjoining, 2 P. 16 H. ; in the town of Omlah, 8 P. 21 H. ; in the
adjoining villages, 6 P. ; in the thannah of Bilsee, 4 P. 3 H. ; in the town
of Sh^igusti, 1 P. ; in the villages of the Pergunnah, 3 P. 1 H. ; in the
thannah of Nawaubgunge, 5 P. 32 H. ; in the Busten of SheergicoU, 2 P. i
in the neighbouring villages, 10 P. ; and that in a village of the same than-
nah there were resident three learned men who taught the Arabic sciences,
zad in the thannah of Meergunge, 3 P. 4 H.

" In these schools," the local agents obsen^e, " science of any sort is
nurdy studied. Works in the Persian language, such as the Bostan, Gotis-
tao, Zalicka, Madhooram Aboolfuzul, Secundernameh, Tusha Kheeleefa,
Bahardanisli, are read, with a view to facility in writing Persian ; besides
this, the scholars are instructed in the simplest rules of arithmetic. In
the colleges, the works read are in the Arabk language. The course of
study includes Surf, Neho, Mautick, Laws of Composition, Fikha Kikmut,
under which are included medicine, mathematics, and natural philosophy,
the Buddus, and the explanations of the Koran ; besides there, there arc
schools in which the children of Mahajans and those intended for putwar-
ries are taught accounts ; those who study the Hindoo sciences read the
Vedas, the Shastres, the Poorans, Beakam Jotuh Chelum Naryul, C^oosh
Bed, Memansa, NearL We have not heard that there are any establish-
ments for such scholars in the villages.

*' In the schools in which Persian is taught, the boys read manuscript
copies of the different books, and learn to write on boards.

** Hindoos and Mussulmans have no scruples about reading together.
The teachers are almost always Syeds, Sheiks, Moguls, Pbtans or Kaits.

" The teachers, are paid from three to seven rupees a month by the per-
son at whose house they sit i they also get their meals twice a day ; and

* P. Persian, and H. Ijindoo.

VOL. 1. E E

418 NATIVE SCHOOLS AND MODS OF INSTRUCTION THltREIN.

surancef that is, a kubba, razaee, toehak and bol^iosh. Kobba and zaxet
are regularly given every year, whether the old one be worn out or not ;
the tushak and bolaposh are sometimes given, sometimes not. Summer
clothing is also sometimes given, but rarely. Those who do not pay a
teacher for attending at their own houses, send their children to the houses
of those who entertain one, and pay the teacher from four aanas to one
rupee monthly, according to their means ; besides this, the master gets
other perquisites, such as 'jummajee' offerings, presented on Thurs-
day evenings by each boy, from four gundahs to one and five annas;
' aghazee' offerings, presented on beginning a new book, from five aonaf
to one and a half rupee ; ' eidlc,' presented on hoUdays, from one anna to
one rupee. The boys begin to study at six years of age sometimes, but
sddom till 20 ;* in the colleges, from 14 to 25, sometimes 30, sometimes
much less, it depending upon the talents and inclination of the ttodeatt.
Those who learn Persian, viz. boys till the age of 14 and 15, never Roudn
under the roof of the master ; on the contrary, he generally attends at the
house of some person or other, where he instructs the children of the
master of the house, and those of others. Schools in which aooonnts are
taught differ in no material respect from Persian ones. Those who teadi
Arabic have sometimes pupils who come from a distance residing under
their roof j but those who live in the same town remain in their parents'
house. It is considered improper to take any thing from Arabic students,
unless from necessity. The schools in the towns are well attended in com-
parison with those of the villages -, we have heard of no sdiools supported
by pubUc grants.*'

In Delhi district there are about 300 elementary schools,
in several of which the Preceptors receive no pay, but teach
* gratis, in hope of Heaven.* There are a great variety of
other colleges and schools m Kidderpore, Burdwan, Moor-
shedabad, Hooghly, Nuddea, Rajishaye, Calcutta Benevolent
schools (250 pupils of both sexes) : Infant schools in variouB
districts, under the Committee of Management at Calcutta;
Sylhet, Chittagong, Beaspoor, &c. independent of regular
schools, and private or missionary seminaries. The Mission-
ary Societies maintain schools at their respective stations.
The following are maintained by them under this Presi-
dency ; —

By the London Society. — At Calcutta^ and out stations,
Bengallee schools, for boys, 11 ; for giris, 4 — 16. At CAm*

* It is thus in the official document.

EDUCATION IN MADRAS^ AND MODE OF PAYMENT. 419

wraA-^Bengallee^for boys^ 2. At Berbanpore — ^Bengallee, for
boys, 1 ; for girls, 1 — 2. At Benares — ^Hindui, for boys, 4.
By the Baptist Society. — ^At Calcutta, and out stations, for
boys, 2; for girls, 22—24*. At Cutwa, for girls, 4u At
Sewry, for boys, 4; for girls, 4— ^8.

STATE OF EDUCATION AT MADRAS.

The reports in detail from this Presidency are not nu-
merous, but to compensate in some measure, we have a more
complete return than from any of the other Presidencies re-
lative to the males and females at each school, distinguishing
the Hindoo from the Mussulman scholars. This return will
be found affixed to this Chapter. A summary of the report
states, that the schools are for the most part supported by
the people who send their children to them for instruction,
the rate of payment for each scholar varying in different dis-
tricts, and, according to the circumstances of the parents of
the pupils, viz. from one anna (three-halfpence) to four ru-
pees (eight shillings) a month, the ordinary rate of the poorer
classes being generally four annas, and seldom exceeding
eight annas. There are endowed schools, or teachers, in the
following districts : —

Rajamundry-^-Gd teachers of the sciences, endowed with
land, and 13 receiving allowances in money.

^e22(>re— several Brahmins and Mussulmans, receiving
1,467 rupees j9^ annum for teaching the Vedas, Arabic, and
Persian.

Arcoi — ^28 colleges and six Persian schools.

Salem — 20 teachers of Theology and one Mussulman
school.

Tanjore — n colleges and 44 schools, supported by His
Highness the Rajah.

7VfcAfff€;po/y— seven sehools.

Jlfa/oior— ^ne college.

Endowments for purposes of education in other districts
have unfortunately been appropriated to other purposes.

4^ STATE OF EDUCATION AT BOMBAY.

The Missionary Societies maintain the following schools,
under this Presidency : —

The London Society » — At Madras , and out stations,
Tamil, for hoys, 14; girls, 2; hoys and girls, 2 — 18. .2H-
passoor — ^Tan^il, hoys and. girls, 2 ; EngUsh, hoys and girls,
2 — 4. Vizagapatam — ^Teloogoo, hoys and girls, 11. Cwd-
ddpdh — Teloogoo, hoys and girls, 8. Chittoor — ^Teloogoo
and Tamil, for hoys, 7 ; girls, 1 — 8. Belgaum^ and out sta-
tions — Mahratta and Tamil, for hoys, 7; for girls, 1 — 8.
J5e//ory— Canarese and Tamil, for hoys, 12; for girls, 1 — 13.
Bangalore^ with out stations— Canarese, Mahratta, Teloogoo^
and Tamil, for hoys, with a few girls, 7. Salem — Tamil,
Teloogoo, and English, hoys, 7. Comboconum — Tamil, for
hoys, 12; for girls, 1 — 13. Coimbatoor — Tamil, for hoys, 5.
Nagercoil, with out stations — Tamil, for hoys, 46 ; for girls,
4 — 50. Neyoor, with out stations — ^Tamil, for hoys, 60 ; for
girls, 1 — 51. Quilon — Malayalim, for hoys, 14; for girls,
10 — ^24. The Wesley an Missionary Society y — ^At Madras^
14. Bangalore^ 6. Negapattam and Melnattamy 8.

A committee of puhlic instruction has heen formed at
Madras on the model of that of Bengal, and much good has
already heen affected hy the same.

STATE OF EDUCATION AT BOMBAY.

The Government of this Presidency has not heen hehind
hand in promoting the hlessing of education. In July, 1828,
a circular letter was issued to the several collectors under
the Bomhay Government, calling upon them to report an-
nually to the Foujdarry Adawlut the numher of schools in
their collectorates, the numher of hoys attending each, and
the mode in which education was conducted, also the mode
in which printed tracts were sought after and disposed of.
In Octoher, 1829, these reports having heen received, the
Registrar of the Adawlut was instructed to forward to the
Government a general report of the state of education in the
provinces of the Bomhay Presidency, framed from the infor-

NATIVE EDUCATION SOCIETY AT BOMBAY. 431

Ination conveyed in the statements of the several collectors,
and suggesting the means which, in the opinion of the Judges,
were most likely to promote and improve the education of the
natives of India.

Firsty by a gradual extension of schools on an improved
principle, either by affording the patronage of Government
to native schoolmasters, on condition of their improving their
system, or by the establishment of new schools in populous
places at the expense of Government : and.

Secondly, by the gratuitous distribution of useful books,
such as ' books of arithmetic, short histories, moral tales,
distinct from their own false legends, natural history, and
some short voyages and travels.'

Periodical examinations the Judges recommend to be held
with caution, as likely to excite alarm, and when voluntarily
submitted to by the schoolmasters, to be accompanied by
liberal rewards to the scholars for proficiency, * as showing
the interest the Goverhn^ent takes in the proceedings, and as
a mode of encouragement which would seem upon common
principles likely to be attended with a good result.'

This report is accompanied by the following * Statement
of the Schools and Scholars in the different Collectorships.'

Native Education Society. The committee of this noble
institution (voluntarily formed in 1815, and composed in
nearly equal proportions of Europeans and natives) at a
meeting, 12th April, 1831, stated that its aggregate receipts
and disbursements within the year amounted to between
70,000 and 80,000 rupees; that it has constantly on sale
more than 40 publications in the native languages, many of
them the produce of the Bombay lithographic and other
presses, of which former mode of printing favourable speci-
mens are appended to the reports ; and that it has under its
controul and management the several schools and establish-
ments described in the following paragraphs : —

In the central school 250 boys have been through a course of study in
the English language ; 50 have left it with a competent knowledge of the
language, consisting of an acquaintance with geography, mathematics.

4S2

SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARS AT BOMBAY, ANSF

and ^[eometry. In Bombay ^ the boys in the Mahntta school hare amounteil
to 954, and in Ouzzerattee to 427. At present, there are altogether 66 of
the society's schools^ each containing about 60 boys, amounting in the
whole to 3,000 boys under a course of education.

This report coBtains the foUowing further particulars : —

Your committee obserfc that the boys who have made the greatest pro-
gress Hi the English schook are the Hindoos ; they are left longer in tlie
schools by their parents than other boys, who, though equally intelligent
and quick, are more irregular in their attendance. Few or no Mahomedan
boys ever enter the schools.

In 1826^ there were in the Socie^^s school at Bombay,
367 boys boarders ^ and 228 girls ditto; and there were of
day scholars 268 Christians, and 472 natives. In Surat
school, 3 Christians and 48 natives, and the regular schools
183 pupils.

There is a Hindoo college at Poona, at which premiums
are awarded to the most deserving students. An admirable
Engineer College has been formed at Bombay, at which,
according to the latest return, there were 86 students enter-
tained and instructed.

Schools and Scholars at Bombay.

DISTRICTS.

'Poona

Deccan. * Ahmednofiriir

, Caoddsh

Surat

««««••' iSf .::::::::::::

i. Ahmedabad

r Northern Concan ..

Concan. < Southern ditto

VDarwar

9
S
9
8
9
1
9

966

9S9

ft9
96

1*7

197

188

1815

304

164

119

188

135

985

809

leso

4651
9906

1610
4068

967
8094
8996
9490
6700
4196

33838

309

168

114

190

137

804

•

4»17

siss

1M9
4164
1049

siai

9678
6791

4990

1705 88153

In May, 1830, the Education Society reported 25 school-
masters, 1 1 Mahrattas, and 14 Guzzerattees, ready to com-
^mence their duties as teachers in the various schools in the
Deccan, in Guzzerat, and in the two Concans. They had

OFFICIAL RETURNS OF THE STATE OF THE SCHOOLS. 4^

acquired an accurate knowledge of their own languages, and
were so far acquainted witk the higher branches of the ma-
thematics as to entitle them to be considered teachers of the
second order. Sations were proposed for them by the So-
ciety, to which they were sent by the GoYemment.
• ' In 18@9, there were 44 students quitting the institution to
enter on professional employment, of whom there were — ^Cu-
ropeans, 7 ; Mahratta, 32 ; Guzzerattee, 5. Mathematical
instnunents, &c., are sypplied by the E. I. Company.

The following very condensed abstract relative to the
number of the schools under the Bombay Presidency (ac-
GCHrding to circular queries in 18S5) and the mode in which
the teacher is remunerated, will be perused with much
interest.

Official Returns (Abstract) of the Schools onder the Bombay Presidancy.

DtetricU.

Knmbef of SeilKxflfl
and Sch<d«n.

Sdioob. 1 ScboUn.

Cltf ai

ViUa«es..03

■ •

Allowuices to SchoolmMten, and from what
Source derlTed.

Bralmiins 9
Ditto 40S
Wan.
nees. ..1,060
Kombee8534
17 other

castes 480
In Goga U7

Total 2,061

KaSiaDlst..

Station..

86
(S8 in pri
▼ate dwel
UogB, aod
38 in tem-
ples.)

18Q
badly
ducted

of an castes,

indodlnK

567Bramios,

and no girls.

seldom m(»«

than 180
boys in each

school,
in general
mach less.

..The manner of remaneratlng teaehers is exceed-
ingly rarioos, each village having a mode pecnliar to
itself. The more genend practice is, for each boy to
present dally about a handfol of flour. A sum of from
one to five rupees is also usually paid on his leaving
school. The parents also pay about one rupee and a
half oo the boy being perfect in the first 15 lessons.
A similar sum on his acquiring a perfect knowledge
of the alphabet, and another sunilar sum when he is
able to write, to cast up accounts, and to draw out
bills of ezchaoge. The oflice of schoolmaster is ge-
nerally hereditary.

..Pecuniary payments, amounting to about four
rupees a month npon an average (a salary which is
stated to be perfectly inadequate far eAcient Instmc-
tioo) ; it is also customary in Hindoo schools, for
each child to give two nntvrars of rice per month*
and the shewoo pice, or two pice, to the teachers on
every great Hindoo holiday j but this custom is not
invarldily observed.

. . "nie boys dally, when ttiey quit the sdiool in the
evening, present ahandfhl of gnln, seldom exceeding

s
Tbeeda»
cation
does not
extend be-
yond the
rudiments
of reading,
writing, and
arithmetic.

830
average
number of
ail

a quarter of a seer } and when they Anally leave the
school make the master a present ot two or three ru-
pees. Boys of respectable families also give half a
rupee en first entering the school, and on days of
ceremony send him a meal of grain and ghee. They
also sometimes beg for him from respectable visitors.
Total of income between 40 and 100 rupees.
. .The office confined in Brahmins, tiiough not here-
ditary, llkey receive generally seven seers of grain
monthly from the parents of each boy, and five rup ee s
in oast when he is withdrawn from school.

404

HONOURABLE HOLT MACKEN8IE S EVIDENCE

DWricts*

CoDcan ....

SnntZiUah.
(ezeloriTe
of alien
ated vn
lages).

ZnratTown.

Broach ZU-
lah......

Knmber of Scihools
andScholaxa.

Schools.

GOTt 1

Charitable S
Hindoo. . ...8
Mahom. . . .3
ISO

Scholars.

SQO

ISO

100\
80/
areracv
aboat 3000.

Allowances to Schoolmasters, and from what
Bonroe declTed.

Bs.

Fixed pay from GoTemment per month . Co

Ditto from American Missionary Society . 96

Varioos Allowances from Parents between per aKatk,
Rs. 40 and 3. 3.
..Total Kmolamwita :

Floor Rs. 91S 1 01

Cash .... 4,191 19 to S^OSl 9 19
Senrice lands iss 3

Hindoo. . . 49
Pnndlts . . 18
Bftahom.. 90
Moollas.. 56
In Cosbas 13
Villages.. 85

BroachTOwn

Kandeish...

Hindoo
Elemen-

tary..95
Superior. ..75

170
Mahom... 19

Total 189

9,999

471

987

Not Stated

873

Total Rs.

A,l6S 9 80 to 6,103 9 80

Each master reeelTes aboot 60 rapaes per aiumib,
for 50 boys in grain and money.

9,099
(being in
tbe propor-
tion of 1 to
18, the nam.
berof male
inhabitants,
being 36,881.

..In the townshtpa tfaey reoelTe their
chiefly from the parents. There are, in some
fixed allowances or from 80 to 70 mpeea. In others a
daily present of one quarter of a seer of grain, and
payments in money upon the scholars attuning to a
certain state of proficiency. In the Tillages the mode
of remuneration is usually similar to that adopted in
the townships] bat the fixed annual aUowaooes are
as low as 90 rupees, and scarcely ever exceed 50
rupees.

. . The schoolmaster's allowances are derived from the
parents of the children, and consist of a amall quan-
tity of grain daily presented by the pupU. A fewpice
in tiie course of the month, half a rupee or a rupee at
the diflterent stages of adTaneement. The income «f
a schoolmaster never averages more than from s to 5
rupees monthly, and is precairions.
. . The schoolmaster's allowances are all derived from
the sdiolara, and anpposed to average not mora than
36 rupees per annum for each school.

Under this Presidency the London Missionary Society
maintains the following schools. At Surat — ^Ooojurattee, for
hoys, 4 ; girls, 1 — 6. At Darwan — ^Tamil, 2.

The following extract from the evidence of the Hon. Holt
Mackensie's recent evidence hefore Parliament on this im-
portant suhject, is worth rescuing from the voluminous mass
of official documents m which it ties buried.

Will you state more particularly any new way that you consider will
facilitate the education of these persons ? — ^Already a good deal has been
done by government. In the colleges at Calcutta especially, the system
of education has been much improved. Besides their own learning, many
of the students are now attending to English : mathematics paiticalariy

ON THE STATE OF EDUCATION IN INDIA. 425

are cnltiyated ; and there b a gradually extending; acqulution of general
knowledge. By porsoing the system^ by establishing more seminaries
under proper superintendence, by supplying instructive books, and espe-
ciaUy by promoting the acquisition of the English language and science,
we may soon give to the educated classes more enlarged notions, notions
that will certunly fit them better for communicating and co-operating
with us.

At this moment what are the means of education for the native judges,
and especially the sudder aumeens ? — For the Moslems there is the Mu-
drissa or College at Calcutta, in which law and all branches of Maho-
medan learning have long been taught ; and, more recently established,
there are academies at Agra and Delhi, where both Mussulmen and
Hindoos receive a more popular education. The Hindoo law is taught in
government colleges at Calcutta and Benares. The students who are
admitted on the foundation of the government college are selected on a
competition of candidates ; and most of them, after passing through the
prescribed course of study at those institutions, obtain certificates that
they have acquired such a knowledge of law as to qualify them for the
situation of law officers in any of the established courts ; to which, if
appointed, they become, as I have mentioned, ea officio, sudder aumeens.
A similar testimonial is required from all candidates for the situation of
law officer, wheresoever educated. The other sudder aumeens and the
moonsififs are appointed on a general report of their being qualified for
the trust ; and for both classes there exist, independently of government
institutions, various means of education common to Hindoos and Maho-
medans, more or less efficient. There are schools of which the masters
live by the fees of their scholars, as in this country. Teachers entertained
by individuals usually instruct the children of neighbours ; and throughout
the country, almost every man noted for learning is himself an instructor
of youth. I do not remember hearing of any celebrated doctor or pundit
ivho had not young men waiting upon them as pupils, and learning the
law and other sciences at their feet. In this way a great many young men
are educated in almost every district ; but it is not easy to say the precise
extent to which instruction is thus conveyed.

Do the pupils pay the teacher? — Not generally for instrucdon of a
highly learned character. Those' who teach merely Persian or Hiadee
either take fees from their scholars, or are paid by the heads of the families
in which they are employed. But men at all celebrated for learning, and
indeed moat of the instructors in Arabic and Sanscrit, usually give tuition
gratia ; often, indeed, feeding and cloUiing their pupils : and at the
government institutions there are a considerable number of students who
get a small allowance for their support, it having always been the practice
of native colleges that the student should not pay, but be supported, llie

436 CALCUTTA EDUCATION AND BAPTIST MISSION-PRESS.

bftbitf of the people being Tery modente, « feir ihilfiogs suffice for Ac
support of a student. The nmk aod repatatioii of a oian of lesniiiig ue
promoted by his having many pupils : and both roasters and scholars in
many cases get presents on occasions of solemnity ; it being indeed no
disgrace to a poor student to beg.

These pupils, then, are not of use to their teadiers as they adTaace^--^
I never heard that they were of any use. The men of learning vrho gsilhcr
pupQs about them look more to the reputation of the thing thaa to any
thing else.

Petliaps in that way promoting their employment?— 'Chiefly in pro*
moting their rank in society.

Now with respect to the allowance in the Government College, is that
sflowance made by government ?«— Yes. A part of the general fund is a|k
propriated to the svpport of a certain number of students. It has been an
object with us latterly to encourage the attendance of students who are
willing to attend, without pay, for the sake of learning ; but with refer*
ence to die usages of the people, the change can only be made gradually.

Mr. Mackensie adds^ —

I believe that all endowments which existed when we acquired the
country were maintained ; but in the Bengal provinces there were few, if
any, that could properly be called institutions established by the govern-
ment for the purpose of instruction. Particular Brahmins and other
learned men frequently had allowances on the condition of communi-
cating instruction: these have been continued where the grant of the
former government appeared to be perpetual. Where the grant was per-
sonal, it has ordinarily lapsed inth the death of the party.

The Calcutta Education Press (now the Baptist Mission
Press) has been productive of much good; between July,
1824, and February, 1830, the number of native works pro-
duced at this press were —

FlnUhed. In Hand. FInlihVd. In Huid.

Sanscrit .15 — 3 Hindi .3 —

Arabic .2 — 6 Persian .4 — 1

The total value of the works was Rs. 58,890. The Calcutta
School-Book Society had published 38 volumes on important
subjects, in the several Indian languages, as follows : —

In Sanscrit

. 3

Persian . 5

Ao^o-Persian . 3

Bengallee

. 9

Hindostanee 1

. Aaglo-Hindostaoee 2

Hindee

. 3

Anglo-Bengallee 3

English . 6

Arabic

. 2

Anglo-Hindee 1

SfiRAMPORE MISSIONARIES AND tHElR CONDUCT.

42t

' Of the foregoing elementary and standard volumes, there
were 28,671 copies circulated in 18S8 and in 18S9, as follows:

Of Reports

651

Arabic •

117

Sanscrit Books

177

Persian

. 1.907

Bengallee

. 10,074

Htndostanee

. 1,173

Hindee

2,452

English

. 9.616

Qoriya

200

Anglo^Asiatic
Total

2,304

. 28.671

Of the Serampore Missionaries (particularly Drs. Carey*
and Marshman) it is impossible to speak in sufficiently lauda^
tory terms, without hurting the feelings of those amiable
pioneers of civilization. They have ^ missionary stations,
containing 47 missionaries, spread over an immense extent of
country. It is truly observed that ' the missionaries sent
from Serampore are prepared for their labours at a moderate
expense ; they are generally content with a style of living
which persons brought up in Europe could not endure with-
out loss of health, and every member of the mission is taught,
not only that it is lawful, but desirable, for him to secure the
means of his own support, by any employment which does
not obstruct his usefulness.'

Shortly before leaving India, I visited the College at Se-
rampore, and was really at a loss which to admire most, the
active industry, skill and iiitelligence put in operation, or the
profound and unaffected piety which pervaded the whole es-
tablishment. In one part of the College types in every
language were being cast ; in another a capital steam-engine
was plying its powerful machinery for the manufacture of
excellent paper ; in a third place were numerous compositors
employed on books, pamphlets, newspapers, school tracts,
hymns, catechisms, &c., and in a fourth spot printers, ink-

* Since the first edition of this work went to press. Dr. Carey has
descended, full of honours, to the grave. An interesting memoir of this
venerable character will be found in the ' Gentleman's Magazine' for April,
1835, written by Mr. Fisher. Tlie translation of the Scriptures into the
native languages by Dr. Carey will be found detailed at page 317-

428 PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

makers, binders, &c. &c — ^all, in fact, was peace, harmony,
and holiness.*

The English language is making rapid strides, in every
part of India ; a recent Bengal newspaper, the Sumachur
Durpun (which has been estabUshed by the Serampore mis-
sionaries, one half being in the English, and the other half
translations into the Bengallee) states that, with the view of
encouraging the study of this language. Lord W. Bentinck
has adopted it in his correspondence with Fyz Mahomed
Khan, one of the native chiefs in the West, which has created
a considerable sensation in Delhi. A demand for English
tutors and secretaries is already perceptible. The teacher
who recently resigned his situation in the Delhi College, sidd
he could easily get a tutorship and secretaryship under a
native prince. Mr. Rennel, of the collector's of&ce, having
been discharged, has also the offer of a situation from a
native prince. Kishenlail has already engaged an English
teacher for his two sons, whom he intends to make secretaries
to Fyz Mahomed Khan. Lord William's letters in English
to the native chiefs, are likely to draw their attention to the
acquisition of English. As soon as the chiefs begin to study
the language, or make their sons do so, the use of English
win become general.

From the Bombay Durpun, we also learn that the English
language is much more generally sought among the natives
than at any former period. Besides the school at Poona, the
Central English school of the Native Education Society
has 100 students, and to this number the school is limited.
(The missionaries, with the assistance of the Government,
have recently established one English school, and the Go-
vernment are about instituting another.) There are, however,
numerous private schools on the island, in which the total
number of youths learning EngUsh, will be found to be seve-
ral hundreds.

* It is stated in the Serampore account, that, since 1825, from 40,000
to 50,000 volume* or pamphlets (not ccpiei of them) have been thrown
into cirduiation by the native press I

DEBATING SOCIETIES — ENGLISH PLAYS. 429

Another journal subsequently observes — ^We learn that his
Majesty of Oude has recently established an English school
at Lucknow, and placed it under the controul of Major Low;
the number of scholars that now attend daily^ amount to from
30 to 40^ the majority of whom are the descendants of Chris-
tians^ the rest Hindoos and Mahomedans.

It rests not on my individual testimony, but it is in evidence
before Parliament, that the natives have not only shewn a
great anxiety to obtain a knowledge of the English language,
but that they have also evinced considerable proficiency in
the same ; the truth of the following extract from the recent
Parliamentary Committee on the East India affairs, can be
attested by hundreds of persons now in Europe.

Some of the students, who have completed their education tn the Hindoo
CoUej^e and other institutions, are in the habit of holding debating socie-
ties, where they discuss topics of considerable importance in the English
language, and read lectures and essays of their own composition, upon
various literary and scientific subjects. At one of the meetings above
mentioned, the question for discussion was, ' Whether posthumous fame
be a rational principle of human action or not.' It is true that the debate
soon branched off into a consideration of the possibility and probability of
human perfection ; but the orators spoke with remarkable fluency, quoting
Gibbon, Hume, Reid, Bolingbroke, Voltaire, Shakspeare, Milton, &c.
The forms of similar meetings in England were imitated ; and the chairman
liaving inquired the reason of the secretary's absence, a loud cry of * Per-
secution !' was raised, and it was explained that he was prevented from
attending by his father, who was afraid that his principles of paganism
should be corrupted, in consequence of the other members being deists.

In corroboration of the foregoing^ I may mention that I have
found many of the Hindoo youths more accurately acquainted
^th English standard authors than is readily to be met with in
England ; they have now got up English playhouses, in which
Shakespear and the productions of the best British drama-
tists are acted with astonishing spirit.*

* A Literary Society has been recently organize by the learned Hin-
doos at Madras, and placed in communication with the Royal Asiatic So-
ciety of London ; by late arrivals I am informed that an Horticultural
Society has been formed at Agra ,•— other institutions will doubtless spring
np rapidly.

430 STATE OF RELIGION AND CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA.

STATE OF RELIGION AND CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA.
The government of British India posseases a feature wUch
has rarely or never been found in any nation or in any age, I
allude to its toleration of every mode or form of religion in
which diflfer^it sects may choose to adore die Creator; to its
protection against hostility, forcible opposition or oppression
by one rival sect against another, and to its auxiliary pecu-
niary aid when solicited by any congregation or community.

The Hindoo religion is of course the creed pf the vast ma-
jority of the people ; although now a gross system of poly"
theism adapted to the rudest capacities and appealing to or
exciting merely sensual passions, there are various evidences
in proof that it was once an almost pure system of monotheiMif
on which was subsequently engrafted the Hindoo trimurti
or Triad. Thus Brahm, (God), is among ahnost innumerable
definitions acknowledged in the vedas^ or sacred writings of
the Hindoos, as the Almighty infinite^ eternal^ incomprehen^
sible, self-existent Being: He who sees everything^ though
never seen : He who is not to be compassed by description :
who is beyond the limit of human conception^ and from wkom
the umversal world proceeds : whose work is the umoerse^ and
who is the Lord of the universe : He who is the light of att
lights f whose name is too sacred to be pronounced, and whose
power is too infinite to be imagined: The one unknown, true
Being, the Creator, the Preserver, the Destroyer of the
universe !

These sublime ideas of the Deity (Brahm !) (who amidst the
multitudinous worship of 330,000,000 of gods, has aevar been
desecrated by an image or even temple, and whom the {fin-
doos dare not even name ;) have been often mentioned to me
by the late distinguished Rammohun Roy, who in ecmjunctioa
with a few of his brethren in Calcutta, endeavoured to restore
the pure and ancient form of Hindoo monotheism, by the es-
tablishment of an institution devoted to the simplest worship
of the one, indivisible, invisiUe, omnipotait, and omnii«e8eiit
God; the regulations -for the conducting of this worship die
writer of this work drew up, and the following is part of

NEW FORM OF HINDOO WORSHIP AND MONOTHEISM. 431

the trust deed prepared at the suggestion of Rammohun
Roy, in Calcutta^ in 1829 ;* it is a singular instance of a
desire to discard the gross idolatry of a once primitive form
of religion.

JYtut Deed. — Upon trust and in oonftdenee thttt they the said [Here foUaiD the
namee of the Trustees] or the surviTors or surviyor of them, shall, at all times,
permit the said building, land, tenements, hereditaments, and premises, \dth their
appurtenances, to be used, occupied, enjoyed, applied, and appropriated, as, and
for a place of Public Meeting, of all sorts and descriptions of people 'without dis-
tinction, as shall behave and conduct themseWes in an orderly, sober, religious, and
devout manner, for the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unsearchable, and
Immutable Being, who is the Author and Preserver of the Unirerse, but not under,
or by any other name, designation, or title, peculiarly used for and applied to any
paiticular Being or Beings, by any man or set of men whatsoever ; and that no
graven image, statue, or sculpture, carviftg, painting, picture, portrait, or the like-
ness tf anything, shall be admitted within the messuage, building, &c., and that no
sacrifice, offering, or oblation of any Idnd or thing shall ever be permitted therein ;
and that no animal or living creature shall, within or on the said messuage, building,
land, tenements, hereditaments, and premises, be deprived of life, either f6r religious
purposes, or f6r food ; and that no eating or drinking (except such as shall be ne-
cressary by any accident for the present preservation- of life), feasting or rioting, be
permitted therein or thereon ; and that in conducting the said worship or adora-
tion, no object animate or inanimate that has been, or is, or shall hereafter become,
or be recognised as an olqect of worship by any man, or set of men, shall be re-
vUed, or sUghtingly or eonten^tuousty spoken of, or alluded to, either in preaching,
praying, or in the hymns, or other mode of worship that may be delivered, or used
in the said messuage or building; and that no sermon, preaching, discourse,
prayer, or hymn be delivered, made, or used in auch worship, but such as have a
tendency to the promotion of the> contemplation of the Author and ftcscr v e r of
the Universe, to the promotion of charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue, and
the strengthening the bonds of union between men of all religious persuasions and
creeds : and also that a person of good repute, and well known for hn knowledge,
piety, and morality, be employed by the said trustees, as a resident superintendant,
and for the purpose of superintending the worship, so to be performed as is herem-
before stated and expressed ; and that such worship be performed daily, or at least
as often as once in seven days.

What a contrast does the foregoing description of a Hindoo
place of worship present to the establishment of the temple

* The institation was opened by the late Rajah Rammohun Roy, ac-
eompanied by the writer (the only European present), in 1830. There
vera about 600 Hindoos present, and among them many Brahmins, who,
after the prayers and singing of hymns had been concluded, received gifts
in money to a considerable extent.

432 ESTABLISHMENT OP THE IDOL OP JUGUNNAUTH

of the Idol of Jugunnauth, in Orissa, which the East India
Company have now forbidden their goyemment to meddle
with, in any manner^ as respects the collection of taxes* from
the pilgrims thereto, although levied for the purpose of de-
fraying the expenses incurred for the maintenance of peace
and order ; it was well, however, to withdraw from the levy
of taxes on such idolatry.

B8TABLI8HMBMT Or THB IDOL JUGUNNAUTH AT THE TEMPLB IN 0RI88A.

1. Maha Raja Ramchundra Devu. — ^Honorary servant to the idol, to drive tiie
fliea from off the idol with a chamur^ aweep the great car, and place flowers on the
idol.

2. Moodee Rufh, aUaa P/empolmtiary .r— This oflSoer is astronomer to the idol, and
performs the other duties in the absence of the Maha Raja.

3. Nayuk, or Head €f the order oftervants attending upon the idol, — This oflSoer'
adorns the idol, and performs other services, and superintends all the other officers.

4. Ptmda. — Performs the ceremonies during the presentation of the offerings.

5. Pueoo-Paluk. — ^Adorns the idol.

6. Chonohiya. — Keeps watch at the time of presenting the offerings.

7. Puricha. — This officer accompanies the idol to the tank, and purifies the
temples.

8. Neab Puricha. — In the absence of the Puricha, these act in his stead.

9. Muhar Shoohar, or Head Cook, — Brahmun cooks, who carry the offerings into
the presence of the idol.

10. Shoowart, — ^Brahmuns who assist the head cooks.

11. Ouraburoo. — Persons who give water to the priests at the time of their per-
forming the ceremonies of worship.

12. Put^hree. — Clear the sacred vessels, and carry the flowers, sandal-wood, te.
to the officiating priests.

13. Tkmfhee, — Brahmuns who place the boiled rice and split peas in silver and
gold dishes, before the idol. This is called sirkaree bhoge, or that allowed by the
government.

14. Saw€tr. — ^These persons distribute proper quantities of the offerings to dif-
ferent temples and officers, according to the appointed rules.

15. Khootiya. — ^Wams the idol at the time of the festivals.

16. Meerkap. — ^Master of the wardrobe, that is, of the jewel office ; and C^mngra
Meerkap, master of wearing apparel.

17. Doita. — ^Removes the idol from the throne, and puts him on the car,*aixl re*
places him again.

18. Putee. — Brahmuns who dress the idol. Alter the bathing festival, the idols
are taken into a room, stripped of their old clothes, and swaddled with new ones. *
During the fifteen days of this festival, the offerings are presented by theM peo|ile.

* The despatch is dated from the Court of Directors, 20th February, 1833.

AT THE TEMPLE IN ORISSA. 433

19. Afiqfima.— These officers rub and dean the idols, and convey the smaller
idols to tanks and other places, and afterwards place them in the room allotted for
them.

20. Htarup Nayuk. — ^After the offierings are removed, these officers bring pawn,
and hot spices, and place them before the idol, and which Jugunnauth munches at
lusease.

21. Aukund Meerkap, — ^Lamp-lighter.

22. Kat Meerkap. — Lord of the bed-chamber.

23. Puhuree. — ^Watchmen at the time of presenting the offerings.

24. Pooreoi Panda. — Reads out of one of thovMOfOfiiiM every afternoon near the
idol.

25. MookhuptAhal. — ^A person who attends with a clumsy tooth-brush and water,
to wash the face of the idol in the morning.

26. Dettana. — ^Wams the idol of the time for the performance of the ceremonies.

27. Porkanah. — ^Watchmen of the wardrobe.

28. Chatooa, — ^A person who carries the umbreUa.

29. Taroiiya. — ^A person who carries an ensign in the form of a half-moon.

30. DeooHya, — ^A torch bearer.

31. Dunde Chutre, — ^A person who stands by the throne with an umbrella, at
tiie time of a feast ooeuring, on the 1 ith and 26th of the moon, and at other

32. IC(iAa/tya.~One who blows the kahal, a sort of trumpet.

33. Okuntooa, — ^A person who sounds the ghunir, or brass bell.

34. Ghuiwaree. — A person who prepares the sandal-powder.

35. Linka, — Peons.

36. iVtidAam.*-Per8ons who give the golden rods of office to the Puriehat.

37. Dooaree, — ^Doorkeepers (porters.)

38. Sutnnta — Grinder of pulse.

39. Devu Daue. — ^Dandng and other young and beautiful girls, with a band of
musicians.

Besides split peas, milk, curds, fruit, vegetables, &c. ftc. it is said that not less
than 124,800ft. of rice alone are offered to this god every year. The servants of
the idfA are paid out of grants of temple lands^ On extraordinary occasions, (but
not of late years) not less than two milium of people have assembled at this temple ;
and if the weather were very wet and inclement, nearly half of them perished 1

The largest of the cars of Jugunnauth and his sisters is 43 feet high, and has a
platform of 34 feet square : their loftiness and size gives them an imposing air, but
every part of the ornaments is of the most mean and paltry description. The en-
thusiasm of the people is decaying, and soon tires ; and it is indispensable to avail
of the assistance of a multitude of the inhabitants of the vicinity, who hold their
land rent free, on condition of performing the service of dragging the three can at
the annual ceremonies. No person of late has throvm himself beneath the wheels of
the idols' car, the East India Company's authorities have taken care to prevent such
ftmaticism, and indeed it is to be hoped that In a few years more the ceremony will
he very trUllDg.

VOL. I. F F

434 THE HINDOO TRINITY.

When it is considered that the religion or idolatry of the
Hindoos is the creed of upwards of 60 or 70^000,000 of British
subjects, a very brief analysis of some of the Deities worship-
ped will, doubtless, be acceptable to the English reader.
The most learned Brahmins, while asserting and advocating
the ancientness and correctness of the form of worship esta-
blished by the late Rammohun Roy, maintain as an excuse
for the present idolatries, 4hat it is easier to impress the minds
of the rude and ignorant by intelligible symbols than by means
which are incomprehensible. Acting upon this principle
(says Mr. Coleman in his erudite work on the Hindu Pan-
theon), the Supreme and Omnipotent God whom the Hindoo
has been taught to consider as too mighty for him to attempt
to approach or even to name, has been lost sight of in the
multiplicity of false deities whose graven images have been
worshipped in his place. The Hindoo Veda (Bible) incul-
cates the belief in and worship of one great and only God^
omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient, whose attributes
are allegorically (and only allegorically) represented by the
three personified powers of Creation, (Brahma) Preserva-
tion ( Vishnu) and Destruction (Siva) who form the Hindoo
frfocf without beginning and without end, destruction and re-
production being one — the same — indivisible. Comprehendi-
ble as these attributes are, it is but natural to suppose that
the Hindoo sages having once entered on allegory in an en-
deavour to explain immateriality by materiality there were no
bounds to invention but the fertility of thought and the cre-
dulity of their followers, thus on a simple and sublime mono-
theism there has been grafted a trinity — and thence a poly-
theism accompanied by the most disgusting of abominations,
while the imaginary deities most honoured (as the goddess
Kali) are of the most cruel, bloodthirsty and bestial character.
Let us now glance at the mythological history of the principal
Hindoo deities in which it is not a little remarkable we find
such a close approximation to the Greek Pantheon, whQe the
ox so venerated by the Egyptians is held in such sacredness
by the Hindoos,

HISTORY AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE HINDOO DEITIES. 435

HISTORY AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE HINDOO DEITIES.*

Brahm ! The supreme Bemg created the world and formed
the goddess Bhavani (Nature) who had three sons, Brahma,
VUhnu and Sha; to the first was assigned the duty of con-
tinuing the creation of the world ; to the second its preserva-
tion; and to the third its destruction: in other words these
three presided over the three great operations of nature —
production, preservation, and destruction.

Brahma (Saturn) the grandfather of gods and men, creating
power dormant until again required to be exerted in the for-
mation of a future world on the total annihilation of the pre-
sent one which is expected in the ialki avatar (pr tenth in-
carnation on earth of Vishnu) : represented as a golden co-
Icnred figure with four heads and four arms; power being
dormant seldom worshipped, his heaven excels all others in
magnificence, containing the united glories of all the heavens
of the other deities. His earthly incarnations are (1) Daksha —
(2) Viswakarma (Vulcan) architect of the universe, fabricator
of arms to the gods, presides over the arts and manufactures,
and represented as a white man with three eyes* Many tem-
ples dedicated to this god — one at Ellora hewn ISO feet in
depth out of the soUd rock, presenting the appearance of a
magnificent vaulted chapel, supported by vast ranges of oct-
angular columns, and adorned by sculptures of beautifiil and
perfect workmanship. (3.) Nareeda (Mercury) messenger of
the gods, inventor of the lute^ and a wise legislator. (4) Brigu,
who appears to have presided overpopulation since he caused
the wife of King Suguru, heretofore barren, to produce 60,000
aona at one birth ! The Brahmadicas, Menus and Rishis, are
sages descended lango ifUereaUo firom Brahmd, whose wife,
(some say the daughter), Suraswatty (Minerva) is the goddess
of learning, music, poetry, history and the sciences; her fes-
tival is highly honoured, and offerings made to her in expia-
tion of the sin of lying or having given fidse evidence.

* The reader desirous of a more detailed account will find it in Coleman'i
elaborate Hindoo theology.

43G VISHNU — HINDOO ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD*

We now come to the second of the Hindoo Triad.

Vishnu — ^the preserver of the universe — represented of a
black or blue colour, with four arms and a club to punish the
wicked. He is a household god, extensively worshipped, and
on his tenth (nine are passed) avatar, when the sins of mankind
are no longer bearable, he will appear as an armed warrior on a
white horse adorned with jewels, having wings, holding in the
one hand a sword of destruction, and in the other a ring em-
blematical of the -perpetually revolving cycles of time. His
heaven is described in the Mahabarat as entirely of gold,
80,000 miles in circumference; all its edifices composed of
jewels and precious stones, — the seat of the god is glorious
as the meridian sun ; — Sri or Lakshtni, the goddess of fortune,
and favourite wife of Vishnu, shining with 10,000 beams of
lightning, sits on his right hand ; there is a constant singing
of hymns and chaunting his praises : his various avatars or
earthly incarnations were for the purpose of saving the world,
restoring the lost Vedas or sacred writings, to destroy the
giants, punish the wicked, &c. His first avatar was in the
form of a fish, to save a pious King Satyavrata (by some sup-
posed to mean Noah) and his family, when the earth was
about to be overwhelmed by a deluge on account of the
wickedness of the people. Vishnu at first appeared before
the devout monarch as a little fish to try his piety and bene-
volence, then gradually expanding himself he became one of
immense magnitude ; and thus announced the flood which on
account of the depravity of the world was about to over-
whelm the earth with destruction — * in seven days from the
present time the three worlds will be plunged in an ocean of
death; but in the midst of the destroying waves a large
vessel, sent by me for thy use, shall stand before thee. Then
shalt thou take all medicinal herbs, all the variety of seeds,
and accompanied by seven saints, encircled by pairs of all
brute animals, thou shall enter the spacious ark, and continue
in it secure from the flood on an immense ocean, without Ught
except the radiance of thy holy companions. When the ^hip
shall be agitated by an impetuous wind, thou shah fasten it,

AVATARS OF VISHNU. 437

"iwrith a large sea serpent to my horn, for I will be near thee,
drawing the vessel with thee and thy attendants. I will re-
main on the ocean until a day of Brahma (a year) shall be
completely ended.'

' As it was announced/ says Mr. Coleman, ' the deluge took
place ; and Satyavrata entered the ark and did as he was di-
rected, in fastening it to the horn of the fish ; which again
appeared, blazing like gold, and extending a millibn of leagues.
"When the deluge was abated, and mankind destroyed (except
Satyavrata and his companions), Vishnu slew the demon
Hayagriva, and recovered the lost Veda : or, in other words,
when the wicked were destroyed by the deluge, siif no longer
prevailed, and virtue was restored to the world.'

From one to eight the Avatars of Vishnu are of various
descriptions (that of the second or tortoise producing the
w€Uer of life, affords an extraordinary coincidence with the
singular story of the Iroquois Indians) for the punishment of
evil and the [reward of good; the eighth Avatar was that of
the celebrated god Krishna, whose attributes are similar to
those of the Greek deity Apollo, and like the latter, exten*
aively and enthusiastically worshipped, especially by the
ladies; he is represented as extremely beautiful, of an azure
colour, with a crown of glory on his head, and Orpheus-like
ravishing the mountains and the trees, as well as all animated
nature with the exquisite music of a flute. He had 16,000
mistresses, and was nearly as great a conqueror in the battle
field as in the camp of love, but he subsequently became
pemtent, was satbfied with eight wives (astronomically con^
sidered to represent the planets moving round the sun, which
Krishna is sometimes thought to represent), his festivals are
well kept, and much rejoicement and pleasures of various
kinds are then indulged in. His son by Rukmini (Venus),
the most beautiful and favoured wife, was Kamadeva, or
Camdeo (Cupid) with bee strung bow and flower tipped shaft,
riding on a (Lory) parrot with emerald wings, sometimes ac-
companied by his consort Affection, full of mischief and

4^ SIVA THE DESTROYER — HIS ATTRIBUTES ; —

always wandering about; as Sir W. Jones has beautifuDj
apostrophized Camdeo—

* Wher^er thy seat — whatt^er thy name,
Seoi, earth, and air thy reign proclaim $
Wreathy emUei and roeeaie pleaeuree.
Are thy richett, eweete$t treasures ;
All animals to thee their tribute bring.
And hail thee utnversal king !*

The other Avatars of Hanuman (the monkey) Wittoba^
(the gigantic crane), &c., it would be unnecessary to particu-
larize, we may therefore proceed to examine the third branch
of the Hindoo trinity.

Siva, the destroyer, is one of the most dreaded of the
Triad; his emblems are conjectured by Mr. Patterson to b^
pregnant with allegorical allusions ; he has three eyes to de-
note the three divisions of time — past, present, and future —
'the crescent in his forehead refers to the measure of time
by the phases of the moon, as the serpent denotes it by years :
and the necklace of skulls, the lapse and revolution of ages,
and the extinction and succession of the generations of man-
kind. He holds the trident in one hand, to shew that the three
great attributes of creating, preserving, and destroying, are in
him imited, and that he is the Iswara, or supreme Lord, above
Brahma and Vishnu ; and that the emblem called damara^
shaped Uke an hour-glass, with which he is sometimes seen,
was actually intended to be such, to pourtray the progress of
time by the current of the sand in the glass. On the cele-
brated colossal sculpture of the Trimurtif or three-formed
god (Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva), in the caves of Elephants,
he has marked on his cap a human skull and a new-bom-infant,
to shew his two-fold power of destruction and reproduction ;
and on another figure in the same cave, he is represented in
the attributes of his vindictive character, with eight arms,
two of which are partly broken off. In one of the remaining
six he brandishes a sword, and in another holds a human
figure : in the third he has a basin of blood, and in the fourth

KALI HIS consort; 8IVA*8 INCARNATIONS. 438

a sacrificial bell, which he appears to be ringing over it.
With the other two he is in the act of drawing a veil, which
obscures the suiif and involves all nature in universal des-
truction.^

His consort Kali is represented Hke her husband, with a
necklace of skulls, and a sword of destruction, but painted of
a dark colour (Siva is white) to indicate the eternal night that
will follow the dissolution of Time. On the grand consum-
mation of things, when time itself shall be destroyed, Siva
is represented as deprived of his necklace of skulls, sword,
crescent and trident, to demonstrate his dominion and power
no longer exists. The bull is his favourite animal,, hence its
reverence among the Hindoos. The worshippers of Siva, who
are beyond all comparison the most numerous (in Bengal)
perform the most revolting, barbarous, and obscene rites :
some lie on beds of iron spikes, others thrust rods of steel
through the tongue and other parts of the body, many have
a hook passed through the muscles of the loins, by which
they hang and swing from a scaffolding 30 feet high ; the
bodies are covered with nails or packing needles, the leg
is kept bent, or the arm extended, until it becomes immove-
able ; the fists are clenched until the nails grow out of the
back of the hand, and the most painfiil tortures, self-inflicted
by a host of filthy, naked Sunyassis^ who in private make
amends for the pain and filth they undergo in public by a
revolting system of debauchery. Siva has several incarna-
tions, one termed Bhairava, or Byru (or by some said to be
his son by the cruel goddess Kali) is a terrific deity, only to
be satisfied by blood. KaU (black goddess) so horribly
worshipped by the Hindoos with human sacrifices, whenever
they could evade the watchfiilness of the British government,
18 adored under various forms and names of Bhavani, goddess
of Nature and fecundity — as the potent White Parvati, and
as the tremendous Yellow Durga, who delights in sacrifices
of the blood of sheep and goats, and during whose festival
every species of licentiousness prevails ; the latter is repre-

• Coleman's Hindoo Mythology.

440 CHRONOLOGY OF THE HINDOOS*

•sented as having 100 arms, and that by means of 109,000,000
chariots, 120,000,000,000 elephants, 10,000,000 swift fiyoted
horses, and a proportionatenumber of infantry, she conquered
S0,000 giants, who were such monsters in suse, that they
covered the earth.

The foregoing brief analysis of the Hindoo trinity and
their consorts will suffice, for the reader would donbtlsaa not
desire a further description of the 300,000,000 deitiea who
branch off from the preceding Brahma, Vishmi, and Siva ;
sufficient has been said to demonstrate the basis of die Hii^
doo mythology, the sects embraced under whose faidi are ex-
tremely numerous, aM tending to prove that when man 9ih
tempts to materialize spirit, there is no end to the absurdities
and inconsistencies into which he may be led.

Chronology of the Hindoos. — Connected with their le-
Bgion, and indeed in a great measure embraced with its my*
thology, is the Hindoo system of chronology, which con>
prises a caipa^ or grand period of 4,Sd0,000,000 years divided
into four lesser yugs (period of ages) thus :

Ist. Satya-yug— -years ], 728,000. 3rd. Dwapa^yug^— years 864,000.
2nd. Treta^yugr 1,296,000. 4th. Kal^-yti^ 4d2»000.

making one Divine age or Maha (great) ytegf, of which there
are to be 71 Maha yugs, equivalent to 806,7S0,000 of oar
years ; but this is not all, for there is to be added a umdM
(when day and night border on each other) =a satya^^
1,7S8,000 years; one manwantara = 368,446,000 years ;
fourteen of which = 4,318,^^,000; and adding a sandki
(1,728,000 yrs.) to begin the calpa, or grand period, forming
a duration for the world extending over 4,320,000,000 of oiir
present years ; those who fear the coming comet of 1835 will
be glad to learn that only one half of this period has passed,
the date being now anno mundi 3,160,000,000! Mr. S. Davis,
in his essay on the subject in the Asiatic Researches, de»
monstrates that these are not fanciful fictions, but founded
on actual astronomical calculations, based on an hypothesis.
The Hindoos date from the commencement of the present
kaU-yugy which begun, according to our era, in the 906th

MAHOMEDANISM— OTHBR RELIGIOUS SECTS. 441

year. The correspooding dates are therefore — ^Hindoo 4,933 ;
A. M. 5,839; A.D. 1832.*

• Mahomedanism. The disciples of Islam embrace about
IfiiOOOyOOO of the population of British India, and they are
divided into several sects ; one in particular, the MundariSf
fimnded by Mondana Sooft — admit the divine mission of Ma-
bomety but disclaim his title to particular veneration; like
the Smiyassis they go nearly naked, braid the hair, smear the
foody with ashes and filth, and irear heavy iron chains round
llieir waists and neck.

That the Mahomedan religion did not make any greater
progress than we find it has done after several centuries of
gnvemment in India, although its practical essence is sensu-
alityf and well adapted to people of a tropical clime, must be
ascribed to the persecutions with which its propagators en-
deavoured to extend it, thus presenting a strong contrast to
Christianity, which, wherever it was reviled and spit upon,
was sure to be extended ; and when (as among Roman Ca-
tholic enthusiasts) endeavoured to be propagated by idolatries
and force, cert^ to bring down ruin on its propagators.
There are many other religious sects among the British po-
pulation of India — some such as the Bazeeghurs or Nuts
(the Gipsies of Hindostan) are half Hindoos and half Mussul-
mans, admitting the rite of circumcision, yet employing a
Bcahminical priest; the Bazeeghurs conceive that one spirit
pervades all nature, and that the soul being a particle of that
universal spirit, will, when released firom the body, rejoin its
parent source. The DhanUanSy or Vashtenaiva sect, was
founded about one hundred years ago, and is a compound of

* The Hindoos have ▼arioiis other eras, which are too numeroua and
unimportant to he dwelt on.

t There are, however, may excellent precepts in the Koran. Take, for
lastance, the foUomag observations frequently inscribed over the gate of a
mosque—' The world was ^ven us for our own edification, not for the pur-
pose of nosing sumptuous buildings j life for the discharge of moral and
religious duties, not for pleasurable indulgencies ; wealth to be liberally
bestowed, not avariciously hoarded ; and learning to produce good actions,
not empty disputes.'

440 THE PARSEES, OR FIRE WORSHIPPERS.

Hindoo and. Islam-ism; proselytes are admitted from bodr,
and the sect is probably extending; their form of worship is
by chaunting a few melodious hymns and reading from a sa-
cred book.. The Sirmooris, like other hill tribes, are im*
mersed in the deepest superstition, every mountain peak
being the residence of a sprite whose wrath is deemed dan-
gerous to provoke. * Polyandry, or the custom of one woman
having two or more husbands (relations), obtains among them.
It frequently happens that two brothers succeed conj<Hntiy
to an estate : they cohabit with one wife, and the integrity of
the property is thus preserved.'* This stnmge custom indi-
cates the state of society ; the womeii of another mountain
tribe, the Newars, hke the Nairs of Malabar, may have as
many husbands as they please, being at hberty to divorce
them on the slightest pretences. The Binderwars, one of the
Goand of Gond tribes inhabiting the hiUs of Oomacutu are
sunk in the deepest paganism ; they are cannibals, but de-
clare a strong abhorrence of eating any person but one of
their own tribe, and then only when he or she is attacked by
what they may deem an irrecoverable illness ; on which oc-
casion they collect all the relatives of the sick person, cut the
throat of the deceased, and then feast amidst much rejoicing on
the body : this bloody right is considered a meritorious act by
this otherwise innocent people. Qther idolatrous tribes, such
as the Bheels, Koolies, Ramoosees, &c. have one peculiarity
which it would be well if Christians would rival them in, —
their word is sacred — their promise unimpeachable.

Before procejeding to notice the Christian sects* it will be
well to say a few words on that singular and exemplary race
termed —

Parsees, or Fire Worshippers, who form one of the
most valuable classes of the subjects of the British Crown.
This sect preferring liberty to slavery, and the exercise of
their pure rehgion to the degrading h^^sy of Mahomet, emi-
grated from Persia in the XVIIth Century, soon after the
conquest of the Persians by the Mahomedans, carrying with

* Asiatic Researches.

TH£IR RELIOION5 CHARACTBR, AND MANNERS. 443

them that sacred fire (emblematical of the Sun and thence of
the Almighty) which they religiously venerate. A number
of these persecuted Guebers found their way to western
India along the coast near Danoo and Cape Sejan^ and
were admitted by the Hindoo Rajah to settle in the neigh*
bouring country, principally at Oodwara, (still the residence
of their chief priests, and the depository of the sacred fire
brought with them). They may be termed the Quakers of the
£ast. The opulent among them are merchants, brokers,
ship-owners, and extensive land-owners. The lower orders
are shop-keepers, and follow most of the mechanic arts, ex-
cept those connected with fire : thus there are neither silver-
smiths, nor any workers of the metals among them ; nor are
there any soldiers, the use of fire-arms being abhorrent to
their principles ; nor are there any sailors. Their charities
are munificent and unbounded, relieving the poor and dis-
tressed of aH tribes, and maintaining their own poor in so
liberal a manner that a Parsee beggar is no where seen or
heard of.

The Parsee population is divided into clergy and laity
(Mobed and Bedeen). The clergy and their descendants are
Tery numerous, and are distinguished from the laity by the
wearing of white turbans ; but they follow all kinds of occu-
pations, except those who are particularly selected for the
service of the churches, though they have no distinction of
castes. A recent innovation, respecting the commencement
of their new year, has formed them into two tribes, one cele-
brating the festival of the new year a month before the other,
which causes their religious ceremonies and holidays to fall
also on difierent days.

The modem, like the ancient, Parsis or Parsees, have no
statues of the Deity, no temples, no altars, they treat such as
foUy ; they reverence the whole vault of heaven, the sun, the
moon, planets, stars, earth, fire, water, and the winds, but do
not sacrifice to them as Herodotus describes the ancient
Parsis to have done. The Zend-Avesta^ or sacred writings,
(ascribed by some to Zoroaster) is principally a series of

444 JEWS — ^ASIATIC — BLACK AND WHITE*

^turgic services and prayers. Light is regarded as the best
and noblest symbol of the Supreme Beings who is without
form. They delight to worship the rising siuii the rays <^
which are never allowed to fall direct <m the sacred fire withia
the temples, or rather repositories of the fire. The Parsees
suppose a continued warfare between good and evil spirits,*
which fill all nature, and besides a heaven and a hell, (which
latter is not eternal) they have a middle state (Hanustam)
where the souls of those whose good and evil actions are
equally balanced remain till the day of judgment* They have
no fasts as God delights in the happiness of his creatures;
all Inrds and beasts of prey, with the dog and the hare, are
alone forbidden food. Polygamy is not allowed, unless die
first wife be barren ; concubinage strictly forbidden, — priests
marry — and marriage being laudaUe every season is good :
unlike the Hindoos they admit converts, and the planting of
trees is esteemed among their good works.

Most of the ancient ceremonies have been preserved invio-
late ; and particularly those concerning the rights of sepulr
ture. No person of a different sect is allowed to approach,
or any stranger allowed to witness, the obsequies ; the bodies
are exposed to the elements and birds, on the terraces of
towers or sepulchres.

They have a few plain and unornamented churches, where
they assemble for the purpose of prayer; they are crowded
every day by the clergy, but the laity only attend on certaia
days.

Jews, black and white, exist in various parts of India, in
particular a very ancient colony of black Jews reside in
Cochin, who it is traditionally said arrived in India soon after
the Babylonian Captivity. Mr. Fisher, the learned and in*
defatigable searcher of the records at the India House, in
adverting to this circumstance says, that ^ this tradition de-
rives countenance from the circumstance of their possessiDg
copies of only those books of the Old Testament, which were
written previously to the captivity, but none of those whose
* llie dog and cock are respected for their guardian watchfulness.

CHRISTIANS — THEIR SECTS — SYRIANS. 445

dates are subsequent to that event. The library of the late
Tippo Sultaun contained some translations from these an-
cient Jewish Scriptures ; and there are copies of them in the
possession of Jews in Malabar^ which are remarkable for this
peculiarity. Some of the Jewish manuscripts which are in
the hands of natiye Jews, are described as exhibiting an
appearance of high antiquity^ and as written on rolls of a
substance resembling paper, and in a character which has a
strong resemblance to, but not an exact agreement with, the
modem Hebrew.'

The eastern Jews like their western brethren are astute
traders ; they have several Synagogues and are remarkable
fi>r a 2eal to diffuse the tenets of the faith in which they
believe ; they are said to be very numerous in China, but
afraid of being confounded with the Christians who are
zealously watched in the Celestial Empire.

Christians. The most ancient of the Sects who beHeve
in the divine incarnation (or as the Hindoos would term it
Avatar J of Christ are the Syrian Christians, disciples of St.
Thomas the Apostle, who it is said after establishing Chris-
tianity in Arabia Fehx, and in the Island of Socotra, landed
at Cranganore, on the Malabar Coast, A. D. 51, where he
found a colony of Jews living under the protection of a
powerful Hindoo Sovereign. St. Thomas it is said rapidly
spread Christianity along the coast and throughout Southern
India, but one of the kings having become a convert to the
Faith, St. Thomas was subjected to much persecution^ and
ultimately stoned to death on a Mount, which still bears the
name of the Martyr. The following interesting accoimt of
this primitive church has been handed me by Mr. Fisher,
late of the India House, and it is hoped the statements thus
given will lead to further investigation into so exciting a
subject.

St. Thomas's mount, as well as the ancient city or town, to which also the Christian
inhabitants ha^e given the name of St, ThomS, are now, and hsve been for several
centuries, places of pilgrimages and annual resort of Ckriitians, who come from all
parts of India, the interior of Armenia and Syria, crowding to the town, and
covering the mount, in order that they may kiss the spot where the Apostle suf--

446 HISTORY OF THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS FROM

f«red martyrdom ; there also depositing their offierings, and praying over the pbee
of his sepulture, which they are represented as holding in sudi high Tenentioo,
that they carry away with them small portions of the red earth, and, conceiviiig it
to possess miraculous properties, administer it with great solemnity to the uck
and dying.

The Syrian Christians suffered persecution from heathen rulers during the tkne
first centuries. Early in the fourth century, they obtained aid from Athanasiin,
Bishop of Alexandria, who is represented as having come to their succour, and ap-
pointed a Bishop to rule over and protect them.

In the year 345, Mar Tfumuu assumed charge of them, under the authority of
Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch, and introduced amongst them several Bishops and
Priests, as also ' many Christen men, women, and children from foreign countries.'
This man, Thomat Cama, or Mar Thomas, was an Armenian merchant, in creed an
Arian, who first came to India with commercial views only ; but being a viitnous
and upright man, and having amassed great wealth, he obtained the friendship of
the Kings of Cranganore and Cochin, at the same time ei^03ring the venentkxi
and respect of the Christians of St. Thomas ; for whom he is stated to have bdlt
many churches, to have established seminaries for the education of their dergy,
and to have founded a town called Maha Devapatam, in the neighbourhood of the
city of Cranganore, wherein he planted the foreign colony of Christians he had hn-
ported.

He also, assisted by Syrian teachers, introduced the Syro-Chaldeac ritual, and
successfiilly exerted his influence with the native princes to obtain for the Chris-
tians on the Malabar coast exclusive privileges ; such as independence of the
native judges, except in criminal cases, and a rank in the country equal to nobility,
by which they were placed on a level with the superior castes. These privflegea
were ostensibly granted to the Christians, in consideration of their virtues, and
they were enjoyed unintenruptedlythrou^ several succeeding centuries, having been
confirmed by formal grants in different and now unknown languages, engraved on
tablets composed of a mixed metal. The inscription on the plate supposed to con-
tain the oldest grant, is in the nail-headed or Persepolitan character. Another if
a character which has no affinity with any existing language in Hindottan. These
tablets were lost during several centuries, and were recovered a few years since by
the exertions of Colonel Macauley, the British resident in Travancore, to the great
joy of the Syrian churches ; by whom they were deposited, and are still preserved
in the Syrian college, which has been erected at Cattayam.

In settling the ecclesiastical constitution of the Syrian churches, it was deter-
mined that the right to rule over them should vest in those funUies only out of
which the Apostie had himself ordained priests. The offices of Bishop, Archdeacon,
and Priest, were accordingly for many years confined to these families, and penoos
were chosen from them who were recognized as the natural judges in all dvil and
ecclesiastical causes, and as having authority over all temporal as weU as ecdeaiss-
tical affiurs.

In the ninth century the Syrian Christians were much depressed, and sou^t the
aid of the Nestorian patriarch, who commissioned two ecclesiastics of that chorcb,
Mar Saul and Mar Ambrose, to proceed to Malabar, and rule over them. Thae

THE EARLIEST PERIOD^ THEIR SUCCESS AND SUFFERING. 447

prdttes on their arrival at Quilon, were received by the Christians vrith great
thankfulness. By their presence they soon commanded the respect of the native
princesy who allowed them to make converts, and to erect churches wherever they
pleased ; for which also they obtained endowments from the noble and wealthy
part of the community. From the Hindoo princes they moreover obtained the
formal renewal of ancient privileges by grants, which were engraven, as those of
higher antiquity had been, on plates of metal. These grants are still preserved,
and are in the languages of Malabar, of Canara, of Bisnagur, and in Tamul.

The Syrian or Nestorian Bishops, Afiir SmU and Mar Ambrois, are still held in
high veneratkm by the Syrian Christians, who mention them in their prayers, and
dedicate churches to their memory.

Between the ninth and fourteenth centuries these Christians are described as
liAving attained to their highest state of external respectability ; if not of purity.
They were enlightened by the instruction of a succession of able teachers from
Syria, who spread the blessings of the Gospel with zeal, integrity, and honour ;
receiving such only to their communion as could approach with unblemished cha-
racter ; and nyecting all and every one who could not appear with hands undefiled,
and with minds througbly convinced of the abomination of heathen worship. All false
miracles were then rejected, and the Christians were distinguished by intelligence
and decency of manners, which recommended them to the native princes, by whom
their teachers were invested with the first oflBces under the Government. At length
they entirely shook off the yoke of the Hindoo princes, and elected a Chief or King
of their own religion, raising one Balicarie to the tRrone, who assumed the title of
' King of the Christians of St. Thomas :' but this state of independence did not long
continue. The regal power, through default of succession, passed to the lUgah of
Cochin, and that chief, while he professedly respected their rights, persecuted them
through hatred of their religion.

In this state the Portuguese found them ; encon^NUted on ail tidet by enemies, and
bowed under the yoke of the Hindoo princee. The account which the Portuguese
gave of them was, that they ' were in a state of decadence, and amounted to about
200,000 Christians, the wreck of an unfortunate people, who called themselves
Christians of St. Thomas, and after the example of their ancestors, performed pil-
grimages every year to the place where the apostle consummated his martyrdom;
whose history and miracles, extracted from their annals, had been composed into a
species of canticles translated into the language of the country, and sung by the
inhabitants of the fishery (the Manaar pearl fishery), and of the coast of Malabar.'

Their subsequent history is a good deal interwoven with that of the Roman
Catholics in India : it may suflBce to observe, that when the Syrian Christians
placed themselves under the direction of the Portuguese missionaries, and, as the
latter assert, ' voluntarily requested that they might be adopted as good and faithful
subjects of the King of Portugal,' they amounted to 1,600 Christian churches
under the Syrian patriarch, retaining their martial character, and associating with
the higher castes of Hindoos, who deemed themselves honoured by the association.
On the part of the Syrian Churches, it is stated that they proposed their union
with the westem church, ' having full confidence in its piety and truth, and no
knowledge of its corruptions' — ^that in particular the Sacraments of confirmation.

448 MIXTURE OF THE SYRIAC AND LATIN CHURCHES.

of extreme unction, of auricular confession, and the worship of images were un-
known to them— -that the title of ' Mother of God? was, when they heard it, dis-
gusting to them^ and that when her image was first presented to them, they re-
jected it with indignation, exdaiming, ' We care Ckristiam, and not Idolaten* To
induce the Syrians to conform to the idolatry of the Roman Catholic Church, the
missionaries resorted first to artifice and then to force. They founded colleges and
schools for youth, whom they proposed to instruct in the rites of the Latin Church,
still employed the Syrian language, and it is believed that their schools did some
service ; but these measures not effecting their main object, which appears to have
been the establishment of the Pope's supremacy, together with tl^ erroneous
tenets and particularly the idolatry of his religion,* the missionaries resorted to the
inquisition about the middle of the sixteenth century. Division, contention, and
confusion were the natural consequences of this step : in which state the churches
continued till the year 1599, when a fresh attempt was made to effect a compro-
mise between the Latin and Syrian Christians, at a conference called the Synod of
Udiamper, a town in the neighbourhood of Cochin. Here the parties met ; but
the Roman Catholic missionaries, the Jesuits, had bribed the civil power, which
was in the hands of the Cochin Rajah, so effectually as to destroy the freedom of
discussion, and eventually to obtain the means of subjecting the Syrian bishops to
persecution, for their faithful adherence to the truth. Two of these confessors
Mar Symeon, and Mar Ignatius, were embarked on board of Portuguese veasdsfor
Lisbon, where they were treated as heretics, and never more heard of in India. In
this state of depression and suffering under Popish intolerance, the Syrian Chris-
tians continued more than 60 years, until the capture of Quilon by the Dutch in
1661. By that event the power of the Portuguese was destroyed, and the Chris-
tians of St. Thomas restored to liberty. In 1665, the Jesuits quitted India. From
their expulsion to the year 1815, the Syrian Churches continued a separate branch
of the Indian community ; although divided into sects, and impaired in energy and
purity of doctrine, by their unhappy connection with the Roman missionaries.

In 1815, on the demise of their patriarch, they obtained the aid of the Company's
Government, exerted through Col. Macaulay, the Company's resident in Travan-
core, who having recovered for them their ancient grants and evidences of nobility,
assisted them to found a College at Cattayam for the education of a clergy, and Ux
the Syrian youth generally. Colonel Macaulay effected several other arrangements
for the general improvement of their condition. A considerable grant of land was
obtained for the college, together with a donation of 20,000 rupees from the
Rannee of Travancore, and three English missionaries were attached to the college
at the instance of the resident.

The Syrian Christians now exist under three denominations.

Pint, The Syrian Churches, of which there are 57 in QoiLon and tiie neighboar-

* They professed to have found the remains of St. Thomas the Apostle and
Martyr; and a skull and bones, called his, were kept and worshipped in a church
at Cioa, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, Mather of God, One firiar Emanuel is re»
ported to have dug up these remains at the command of Don John, King of For*
tagal.

PRESENT DENOMINATION OF SYRIAN CHRISTIANS. 449

mg dktricts, eomprefaead a Christian population of 70,000 persons, who are go«
Temed by a Metropolitan, and .retain a comparatively pure doctrine, although its
professon are in general in low condition.

Second, The Syro-Roman Churches, who had adopted the Roman ritual with its
corruptions, but still perform their worship in the Syrian language. These are in
immber 97 churches, with a population of about 96,000 ; viz. 52 churches, with a
population of about 49,000, under the Archbishop of Cranganore; 38 churches,
with a population of 40,000, xmder the Vicar Apostolique of Verapoli ; and 7
churches, with a population of about 7,000, under the Bishop of Cochin and
Quilon.

Third. The Latin churches, which have ftilly conformed to the Church of Rome,
and use a ritual in the Latin language. These are in number 40 churches, with a
population of about 54,000; viz. 21 churches, with a population of about 29,000,
under the Vicar Apostolique of Verapoli ; and 19 churches, with a population of
about 35,000, under the Bishop of Cochin and Quilon. In addition to these
crhurches, and dependent on them, there are numerous chapels of ease scattered
over the country, in many instances four to each principal church.

The Syrian Churches keep quite distinct from the Latin Churches, and do not in-
termix with them.

Such of these churches, and they are numerous, as are vrithin the Company's
territory, have enjoyed not only that general protection for persons and property,*
which is common to all classes of natives ; but many grants or loans of money, and
grants of land for the erection of Churches and for cemeteries, have been made to
them. A volume might be filled with the details of these grants. The claims of
the Christians for protection against Mahomedans and Hindoos, are also not un-
Irequent. The following is a somewhat remarkable instance. In one of the villages
within the territories of the Ex-Paishwa, lately transferred to the Bombay Presi-
dency, there appears to have been a body of these native Christians, who, imme-
diately on the establishment of the British power in the district, applied to the
magistrate to relieve them from the disagreeable obligation of drawhig the Hindoo
idol's car on his festival day. The Hindoos put in a formal answer to the claim of
exemption, pleading that the practice had continued for more than 80 years, which
amounted to custom beyond the memory of man to the contrary. The cause was
duly, and it may be presumed ably, argued by native Vakeels, before the British
magistrate; who decided that no custom, of however long continuance, could
justify a practice so monstrous, as that of compelling Christians to draw the car of
an Idol. The decision was final — ^whether it gave universal satisfaction, the record
does not state.

Bb. Fisher next proceeds to describe the

Roman Cathouc Missionakibs.'— The establishment of these missionaries at
Ctoa early in the sixteenth century, has already been adverted to, and their most
oppressive conduct towards the Syrian Christians. The learning and science of
Europe, which they carried to India with them, contributed, it may be presumed,
as much as the military power of the Portuguese, to give them an influence and as-
eendancy among the native princes, which they might have eigoyed as long and as

VOL. I. O G

450 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHVRCH IN INDIA.

beneficially as the East India Company have enjoyed thein, had they uaed it as
temperately, as wisely, and as justly. How they did use it is now matter of history,
and if any of your readers are not sufficiently informed upon the subject, they may
be referred to the history of the Inquisition of Goa ; or to the several other Por-
tuguese accounts of their mission.

The £. I. Company's dominion, as it spread in India, extended of comae over
countries and places which contained churches, religious houses, and other estabhsb-
ments of Roman Catholics ; for the most part of Portuguese origin. These Roman
Catholics have received, and still receive, the same protection for thdr persons and
property, religious as well as civil, as has been extended to every other class of in-
habitants. The Padrees, for they were known by that name in the seventeenth
century, have been allowed the free exercise of their religion to the extent of build-
ing and consecrating churches, and performing worship therein, according to their
own views. They have also been allowed peaceably to carry the Host in procession,
but have not been permitted to compel either Papists, EVotestants, Mahomedanst
or Hindoos to kneel before it. Endeavours to exert force have occasionallf
brought them in contact with the Company's government, and at one time the re-
fractory conduct of the congregation de propaganda Jide, caused them to be ex-
cluded from Madras, and the Capuchins to be preferred and allowed, om the only
body of Ruman Catholics, which the government couid at that time toith tafety to the
peace of the tettlementf permit to reside in it. But this and any other similar re-
straints, which may have been imposed, have been temporary; and withdrawn
when the occasions have ceased. There is not, that I am aware of, any regulation
of the Company's government, which would prevent one of the Bishops of the
Church of Rome, now resident in India, from receiving and wearing a cardinal's
hat, were it the pleasure of his holiness the Pope to send him one. The law of
prismunirefthe famous contrivance of Henry the Eighth, by which he deprived his
minister Wolsey of all his goods, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, of his
head, is unknown in India, except as a piece of English history. The Roman
Catholic Bishops of India do in fact correspond with the several states of Europe,
such as Italy, France, and Portugal, to which they acknowledge ecclesiastical alle-
giance, and have often obtained assistance from the Company in conducting their
correspondence with those states, and in remitting and receiving funds : still further,
they enjoy at the present time large pecuniary support, which has from time to
time been freely granted to them, in every instance where a case of necessity and
of useful application has been clearly made out. In such cases, the Company have
either granted plots of ground, or sums of money, to erect churches; or the loan of
such funds, or stipends for the officiating priests, of whom there are. at the present
time a very considerable number in the monthly receipt of such stipends.

As much discussion now exists in England and in Ireland
relative to the propriety of the state leaving the Roman Ca-
tholic priesthood dependent on almost elymosynary contri-
butions, and as charges have been made against the E. I.
Company of refusing support or toleration to the Roman Ca-

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA. 451

tholic faith, I entreat the reader's attention to the following
documents just received (June^ 1835) from the India House,
and not before printed. Were the E. I. Company to give
publicity to all their regulations, the toleration and benefi-
cence of their rule would be far less subject to misrepre-
sentations.

Bombay Roman Catholics. — Memorandum by Mr. Acting-
Secretary Reid, dated May, 1832: —

The statement required is herewith forwarded, with the exception of the four
items marked A., the other grants have all been made at civil or military stations.

18M March, iS20. A donation was granted towards the erection of a Roman
Catholic chapel at Kaira, to the amount of Rs. 200.

%Ath Jtme^ 1822. A donation was granted under this date towards the erection
of a Roman Catholic chapel at Baroda^ to the amount of Rs. 200.

30/A May, 1822. An estimate was passed under this date for enclosing part of
the burying ground or backbay for the use of the Roman Catholic soldiers, amount-
ing to Rs. 4,10^30.

Ibih March, 1822. A piece of waste land was granted under this date to the
Roman Catholics at Broach for the purpose of a burial ground.

18M October, 1822. A donation was granted under this date towards the erec-
tion of a chapel at Rutnagherry, to the amount of Rs. 200.

25/A Nmjember, 1822. A further donation was granted under this date towards
the completion of the Roman Catholic chapd at Kaira, to the amount of Rs. 800.

I6th Moff, 1826. An estimate was passed under this date for building a chapel
at Colaba on account of the Roman Catholic soldiers stationed there, amounting
to Rs. 17,421.

*lth November, 1826. An estimate was passed under this date for walling in the
burying ground allowed for the Roman Catholic soldiers at Matronga, amounting
to Rs. 1,033,2,90.

28M July, 1826. A donation was granted under this date on account of the Ro-
man Catholic chapel erected at Mhow, amounting to Rs. 200.

2d September, 1828. The sum of rupees 3,000 was awarded under this date to-
wards the erection of a Catholic place of worship for the Catholic soldiers at Poona.

SOfJk June, 1828. A donation was sanctioned under this date towards the erec-
tion of m Roman Catholic chapel at Belgaum, of Rs. 300.

ISth April, 1829, A. A donation was sanctioned under this date towards rebuild-
ing the church of N. S. de Rosario of Tarapoor, to tiie amount of Rs. 100.

20th June, 1829. A monthly allowance was sanctioned under this date as a
grsnt to the church of St. John the Baptist of Tannah, to the amount of Rs. 80.

Ill June, 1839. A further sum was sanctioned under this date towards the
erectkm of the chapel in the cantonment of Poona, to the amount of Rs. 636,2,16.

iih March, 1880. Under this date Govenunent sanctioned the construction of
a Rommh Catholic chapel at Deera» at an expense iMt exceeding Rs. 3,000.

29th September, 1830, A. A donation was granted under this date towards the

45S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA.

repcir of the Roman Catholic church of Condity in Salaette, to the amount at
Ra. 100.

16M JtUy, 1831, A. A donation of rupeea 150 wn aanctioned under this date
towards the repair of the church of N. S. de Remedeos of Poinser in Salaette, pro-
vided the ryots and lessors of the village would come forward with the remaining
sum required for that purpose.

1832,' A. A monthly allowance of rupees 10 was aanctioned for the PortugneK
church at Caranja.

Extract, from Public Letter of the Court of Directors of
the E. I. Company to Bombay, dated 33rd January, 18S8 : —

33. We shall not withhold our sanction from the addition of 10 rujiieea which
you have made to the monthly salary of 30 rupees to the Priest at Kaiia, as the
object of the addition is to defray the expence of his journeys to Ahmedabad and
Rutherpore, at which latter place there is a cantonment of dragoons.

34. Nor do we object to the grant of 40 rupees per mensem to the Biahx^ of
Antipholi, to enable him to secure the services of Prieats for the spirftual inatme-
tion of the Roman Catholic soldiers stationed at Bombay.

36. With respect to the proceedings reported in your letter of the Ist Novem-
ber 1819, and the arrangements recommended to our adoption in that of the 18th
of August, 1820, we regret that you should have been kept for so long a time in
ignorance of our sentiments. This delay was occasioned principally by the want
of sufficiently detailed information as to the number of the Roman Catholic clergy
within the limits of your Presidency, and the nature and extent of the ftmds by
which they are supported. Although this defect has not been supplied by your
subsequent despatches we are nevertheless unwilUng to postpone any longer the
communication of our opinions respecting the policy which should be pursued tD>
wards the Roman Catholics of Bombay and its dependencies. As, at the date of
the cession of Bombay by the Crown of Portugal, the Roman Catholic was the
established religion of the Island, and as, in virtue of a stipulation of the grant by
which it was transferred to the East India Company, the Roman Cathdiic popula-
tion were secured in the full eigoyment of their privileges, as well as in the firee
exercise of their religion, we feel that they are entitled to such protection.

37. From Mr. Henderson's report, recorded on your consultations of the 4tk
June, 1814, it would appear that the Bomish clergy on the Island of Bombay de-
rive no part of their support from your Government, with the excqition of Ite
pension of 400 rupees per annum, which was granted in the year 1814 to the
Bishop of Antipholi, and which received our sanction.

38. With regard to the places acquked by ceaaion or conquest firom the Ifah-
rattas, we obaerve that you agree to allow a pension of 30 rupees per mensem to
the Priests at Surat Malwan, Broach and Kaira, but that you decline corapiyiBg
with a petition from the Vicars in Bassein, praying for the like indulgence.

39. We feel that it would be discreditable to aChristian Qovenunent to wkaos
with utter indifference the possible lapse of its native Roman Catholic sttb}ects to
heathenism for want of the meana of supporting their pastors, and indisp«tably>
they have at least as strong a daim upon our country as the Hindoo and MahoaB^

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA. 453

dui prittthood. Entertaining these sentiments we shall not disallow the stipends
which you have actually granted.

40. The arrangement recommended to our adoption in your letter of the 12th
August, 1820, has primarily in view the effectual supercession of the Archbishop
of Goa's spiritual jurisdiction, which, notwithstanding your endeavours to exclude
it, has, it appears, been clandestinely exercised within the limits of your Presi-
dency. If this subject had now been for the first time brought under our notice,
it might be doubted whether the actual and prospective inconveniences of the
Archbishop's were as formidable as has been supposed. But with reference to our
former orders, and to the encouragement which has been afforded to the Carmelite
Bishop and Priests, we consider 'ourselves in a measure pledged upon a subject
which was then considered. It appears to us, that it would be next to impossible
to extinguish the influence of the Archbishc^ over the Roman clergy, so long as
they are obliged to resort to Goa for education and ordination. It is not to be ex-
pected that the sanction of a Protestant magistrate to resumption of spiritual
fanctlous by a Priest, who had received ordination at Goa, and been suspended
from his benefice by the Archbishop, would be respected by his fiock, even if the
Priest himsdf should regard it as a valid warrant for administering the sacraments
wad receiving confessions which, we think is' very doubtful.

41. In your letter of the 12th Aug. 1820, you state the expense of the proposed
wtaduury for the education of persons to supply the Roman Catholic churches at
about 300 rupees per mensem ; but we observe that the Bishop of Antipholi (who
is to nominate the pastors subject to your approval) has stated in his letter to Mr.
£l|rfiinstone of the 16th Blay, 1823, that 150 rupees per mensem would enable
him to provide teachers for the instruction of individuals desirous of qualifying
tbcmaelves for the sacred office.

42. If the Roman Catholic population of Bombay and its dependendes should
willingly submit to the authority of the Carmelite Bishop and to the Priests of his
ordination, there would still remain the difficulty (which you yourselves have no-
ticed) of situating the conflicting daim of that prelate, and of the Archbishop of
Goa, as to the limits of their respective jurisdictions. We apprehend that this
could be done in no other mode than by a reference to the Court of Rome, and
unless the Carmelite Bishop should have the means of obtaining the Pope's deci-
sion upon the point, we see no prospect of a termination of the dispute; under
these drcumstanoes, we do not feel prepared to accede to the propositions which
yoa submitted to us in your letter of the 12th August, 1820. In the present state
of our infonnation, we certainly should not be disposed to authorise so large an
annual expenditure as you have recommended, but neither would we wish to pro-
hibit yoa from affording a small pecuniary assistance to the Roman Catholic clergy
in cases where the refusal of such assistance might, by possibility, involve the dis-
persion and i^MWtacy to heathenism of their congregations.

43. Towards the education of persons designed to fill vacant benefices, we are
willing to contribute an annual sum not exceeding 1,800 rupees, which we con-
ceive will be sufficient to provide qualified pastors for the congregations who
acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Bishop of Antipholi. We, however, do
not pledge o ursd f ea to this as a permanent arrangement, as it is not impossible
that some other mode may hereafter present itself of supplying pastors to the Ro-
man Catholic churches.

454 ROMASr CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA.

44. We wish you to farniah us iirlth a ttitement of the number of the Rontn
Catholic churches in the territories subject to your Presideacy, the number of the
Aiests belongiiig to those churches, the sources whence they derive their suppoit,
and such other particufaurs as may serve to emplain the actoal condilian ol our
Roman Catholic subjects.

[Let it be remarked that the foregoing was vmtten before the Roman Ca t faoii cs
were emancipated from political disabilities in En^^d, and then the sentiments
it conveys will be more readily seen in reference to public opinion in England.
— R.M. M.J

The following extract from a Public Letter from Bombay,
dated ^th January^ 1830^ to the Court of Directors^ will
shew what has been done : —

Par. 27. Having called for information in regard to the Catholic churches, &c.
within the limits of this Presidency, we beg to lay the result before your Honour-
able Court.

The Bishop of Bombay states that he has within the island of Bombay under his
jurisdiction five churches, indudtng the new church at Colaba, built by the Hon.
Company, and two chapels, that the number of Priests are thirteen, exclusive of
his Vicar, General Fr. Luiz Maria, and Bishop Prendergast, who lives with him.
That all these churches, except that at Colaba, have sutBdent funda to keep ibem
in good order, and to support -their Priests, that those funds were left by pious
benefactors ; that at Sural he has two churches under his jurisdiction, and two
Priests, one of whom, as chi4>lain to the Servants of the Hon. Eaat India Com>
pany, receive 40 rupees per month, and the other nothing. That both the
churches have sufficient funds to keep them in good order, and to support those
Priests. That at Broach and Baroda he has two chapels without any fund what-
ever, the ebaplains there receiving from the Hon. Company an aUowanoe of 30
rupees each per month. That he has a chapel at Kaira without any fond» snd
that the chaplain receives from the Hon. Company an allowance of 40 lupees
per month. That he has small chapels at Mfaow, DhooHa, Candeish, Malwaa, and
Rutnagherry, and the respective chaplains receive 30 rupees per month from the
Hon. Company. That the chapels at Poona .and Aurungabad oug^t to bekmg to
him, but for the want of Priests he has consented to the Archbiahop seadiiig
Priests there: the Bishop requests an allowance of rupees 16 per month od ac-
count of each of those small chapels, for keeping them in osder, and an additioo
of rupees 10 per month to the allowance of the chaplains attached to them.

The senior magistrate of police states that there are twelve Roman Ca(tholic
churches on the Island of Bombay, but in regard to the number of Priests, Ac. be
refers Government to the Bishop of Antiph«di» and the Archbishop'a Vkar Gene-
ral in Bombay, as he has no means himself of furnishing information thenon*

The Collector of Ahmedabad i^wrts that there are no Roman Catholic
churches within his oollectorate, and that the whole number ot penoM of that
religion residing within his jurisdiction does not amount to above 40 souls.

The Collector of Broach reports that there is only one Roman Catholic duucfc
and one Priest in his ZiUah : that the church was built by subMiqiliaii, and the
Priest receives a monthly allowance of rupees 30 for his support. That thr
annual repairs of the church, and other monthly contingent expenses thereof,

ROMAN CATHOUC CHURCH IN INDIA.

*&&

Hich as clerkB» pay, ftc. aie borne by sabsei^tion lately made by aome Roman
Catholics residing there.

The Collector of Kaira reports that there are two Roman Catholic churches in
his ffillah, to vhich but one Priest is attached : that both churches are in the
vidnity of Kaira, one doae to the head cotchery in the suburba of the town of
Kaira, for performing the duty of which the Priest is aUowed rupees 40 per
month from the Government : the other is situated in the camp, for performing
the duty of which the Priest receives private voluntary contributions.

The Collector of Surat reporto that there are two Roman Catholic churches at
Surat— the first was erected in 1624, a Sunnud was granted in the year 1729, by
the Emperor of Delhi, and the Nawaub of Surat paid monthly a sum of rupees
126 3 in support of it : this was continued until the date of its coming into
the possession of the Hon. Company, when it ceased ; it is now supported by the
rent of three houses, yielding, when occupied, an aggregate monthly sum of Rs.
45. At present they have fallen much into decay, and two are without tenants,
these belong to the church. The second church is supported by Gfavemment, the
Priest receives a monthly sum of Rs. 40, besides the subscriptions obtained occa-
■ionally from private individuals, it is said to be in a flourishing condition. The
number of Roman Catholics who attend these two churches does not exceed 120
persons. There are few Roman Catholics, and no churches in any other part of
his Zillah.

The Collector in the Southern Coukan reports that there are six churches in his
Zillab, viz:

I
£

■

YlBgooda ..

Charches

wbere

situated.

MalwaD

^Hrladroog..

Rvtoagheny

Himee

Kortl.

"^ ?.

aid

The sonrces whence they
derive their sapport.

557 1

From Gtoverament .... 549
From the Congregation 13

68 00

540

553

From the Congregation 58 o o

No regular expense

From Government .... 540 o o

No regular expense

Fniai Ckw ern nmnt < •
From Ancria, the pro-
duce of some Eaam

laad

From the CongregatiOB

■ •

}

tt7 1 M
)S
35

S74 1 09

Remarks.

fThe marriage fee ia 6 Rs.,
< and small fees are also ex-
I acted at burials.

'The priest, who occasion-
allf officiates, resides in
Saurint Warer, and visito
this church 4 or 5 times a
year. The proceeds are de-
rived from marriage fees,
and a payment of l or S
annas a head by each Ca-
tholic.

The priest from Malwa
visits the Church occasion-
ally, the congregation Is
very limited, and the re-
pairs of llie church are
made by the parishioners.

^This church was built in
1SS9 by the Fovtagoese in-
habitants, with the assist-
ance of 900 Rs. from Go-
vcnunenta

fTlie priest of Rntnagherry

J occasionally visits thia
i church. The congregation

I is very limited.

^The deficiency in the ftmda
is made up by alms, which
the priest procores at Boss-
bay and other places, the
church Is of the time of the
Portuguese Government at
Reodunda.

456 ROHAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA.

•

Jdr. Reid states that the number of Romao GaitbcriUci ia very ineoiiaidafiiile^ iad
consists principally of a floating population from Goa and Bombay. At Korii,
opposite the Fort of Reodunda» and at Viaadroog and Huniee, few old PortagncK
residents are to be found. To Malwa, Vingoorla and Rutnag^ieny they have
been attracted since the establishment of the British Qovemment, and consist of
English writers and their families, fanners of the Government, Liquor Faima» and
a few stone cutters and mechanics ; the total number does not eooecd 1,000 souls.
The Ck>Uector of Ahmednuggur states that there are no cfaurdies nor any esta-
blished Priest in any town in his coUectorate. That the Roman CathoUcs of
Ahmednu^;ur, about 50 persons, met in a place of worship on Sundays and other
days, and have been contemplating building a church, inviting a deigyman, snd
requesting ground from Government for the site of a church and burial place, and
the Collector expresses a hope that when such application is made, we will affoid
them suitable assistance.

The principal Collector of Dharwar reports that there are 11 churches m his
coUectorate, viz : one at each of the following places, RhanapotHv Nundaguih,
Shawpore, Belgaum, Kittoor, Beedee, Machgurh, Darwur, Azrah, (in the Koiapoor
territory) Hallkumee, and Bellgoondee. That there are three Priests to those
chiirches, one senior and two junior, all natives of Goa. That the four fint men-
tioned churches are under charge of the senior Priest, to whom the other tvo
Priests are required to report proceedings ; the next four under one of the junior
Priests, and the remaining three under the other, the whole are subject to the
Archbishop of Goa. They derive their principal support from the PUitoguese
Government, the senior Priest is allowed a salary of 300 Goa rupees per anmna,
'and the two junior Priests 250 rupees each ; they also receive fees for baptiBna»
marriages, funerals, &c. for little more than a year and a half the senior Mait, who
officiates at Belgaum, received an allowance of 25 Rs. per month from the Britiih
Government, but this has been discontinued since the removal of the 1st Bombay
European regiment. The members of the four churches under the immeJiatP
superintendence of the senior Priest, amount, including men, women, and child-
ren, to 1,300 souls ; those of the other four churches to about 600 ; the remaining
three churches to about 700 ; making together 2,600.

The whole of these are descendants of a body of Roman Catholics, wfao^ about
a century ago, removed from below the Ghauts and settled there. Tlieir daef
employment is distillation of spurits ; besides the above there are at present at Bd-
gaum, in his Mijesty's 4l8t regiment of foot, 279 men, 43 women, and 44 diild-
ren, Roman Catholics, and 2,500 (sepoys, pioneers, drummers, fiCen, and camp
followers) among the native troops, besides some of the same description, under
the junior Priests at Dhauwar and Kelapoor.

The acting Collector of Poona reports that there is one church and two Prints
under his coUectorate, and that the only CathoUc inhabitants there, are a few ser-
vants and followers attached to the Camp at Poona. He does not nport the
sources from which they derive their support, but from the Aooountant-genenb
statement it appears, that one of them receives an aUowance from GovemmeBt of
Rs. 50 per month, and the other Rs. 25.
The Collector of Khandesh reports that there are two small churches in hit

KOUAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INBIA. 457

^ooUeetotite, dne at BAaUigaiim and the other at Dhoolia ; there is only one Priest
in Khandesh who resides at Dhoolia, he proceeds to MalUgaum once in six or
seven creeks to perfanb mass, he recerr ee Rs. 30 per month from the Government,
which ia oooaidered as a salary for performing mass on public days ; in addition to
this, he is generally paid by individuals one rupee for each baptism, and one for
each buiial, and Hve rupees for each maniage ; but these are not established fees,
they are dispensed with, when the parties are in low circumstances ; for all extra
naascs on account of individuals for their departed friends, or other purposes, half
a rupee is paid ; the amount of those fees may average about 12 rupees per men-
sem. The Priest in Khandesh is not at all content vrith his allowances, as he could
obtain more than double the sum in Bombay, but, he understands, he has been sent
up to Khandesh much against his inclination. There are about 2(K) Roman Ca.
thoUcs in Khandeah, some of whom are very respectable men, and who serve the
Government as accountants, English vmters, &c. ; others are personal servants
and cooks of European gentlemen. An addition of 10 Rs. per month has lately
been granted to him to defray the expense of his proceeding to Malligaum.

The Collector in the Northern Conkan has handed up a statement, shewing the
number of Roman Catholic churches, the number of the Priests belonging to
them, the souroes whence they derive their support, and the number of the Ro-
man Catholic houses and subjects in his district, to which we beg to draw your
Honourable Court's attention.

That the Roman Catholic liuth is rapidly losing ground in his Zillah, there can
be little doubt. Upwards of 1,200 families, Coolies, left the church during the
raging of the cholera, and returned to the worship of their forefathers ; from
what he has observed, however, the change was merely in name, the greater num-
ber calling themselves Chrittiani are in fact idolaters ; some, it is said, worship
the Hindoo gods secretly in their houses, althou§^ they attend the church, and
almost all conceive the images of the saints as gods, and worship them in that
light.

Few, very few of the Christians, resident in his Zillah, are descended from the
Portaguese families, they are generally converted KoomUes, Bundarees, Coolies,
and a few Brahmins ; and the most extraordinary circumstance is, that most of
them still adhere to the former pre|{udlces of caste, and rardy intermarry, and in
some parts vnll not eat together, notwithstanding which they are considered as
biethien of the Church of Christ.

The cause of this ignorance must originate in the extremely depressed state of
the clergy, and this is caused by the wretched pittance obtainable in each parish,
no families of respectability would think of educating any member for such a sta-
tion. The vicars of Salsette, in their petition to Government, dated in December,
1886t stated that the churches are almost " all in great decay, and going to ruin ;
and there is nothing left for their repairs. The parishioners are so very poor and
miserable that they can scarcely maintain themselves and families." Some of the
chnrchfts are little better than a heap of ruins.

Considering the deacriptioa of the Priests generally, the Collector hardly knows
whether the want of them in many places is a disadvantage or not, if men of edu-
cation and character could by any means be appointed, the advantage would be

458 ROMAJi CATHOLIC C»URCH IN INDIA.

eertiln. Tbe stetmiait now lorwirded thewB 13 Mnts oWditfag over M
churches or parishes, in the Island of SalaeCte, the Piicat at Tamiah having titt
charge of four churches. The Priest of Agasee in the Mahim Talooka has cfaaige
of the churches of Tarapoor and Dahnoo, or rather paxishes, (Ibr the dmrcfa at the
latter i^ace is completely destroyed,) a distance of 20 coss, but at pRsent there
are not many Christians in those two parishes.

Extract from Public Letter to Bombay, dated SSrd July
(No. 26), 1833. Answer to Letter dated 2nd November (Na
28), 1831 :—

Par. 8. In the first of the letters under reply, you bring to our notice the dih-
pidated state, and miserably poor condition of the Roman Catholic Churches
under your Presidency, and suggest to us tlie propriety of sanctioning the sum of
400 or 500 rupees a month, in addition to the charge now borne by your Govern-
ment for the support of that religion, being distributed amongst the different
parishes of Salsette and other places where a considerable number of Roman Ca-
tholics may reside.

In our despatch of the 23d January, 1828, we communicated to you our opi>
nions respecting the policy which should be pursued towards the Roman Cathotics
at Bombay and its dependencies, observing, that as at the date of the transfer of
Bombay to the Company, the Roman Catholic population were secured in the foil
enjoyment of their privileges as well as in the free exercise of their religion, we
felt that they were entitled to protection, and that we would not prohibit you
from affording pecuniary assistance to the Roman Catholic dergy in cases where
the refusal of such assistance might by possibility involve the dispersion and apos-
tacy to heathenism of their congregations.

5. In the spirit of those instructions, and trusting to your discretion in the dis-
tribution of the amount, we authorize you to ^burse in the manner you have
suggested, such further sum, not exceeding 400 rupees a month ; as may be neces-
sary for the decent maintenance and support of the Roman Catholic clergy within
the districts subject to your authority.

6. The second letter under reply relates to the assistance aflbrded by Go-
vernment towards rebuilding the Churches of Nossa Senhora de Esperan^a of
Bombay, and of Nossa Senhora dos Remedies, in the district of Bassein, and re-
quests our opinion on the subject of such grants generally.

7. Although the grant of Rs. 14,000 towards rebuilding the church of N. S. de
Esperan9a is large, we are satisfied from a consideration of the proceedings of Go-
vernment connected with the removal of the church from the Esplanade in 1804,
and rebuilding it on another site, that your Government vras bound to assist the
parishioners in erecting a new church ; and that the amount of that aasirtBiice
was not greater than the exigency of the case required.

8. We do not object to the donation of Rs. 300 which you authorised condi-
tionally to be made towards rebuilding the church at Bassein.

Madras Roman Catholics. — The following is from tlid

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA. 459

Acting Superintendent of Police, dateii Madras, 4th Nov.
1834. He says, —

The statement marked No. 1 . may be relied upon as perfectly correct, with, per-
haps, the exception of the extent of the respective' congregations, upon which point
I found the greatest difficulty to fix on a true data by which to calculate the num-
ber claimed by the different churches ; without, however, being enabled to state
positively the number of each congregation, the wfiole Roman Catholic population
may be faurly considered about 60,000 in and near Madras.

The statement No. 2. furnished by the Secretary of the Bishop of St. Thom6 is
useful, inasmuch that the amount of the funds possessed by the different churches
is correct.

Statement No. 3, by Mr. Satur, who is attached to the Capuchin Mission,
gives no information except on the Capuchin churches.

STATEMENT OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCHES, THEIR VICARS,

AND THEIR RESPECTIVE FUNDS.

Cathedral of St. Thom6, the acting Bishop Fr. Manuel da Ave Maria ; about
20,000 pagodas, four houses to be rented, and two gardens. Church of Santa
Rita at do. under do. ; about 1,200 pagodas, and a house to be rented. Church of
St. Domingos, do. no Vicar ; two houses to be rented. Church of Madre de
Deos, do. Rd. Manuel S. de Jesus ; a garden and 500 pagodas. Church of Laza-
rus, do. do. ; a cocoa-nut tree garden. Church of Discan9o, Rd. Antonio F. dor
Arcanjos ; supported by the estate of the late Mr. J. de Monte. Church of Lur,
Rd. Fr. Francisco das Dores ; about 500 pagodas, a house to be rented, and a gar-
den. Church of Little Mount, no Vicar ; a gaifden of paddy fields. Church of St.
Thomas' Mount, Rd. Antonio Rozario Cardozas ; about 2,500 pagodas, and two
houses to be rented. Church of Covelong, Rd. Luis Rubeiro ; about 64,000 Rs.
but there is a seminary to be supported also with the same fund. Church of
Poonmalay, Rd. Antonio Joze Pires; pagodas 2,500. Church of Pulicat, no
Vicar ; no fund. Church of Vepery, Rd. Fr. Felix ; no fund ; at present in charge
of Rd. Muhille. Church of Periapauleum, no Vicar ; no fund. Church of Mada-
verum, no Vicar; no fund. Church of Wallajawpettah, no Vicar; no fund.
Church of Capuchins, of Madras, Rd. Fr. John Baptista ; about 30,000 pagodas,
and two houses. Church of St. John at Madras, Rd. Dimingos J. A. Pereira ;
supported by the estate of Mr. J. De Monte. Church of Parchery at Madras, Rd.
Jannario Saldanha ; no fund, but is supported by the Cathedral fund. Church of
Royaporam, no Vicar ; about 20,000 pagodas (boatmens' funds.) Church another,
at Madras, no Vicar ; supported by the Capuchins.

s|«|h?ji'.ls
Ifll! -

SHII

s I

^ i

i I

3 -i
fffl

fill I

3=8 ■

a S- a a

III

la^'

iH'

1 «l

- !.

1
1

lii

Siiifsij

tiiii^li

{ 1

■i ili

\ I

4«1

it pit 1 piiili |i

ill ifiiyiii!!! m\

ill

i f «

iilli iik I II I I |8i||

a a a a a aa.o aao a a s-o tS

L i|

! : J . I i i It

|M|llil» mI 5 I 1 8 II

= I : : ^ I S : I :il I I I ! 51

rf _ -f - •* a 5,

£«

• ■ ■ • • ■ ■ ■ • :- -— I

■ . ■ ■ c _t c I

i ■ ■ si ■ i ■ ■ i

■ -J -J . ■ . Jl I J . . I

i S Z > ^> 1 > i

1 1 i n 3^3 Ji I 1 I s 1

jal^il Big 5al i i 55 !
...... ^... . . . . ^ . .

•■■•■ ^-M -n 1 iU

5 S § S . aSI f I Ss I I If'

aaaa' k^S aau o. a. i a.

46S ROHAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA.

The Roman Catholic establishments which now enjoy tfie
protection and support of the E. I. Company, include /ovr
apostolical yicars, with authority direct from the Pope ; no-
minated by the Society, De Propaganda Fiiie, and stationed
at Pandieherry, Ver<»poly^ Bombay y and Agra. There is also
a prefect of the Romish mission at Nepaul. These aposto-
lical vicars have under them in their several dioceses a number
of priests ; most of whom are natives of India, and have been
educated in Indian seminaries by European ecclesiastics.

There are also two Archbishops and two Bishops, presented
by the King of Portugal, The Archbishops are of Goa,
who is the Metropolitan and Primate of the Orient; and of
Cranganore, in Malabar. The Bishops are, of Cochin in
Malabar y and St. Thomas at Madras. The latter includes
Calcutta in his diocese; where he has a legate, who has
under his superintendence fourteen priests and ten churches,
viz. in Calcutta, one ; in Serampore, one ; in Chinsurrah, one ;
in Bandel, one ; in Cosimbazar, one ; three at Chittagong ;
in Backergunge, one ; and in Bowal, one.

The priests and churches under the presidencies of Madras
and Bombay are very numerous, exclusive of those which
were formerly Syrian churches, and have been, as already
mentioned, incorporated with that of Rome.

The Roman CathoUc Bishop of Bombay, who, with his
Vicar-general, resided on the island, has under his jurisdic-
tion there five churches^ inclusive of a new church on the
island of Colaba, and two chapels. These are connected with
these establishments thirteen priests, exclusive of the Bishop
and his Vicar. All the churches, except Colaba, have
sufficient endowments for their support, and that of their
priests.

The principal church, which is dedicated to N. S. da Es-
peran9a, formerly stood on the Esplanade ; but in the year
1804 it was removed at the Company's expense, and a new
one erected by Salliah Mahomed Fuzeel. This building cost
about 4,000/. In 1831 it was discovered that the work had
been badly executed, and the church was then ready to iaU,

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA. 463

in conaequence of which the Company made a further grant
of 14,000 rupees, nearly 2,000/., towards its repair.

At Surat there are two churches under the jurisdiction of
the Bishop of Bombay. The oldest was erected in the year
1624; and it is a remarkable circumstance that for many
years this church ei^oyed a monthly income of 126 rupees,
2 annas paid by the Nabob of Surat, by virtue of a Sonnud
firom the Emperor at Delhi. This endowment ceased to be
paid when Surat came entirely under the conteol of the Com-
pany ; but the chilrch is still in possession of freehold pro-
perty, yielding a monthly sum sufficient for its support. The
second church is wholly supported by the Company, who pay
the priest his monthly stipend of 40 rupees. The stated
worshippers in these two churches somewhat exceed one
hundred.

The other Roman Catholic churches under the Presidency
of Bombay are as follow : one in Broach, which was erected,
and is still supported, by voluntary subscription, excepting a
monthly stipend of 30 rupees to the priest, paid by the Com-
pany: one at Baroda, supported in the same way : the church
of'N. S. los Remedios at Bassein, to the re-edification of
which, in the year 18S2^ the Company contributed liberally;
a church at Poonah, with two priests, who enjoy stipends paid
by the Company : one at Malwa ; one at V ingorla ; one at
Viziadroog; one at Rutnagherry, erected in 1822, with the
aid of a grant from the Company, and one at Hurree.

Notwithstanding the forms and ceremonials of the Roman
Catholic church approximate so closely to the Hindoo wor-
ship (as often observed to me by the late Rammohun Roy) ;
there have been few converts to the Creed of Rome, and those
who have become, nominally, converts to the Catholic church,*

* By a GoyernmeDt rqi^ulatiou of 1831, any Hindoo who may become a
convert to Christianity does not forfeit rights of caste or inheritance, or any
temporal advantages connected with caste. This is but just in a Christian
Qovemment acting on the broadest prindples of toleration. Thus when
litigations for property or personal services appropriated as endowments
for the support of the Hindoo or Mahoroedan religion arise, the inter-

464

ESTABLISHED CHUECH IN BBNOAL.

have relinquishedy it is true, one faith, but without adopting
another, while the principles of morality were too loose to
stand as a substitute for religion.

Protestant Church. — ^We may now proceed to observe
how far the established church extends, premising that in thu
as in the foregoing instances, every aid has been furmshed
by the E. I. Company's Government which could promote
the cause of true religion and its comcomitants — charity,
peace, and happiness. The following detail shews, first, the
state of the Established Church in Bengal, according to the
latest return in 1830, and the expenses incurred there, from
the date of Calcutta being made a Bishop's See in 1814 to
1831.

mt^— A I ^

Congregations.

Stations.

Statloni.

ClvU.

MilitarT.

CiTfl.

MDilsnr.

Two Chaplains :

Under 1 Chaplain :

Cathedral ^O .
Old Church I g* .

■ •

Ohaseepofe •

onoeMdn*

188

400

■ •

Bnxar

St. James's (g .

900

m m

Sangor

lie

Fort Church j f .

SIO

Under l Chaplain :

Tile Azchdeaoon,

Agim

• •

action :

Mnttra .

• •

100

Don Dun

• .

700

AUjghnr

• •

Barrackpore .

too

Stawah .

• •

Chinsorah

144

810

Under 1 Chaplain :

Berhampore

• .

S76

BarelUT . .

• •

8»

AUnorah

■ •

Dacca

HavUbangfa .

• 9

Chlttscon^ .

Moradabad . .

m m

Jelalpore

8 >

uncertain.

• •

Ujmeating .

TIpperahot Bsnisal

1ft J

Delhi . .

Under 1 Chaplain :

• •

Benares or Secrole

too

Meemt .

108

1,880

Chunar .

SftO

• •

Nnsseerabad

■ •

Mlrcapora

• e

Cawnpore .

377

l,iS7

Jannpore

• ■

Under 1 Chaplain :

Under i Chaplain :

Kumanl .

• •

1<8

Patna

■ •

• •

Munnferpore

• •

Hanse

• •

Gyah

• •

Mhow

• •

810

Dinapore .

uncertain.

880

Cuttaek

9 m

• •

Allahabad . . .

Tlie returns of the congregations attending the churdies at Neemudk, JBog Iqiert, OMatk,
TuUifghmr, Samgor, Howrak, and the chapel at the Xnnpeam Bmrrmekt, are not given.

ference of the magistrate amounts to a direct recognition of rights coo*
nected with or growing out of the several religious distinctions of the
party. British India can scarcely therefore be said to have a SMe rdtgmt
•—it is tolerant, protective and auxiliary to each and every creed, aUomnf
the light of reason and the convictions of truth to operate in every direction
unaided by physical force and unmolested by bigotry or fanaticism.

BEXSAL & AORA mEaiDBHCiea, & QOVT. KXPSNDITUR8, &C. 466

Ilia Old or MIhIod Clinrch
BL. Faur't Choich . .
St. J«nBt*B Cfanrcli . -
" laOeoenlUoivltal.

s i

^?5

NmmcorBtaitbmDf

CliMoli.&e.

s s

411

BwdU7 .. ..

—

The foregoing tables are given (as are also several others
in this volume) partly in order that more complete returns
may in future be kept or prepared in India, in the statistics
of vhich we are sadly deficient, the present being the first
public effort to afford a complete view of Indian statistics.

The following is the total expense incurred for the Bengal
Established Church from 1815 to 1832-33:—

ft! ^1

" &

lilt

i\m

IMS

«.

HUM

An official letter from the Archdeacon of Bombay (10th
Not, 1831) thus details the state of the Protestant Church
under that Presidency ; e» paiiant, it may be remarked that

TOL [. H K

466 BOMBAY PRESIDENCY CHURCH STATIONS & CONORBOATIONS.

thenumber of chaplains allowed is fifteen, but in 1832 ten
only were present, owing to sickness, &c«

stations.

1. St TlianiM'a

Chnrdi, BombA7.
S. Bombay Garrlton
S. Colabah with Bom-
bay HarbOTur ....

4. Bycnllah (New

Charch.)

5. Poonah

stations.

1.800

6. Kirkee

7. AhmednuggoT....

8. Malcolm Petb ....

9. Dapooree

10. Deesab

11. Ahmedabad.

IS. Baroda

IS. Tannah

M7
754
70 to too

1,014
40
38
60

Stations.

14. Belganm . .

15. Darwar....

10. Sniat

.17> Staolapore
18. BbooJ ....
10. MaUicaom
90. RaJcote ..

•49

1S8

117
M

In the above statement, four chaplains are assigned to the
islands of Bombay and Colabah, in conformity with the opi-
nion of the late bishop, Dr. Turner.

The following official documents, 1, 2, and 3, fiirther illus-
trate the state of the established church at Bombay, accord-
ing to the latest returns.

Table, No. 1. — ^Ecclesiastical Chai^nes.

In the Year

1814-S5
18S5-S5

1896-97
1897-S8
1898>99
1891^80

Rape«

In the Year

9,88,981

1880-31

9,19,960

1881.89

9,17,«07

1889-83

9,96,965

1883-84
1834-35
1835-30 ..

No. 2.— Gharjjres in the Ecclesiastical Deffartment under the Heads of
Salaries and Establishments (per annum, and in rupees).

Years.

Salaries.

Establish-
ments.

Total.

Years.

Salaries.

1815

43,997

4,903

48,301

1896

148,479

1810

68,677

4,903

79,840

1690

139,863

1817

84,777

4,011

89,388

1897

101,671

1818

8S,905

4,756

93,790

1898

1819

96,006

5,«7P

109,046

1899

1890

101,807

0,008

106,471

1830

1891

119,830

8,007

131,496

1831

1899

108,108

U,797

193,831

1899

1893

99,011

«0.757

118,309

1833

1894

•

198,483

17.781

141,916

1634

Bstabllah.
ments.

30.189
30,009
61,399

TMaL

175,^
919,913

ECCCBSIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENT AT BACH PRB8IDENCT. 467

No. 3. — Statement of Expences incurred in the Construction and Repair!

of Churches, from 1818 to 1827.

NameofChaiicli.

When
linldied.

Expense

of Erec

tion.

Repairs.

Total.

Rematksw

Sont

Scotch Chordi

Kalift

St Thomas's Chnrch

POODSh

TuiiMh

1888
1818
1884

1884
1889

!h are ixoi

asticalO

1835

1886

1838
1886
1887

1886

Rs.
58,388
66,588
74,786

48,509
43,553

noticed e
Brrespon(
14,848
9,018

9,091

11,891
8,800
8.700

Rs.

30,669
446

Rs.
Itherin
lenee.

Rs.

58.888 BssflBS above estimate Rs. 88,388.

86,588

74,756 Excess aboTs estimate Rs. 84,169.

1 exclusive of Plate, Rs. 1,400.
30,669 This iododes repatrs to 1819 only,
48,955; from which period Rs. 7,800
48.553 appear to have been allowed

Chnrchas erected whic
the Pablie or Scdesi

DsiKwee

NevGharch B. aUlsfa \
North of the MThec/
Bsioils
Uhov
Koofkso

8,08,843
80,008

afiralnsfe whSeh the receipts ftmn
pews are to be set off, the
amount of which Is not ascer-
tainable here.

Roman CathoUc \
, Chardi at Colaba J

' To

talRs.

3,64,845
17,481

8,88,366

Expences of Civil, Military, and Church Establishments at Bombay.

1818

1816

Civil Establishment
If ilitarr Ditto

1817

Salaries per Annom.

Rupees.

88,177
11,760

4S4W

1818

CtvU EstafaUahment
MltttUT Ditto
Scotch Chnrch

Civil Brtahliduii0Dt
MDitary Ditto
Scotch Chareh

Clvn EstaUishment
MUttvr Ditto
Scotch Church

88,177

87,859

8,889

68,877

88,177

43,759

8,889

Rupees
4,868

4,868

4,868
848

84,777

83,977

46.147

8,839

884KS5

4,611

4,868
493

4,758

1819

1880

1881

Civil Establishment
Military Ditto
Scotch Chnrch

Civil Establishment
Military Ditto
Scotch Church

Civil EsUblishment
MUitary Ditto
Scotch Church

ClvU Establishment
MiUlary Departmeni
Scotch Church

Rupees. Rupees.

33,977

53,847

8,839

4,347
1,638

96.068

8.97»

83,977

88.467

9.481

8,867
1.886

1,01,867

0.603

88,977

69.178

9.673

8,919
8,748

1,18,830

8.0fl7

88,977

t 04,481

9.673

8,919
8,808

1,08,103 14,787

468 BOMBAY AND MADRAS CHURCH £8TABLISHMBNTfl» &C.

Bxpences of Civil and Military Establisliinents, &c. BiBombtky^-conthmed.

!•»

18M

SalttlM per Annum.

CItU Efteblithment
Military Ditto
Scotch Chareh
Catliolie

RnpMt.

18,434
1,440

99.811

CItQ BstabUshment
Military Ditto
Scotch Church
CathoUo

Civil Batahiiahinent
MUltary Ditto
Scotch Choreh
Catholica

88,977

«7,7S9

19,066;

8.040

1.98,488

4S.777
80,000

19.669
9,040

1,48,479 80,159

Salarieo per Annun.

1896 CiTil BotabUahment
MiUtary Ditto
Scotch Churclh
Catholica

1897

47,8771

70^98;

19.669;

9,5901

1.89,858

CiTtt BatabUohment
MiUUry Ditto
Scotch Choreh
Catholica

8,«7»

97.S9S

861809

44.«77
99,851
90,8«9
8,1801

9^664

8i,r

1,61,571

1898 ClTtl
MiUtarr

1899 CiTil

MiUtarr

1880 CiTil
Military

1881 civU
MiUtarr

1888 CivU
I MUltary

41,889

65,419
1,10,944

1.19.064
79.889

1,94,994
79,999

1,00,808
64,309
99,640*

9>51t
13,888
I0.4SS
18.784
19,887
18,176
11,885

19,876
10,111
11.904

Ezpences of Gvil, Military, and Church Establishmento at Madras.

U15

1816

1817

ISIS

8alario8 per Annua.

' Bapeca.
CItU EatabUahmeot 48,850
MUltary , 70,786

1,91,006

CItU BatabUahment
MOttnry

47.448
86,008

1,84,056

CItU BatabUahment 1,76,818
Scotch Choreh 10,500

Catholica s,936

Mlaaionary . s,048

1,90,999

ClTil BitaMishment 1,93,496
Scotch Chwch 10,500

CathoUca s,s96

1,100

9,07.398

Bttpeea.
9.948
4,158

7.106

9.948
5,384

8,989

13,941

14.987

1819

CiTU BatabUahment l,6iai99

Scotch Choreh 10,800

CathoUca a^aaS

Mlaaionary . i,690

1890

1891

Salaries per Annua.

1*76,845

CivU BatabUahment
Scotch Church
CathoUca .
Mlaai o n a ry .

1,78.889
10,500

!.«
1,800

1,88,889

n .
11

Bapoca.
19J89

15,9M

CiTll BatabUahment l,78,iS0
Scotch Chnrch lOJOO

CathoUca . i.m

Mtaalonary . 1,800

1»9],S60

lijm

MADRAS CIVIL, MILlTAliY, AND CHURCH E8TABLI5HMCNTS. 469

IBxpences of Civil and Military EstabliBhmeDts, &c. at MtidnB—coniinued.

•

Salaries per Annam.

less

CivU Establishment
Scotch Church %
catholics .
Missionary .

CItU Establishment
Scotch Church
catholics
Missionary .

CivU Establishment
Scotch Church
Catholics
Missionary .

Rupees.

1,70,296

10,600

2,960

1,806

1,84,862

1823

1,54^47

10,600

2,662

8,610

1.71.119

1914

1,64,438

10,600

2,802

4,660

1,82,300

Rupees.
15,447

14,376

16,710

1826

1887

1828
1829
1830
1831
1832

Salaries per Annum.

Civil EslabUshment
Scotch Church
Catholics
Missionary .

CivU BstahUshment
Scotch Church
Catholics
Missionary .

CivU Establishment
Scotch Church .
Catholicr* .
Missionary

Rupees.

1,66,668

18,376

2,662

2,686

1,80,091

1,63,442

18,376

ft,698

1,080

1,88,496

1.93,922
18,376

6,019
1,060

2,19,366

Salaries
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto

2,01, SOfi
2,18,082
1,86,208
1,87.170
1,86,343

Rupees.
18.692

18,437

21,217

10,961
20,316
23,976
26,128
23,604

* The controul of the Capuchin Friars in and about Madras is as follows : The
church situated in Armenian St. called Queen of Angels. The chapel situated at
Royapooram, called Mother of AfSiction. The chapel situated at Wall^apettafa,
near Triplicane, called Lady of Purification. The church situated at Vepery, called
St. Andrew. The chapel situated near Monigar Choultry, called St. Roque and St.
Lazar. The Chapel situated at Big Parcherry, near the mint, called Lady of As-
sumption, formerly under the controul of the Capuchins, is since 1824, under the
controul of the acting Bishop of St. Thom6. The churcK situated at Royapooram^
called St. Peter, formerly under the controul of the Capuchins, is from 1826 under
the controul of the said acting Bishop. The chapel situated near the market, erected
fai 1815, now called St. John's Church, by order of the then acting Bishop of St.
Thom6 for the use and benefit of the Rev. Father Eustaquio, a Capuchin Friar,
stands under the controul of the present acting Bishop. The funds which the
Capuchin Friars possess amount to about 180,000 rupees, most of which is the
acquirement of their predecessors, and the rest legacies by will of several testators,
to which the superior for the time being of the said Capuchin church, situated in
Armenian-street, is the executor. The interest of these funds are for the suj/-
port and maintenance of the Capuchin Friars, charitable purposes, pious works,
and decorum of the said church, situated iu Armenian-street, under the superin-
tendence of the said superior. The chapel of the Mother of AfiUction is supported
by the Capuchins ; the chapel of the Lady of Purification by the revenues thereof,
and by alms of the public. The church of St. Andrew by the revenues thereof.

470 chaplaincy's of the bengal established church.

and from rent of the houses belonging to that church. The chapel of St. Roqne
and Lazar by the Capuchins. The chapel of the Lady of Assumption by the xe-
▼enues thereof, and by alms of the public. The church of St. Peter by the Amds
thereof, which are under the controul of the Marine Board, acquired by boat
people, and the church of St. John by the funds of the late Mr. John de Monnte;
who was a benefactor of the said church, and from Revenues thereof.

As to the number of Europeans or their descendants who attend these churches
and chapels on Sunday and other festival days, I cannot exactly say ; but to the
best of my knowledge and b^ef, I think they may be in all, including liie soldien
of the garrison of Fort St. George, to about 700, excluding country-bom, Malabar,
Pariahs, and boat people, who may be about 10,000 ; but since a division of Roman
Catholics has taken place in 1815, among the country bom, a part of these descrip-
tion, to about 400 or 500, fluent the churph of St. John, and the rest atteiKl the
Capuchin church to a greater number. The Pariahs of Parcherry and boat peofie
to their own churches, jnrhere a small body of country (bom to about 200, in
Parcherry, frequent the Chapel of Assumption; and about 100 in the Church St.
Peter. The Pariahs of Wallagapettah in their own ch^>el, where a small body of
country bom to about 50, frequent there, and at Vipery about 200, among countiy
bom, exduding Malabar Sepoys and Pariahs, who may be about 2,000.

Ecclesiastical EstablishmeDt of the Three Presidencies.

Bengal.

The Ixnrd Bishop,

Archdeacon, and

STChaptaiat,
Of whom iO were present in
leao.and 8 abeent on forlongh,
ftc. &c

Madras.

The Bishop,

Archdeacon, and

ss Chaplains,
Of whom 19 were inreseot in
1 8S0, and 4 absent on furlongh,
&c. &C.

Bombay.

The Bishop,

Archdeacon, and

14 Chaplains.
Of whom 11 were pveaent ia
1830, and 8 absent on foiloagli,
Ac. fee.

The foregoing returns are given more with a view to promote further invettiga^
tion, and to excite to more uniform and accurate returns, than as explicit state-
ments, though they include all the Manuscripts at the India House, or Board of
Controul. In a Return before me of the Expenses of the Bengal Eodesiastical
Establishment for the year 1832-1833, and which only arrived in England 5th Feb.
1835, 1 find that there were Chaplains at Meerut, Messeerabad, Agra, BareOly^
Dacca, Kumaul, Barrackpoor, Patna, Cawnpore, Chinsurah, Funruckabad, Saugore,
Benares, Dinapore, Mhow, Ghazeepore, Neemuch, Berhampore, Allahabad, Dtim
Bum, Futtyghur and Chunar, all out stations from the Presidency. There were
also Four Roman Catholic Priests paid by Government for Ministering to the Sol-,
diery, viz. at Calcutta, Patna, Berhampore and Cawnpore ; the total Salaries of
the Bishop and Clergy for 1832-33 was, 282,059 S. Rupees ; of Four Roman Ca-
tholic Priests, 4,474 ; and of Four Ministers of the Scotch Church, 7,413 Rupees.

PROPOSED CHURCH ESTABLISHMENT AT BENGAL, MADRAS, &C. 471

Scale of Establishment proposed by the Civil Finance Committee.

B«o|^

Presideiiej
Tke Lord Blahop.
AxchdMcoD.

1 ChapUdn to the Ld. Bishop.

S ditto of the Presidency.

1 ditto at Bsrrackpore.

1 ditto at Dam Dam.

Bobordtnate Stations ;
1 Chaplain at Berhampore.
1 ditto at Dacca.
1 ditto at Bhaognlpore.
I ditto at Dinapore.
1 ditto at Qhazeepore.
1 ditto at Benares.
1 ditto at ABababad.
1 ditto at Cawnpore.
1 ditto at Formcltahad, or

BareiUj.
1 ditto at Agra,
s ditto at Meernt
1 ditto for Malwa, and Ri^.

pootana
1 ditto at l^agor.

SS Chaplains,

H r ditto allowed for Avlongh
\ and contingencies.

90 Total nnmber of Chaplains.
Nnmber at present 87 Chaps.
Ditto proposed 29 ditto.

Proposed reduction 8 ditto.

Bs. 08,880

Madras.

Bidi receiving Rs.

8*Sie per aanam
Dedoct allowance to

Missionaries, 6 re

oeiTing each Rs.

ifSMperaonom

Add Scotch Kirk-
Senior Min. Rs. 13,931
Jaaior ditto .. o,«88

61,080

SS.4IS

Total saying.. Rs. 84

,09s

Presidency:
Archdeacon.
1 Senior Chaplain.
I Junior ditto.
1 Chaplain.

1 ditto at Fort St. George.
I ditto at Black Town.
1 ditto at St. Thomas's
Moont and Poonamellee.

Subordinate Stations :
I Chaplain at Bangalore.
I ditto at Triehinopoly.
1 ditto at BeUary.
1 ditto at MasaUpatam.
1 ditto for Cananore and

Mangalore.
1 ditto at Nagpore.
1 ditto for Visigapatam and

Ganjam.
1 ditto for Nellore, Arcot,

and Caddalore.
1 ditto for the Neilgherries,

Tellicherry and Calicat.

15 Chaplains.
. r do. allowed for fkirlongta
\ and contingencies.

19 Total nombor of Chaplains.

Kamber at present S3 Chaps.
Ditto proposed 19 ditto.

Proposed redaction 4 ditto.

Each receiving Rs.

7,875 per annam Rs. 31,500
Deduct allowance tC)

MUsionaries, 4 re- 1 . <^

ceivlng each Rs. f *»*'"

1,900 per annum. J

Bomhaj.

Add Scotch Kirk-
Senior Blinister 11,700
Junior ditto .. 78,75

30,700

19,035

Total saving. . Rs. 40,335

Presidency:
Archdeacon.
1 Senior Chiqilain.
I Junior ditto.
I Chaplain for Colabah,
Tannah, and the Har-
bour of Bombay.

Subordinate Stations :
t Chaplains for Poonah and

Kirkee.
1 ditto for Surat, Broach

andBaroda.
1 ditto for Deesa, Ahmed*

nugger and Katra.
1 ditto for Belgaum, Darwar

and the S. C«mcan.
1 ditto f6r RaJcote and

Cutxih.
1 ditto fbr Ahmednuggnr

and Mttlligaum in Can-

deish.

10 Clmplains.

« raUowed for furlough and
\ contingencies.

IS Total number of Chaplains.

Number at present 14 Chaps.
Ditto proposed IS ditto.

Proposed reduction S

Receiving per an. Rs. 1 9»1

Deduct aUowance to")

Missionaries, 8 re- 1 „ .fuk

ceivlng each Rs. f '*»**"'
i,soo per annum. J

Add Scotch Kirk—
Senior Minister 11,700
Junior ditto .. 8,010

10,

S0,370

Total saying.. Rs. 37,170

The following statement exhibits the several nussionary sta-
tions formed in India by the London, Baptist, and Wesleyan
Societies, with the date of the year when the mission was es-
tablished at each station, and the number of missionaries
resident at each.

London Society :

Calcutta, A. D. 1816, Missionaries, 4 ; Chinsurah, 1813, Ij
Berhampore, 1824, 2; Benares, 1820, 4; Madras, 1805, 4^

^2 MISSIONARY STATIONS IN INDIA*

Tripassore, 1806, supennteBded by the Madras Missioiiaries ;
Vizagapatam, 1805, g; Cuddapah, 18S2, 1; Chittoor, 1827,
1 ; Belgaum, 1820, 2; Bellary, 1810, 4; Bangalore, 1820, 2;
Salem, 1827, 1 ; Combaeonum, 1825, 1 ; Coimbatoor, 1830, 1;
Nagercoil, 1806, 2; Neyoor, 1828,2; Quilon, 1821, 1;
Surat, 1815, 3 ; Darwar, 1829, superintended by the Belgaum
Missionaries.

Baptist Society.

Calcutta, 1801, Missionaries,?; Patna, 1832,1; Digar,
1809, 1; Monghyr, 1816, 2; Sewry, 1807, 1; Cutwa, 1804,
1 ; Luckyantipore, 1831, 1 ; Khane, 1831, 1 ; BonstoUah,
1829, 1.

. The above is exclusive of the mission family at Serampore,
which is in the Danish territory.

Wesleyan Society.

Madras, 4 Europeans, with native assistants ; Bangalore, 4;
Negapatam and Melnattam, 1.

[I should be glad to see the Moravian Missionaries settling
themselves in India. R. M. M.]

Of the efforts of every class of Missionaries to extend the
blessings of education and reUgion in India, it is difficult to
express my warm feelings. The estimable Serampore Mis-
sionaries are before alluded to ; but, as a further illustra-
tion of what other Missionary sects are doing, the following
recent account of the American Missionaries in Burmah, will
be perused with heartfelt delight.

Mimonaries in Burmah. — By a private letter, dated Feb. 1st, Anom one of the
American Missionaries at Maulamaingi we are informed that the printing of the
scriptures in the Burmese language is now tapidly going forward at that statioo.
An edition of 3,000 copies of Mr. Judson's translation of the New Testament has
been printed, and 2,000 copies of the Gospels of Luke and John are in drculiitkNi.
It is in contemplation, also, to reprint those two gospels in an edition of 10,000
copies. The greatest part of the edition has been sent to Rangoon for distributioB
on the great annual festival of Shua-d'-gong, which takes place, we bebeve, in the
present month. It was not only expected that 1 ,500 or 2,000 copies of the gospels
of Luke and Jphn, but 10,000 tracts wxrald be dispersed among the people who
would then be assembled fh>m all parts of the adjacent country. The Old Testa-
vaent, we are informed, is also being translated.

MISSIONS IN THE BURMESE EMPIRE. 478

InteUigeace of the Christian religion has, since the establishments of the American
Mission, preyiouflly to the late war in Rangoon, and latterly in Manlamaing, been
very eztensirely made known in the Burmese Empire, partknilarly in the southern
regions.

One of the Missionaries has lately gone amongst the Karens, a singular race of
men, inhabiting the country to the eastward of Maulamaing, many of whom have,
within two years past, embraced Christianity. The object d this visit, besides the
oonunon one of making known the gospel, is the establishment of schools. During
the past year, a Tract and Spelling Book has been printed in the Karen language.
The characters of the language were prepared by the Rev. Mr. Wade, who has
lately been compelled by ill health to leave the missionary field and return to
America.

From the press at Maulamaing has been published also, a Tract in the Talaing
tanguage, during the past year.

The types used in printing the Karen and Taiaing languages, so far as they differ
from the Burmese, were prepared at the seat of the Mission in Maulamaing, from
matrices executed at the Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta.

By a letter frt>m Singapore, we learn that the Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Jones, formerly
attached to the Mission at Maulamaing, had arrived at that place on their way to-
wards Bankok, in Siam, where it is Mr. Jones's intention to establish himself as a
Missionary.

While attempts are thus being made by the American Missionaries to carry the
lamp of truth to one portion of the benighted Empire of Burmah, the Serampore
Missionaries are engaged in the same benevolent operations in behalf of Anacan.
They have lately commenced a re-print of Mr. Judson's translation of the New
Testament in the Burmese language, for the use of the Arracanese, having already
printed many tracts and some of tiie Gk>spels and Epistles, and distributed them,
by their agents, throughout a great part of the territory of Arracan.

In referrence to the Roman Catholic Missionaries in India, the Select Committee
of Parliament thus report in 1832 : —

' The failure of Roman Catholic Missionaries is acknowledged by themselves, and
attested by other witnesses ; while the progress of the Protestants appears to be
dally becoming more successful. Their judicious plan is to establish schools, which
they have effected both in the North and South of India. The number of scholars
in Bengal alone amounts to about 50,000.'

I am here tempted to subjoin the following extract from
the lamented Bishop Heber's primary diocesan charge at Cal*
ctttta, which I brought with me from Bengal^ and which has
not before, I believe, been published in Europe ; never was
the duty of an Indian clergyman more piously, more eloquently
pouTtrayed than by that amiable and talented divine, whose
memory every well wisher of India must cherish with respect :

* The Indian chaplain must not anticipate the sane cheering circunntances which

474 DUTIES OF AN INDIAN CHAPLAIN.

make the house of the English {Mffochnd minister a school and tempJe of ndigkm,
and his morning and evemng walk a sonroe of Messing and blessedness. His
servants will be of a different creed from himself, and insensible, in too many
instances, to his example, his exhortations, and his prayers. His intercourse will
not be with the happy and harmless peasant, but with the dissipated, the diseased,
and often, the demoralised soldier. His feet will not be found at the wicker gate
of the well known cottage ; beneath the venerable tree ; in the grey church-porch,
or by the side of the hop-ground and the corn-field ; but he must kneel by the
bed of infection or despair, in the barrack, the prison, or the hospital.

' But to the well-tempered, the well-educated, the diligent and pious deigymant
who can endear himself to the poor without vulgarity, and to the rich without in-
volving himself in their vices ; who can reprove sin without harshness, andoomibft
penitence witiiout undue indulgence ; who delights in his Master's work, even
when divested of those outward circumstances which in our own country oootri-
bute to render that wOTk picturesque and interesting ; who feels a pleasure in
bringing men to God» proportioned to the extent of their previous wanderings s
who can endure the coarse (perhaps fanatical) piety of the ignorant and vulgar, and
listen with joy to the homely prayers of men long strangers to the power of religion ;
who can do this, without himself giving way to a vain enthusiasm ; and whose
good sense, sound knowledge and practical piety, can restrain and reclaim the en-
thusiasm of others to the due limits of reason and scripture ; to him, above all,
who can give his few leisure hours to fields of usefulness beyond his immediate
duty; and who, without neglecting the European penitent, can aspire to the fur-
ther extension of Christ's kingdom among the heaUien ; — to such a man as Martyn
was, and as some still sre, (whom may the Lord of the harvest long continue to his
church) I can promise no common usefulness and enjoyment in the situation of an
Indian Chaplain.

' I can promise him, in any station to which he may be assigned, an educated so-
ciety, and an audience peculiarly qualified to exercise and strengthen his powers of
argument and eloquence. I can promise him, generally speaking, the ftLvour of his
superiors, the friendship of his equals, and affection, strong as death, firom those
whose wanderings he corrects, whose distresses he consoles, and by whose sick and
dying bed he stands as a ministering angel I Are further inducements needful ? I
yet can promise more. I can promise to such a man the esteem, the regard, the
veneration of the surrounding Gentiles ; the consolation, at least, of having re-
moved from their minds, by his blameless life and winning manners, some of the
most inveterate and most injurious prejudices which oppose, with them, the recep-
tion of the Gospel ; and the honour, it may be, (of which examples are not
wanting among you) of planting the cross of Christ in the wOdemess oi a heatta
heart, and extending the frontiers of the visible church amid the hiUs of darkneis,
and the strongholds of error and idolatry.'

It would be impossible to close this chapter on Chris-
tianity in India without referring to the translations of the
sacred Scriptures into the several languages written and
spoken on the peninsula of Hindoostan. The late Dr. W.

TRANSLATIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES IN ASIA. 475

Carey^ of Serampore, was the most distinguished labourer in
this field, the surprising extent of whose labours I will give
on the authority of a memoir of this eminent missionary and
philologist, by Mr. Fisher ;* to which I may also refer for some
interesting particulars of Dr. Carey's Ufe and labours.

' The venioiu of the Sacred Scriptures which have issued from the S^wnpore
press, and in the prepamtion of which Dr. Carey took an active and laborious part,
are numerous. They are in the following languages: — Sungskrit, Hindee, Br\j-
Bhassa, Mahratta, Bengalee, Oriasa or Ooriya, Telinga, Kumata, Maldiviaii, Gi^u-
rattee, Buloshee, Pushtoo, Punjabee or Shekh,' Kashmeer, Assam, Burman, Pali or
Bfagudha, Tamul, Cingalese, Armenian, Malay, Hindosthanee, and Persian; to
which must be added the Chinese. Dr. Carey lived to see the Sacred Text, chiefly
by his instrumentality, translated into the yemacular dialects of more than 40
different tribes, and thus made accessible to nearly 200^000,000 of human beings,
ezdusive of the Chinese Empire, in which the labours of the Serampore Mission-
aries have been in some measure superseded by those of Dr. Morrison.'

In addition to the versions of the sacred Scriptures in the
languages of India, published by Dr. Carey, translations of
the Old and New Testaments in the following languages haye
been completed by Missionaries sent out by the London
Society : —

In the Telinga or Teloogoo^ by Messrs. Cran, Des Granges,
Pritchett, Gordon, and Howell, between 1812 and 1834.

In the Canarese, by Messrs. Reeve and Hands, between
1818 and 1832.

In the Mahratta, by Messrs. Wall and Newell.

* See ' Gentleman's Ma^zine/ May, 1,835. The foUuwing is the ac-
count of Dr. Carey's philological works, from the same authority :

' The Mahratta Grammar was his first work, and was followed by a
Sungskrit Grammar, 4to. in 1806 ; a Mahratta Dictionary, 8vo. in 1810 ;
a Punjabee Grammar, 8vo. in 1812; a Telinga Grammar, Svo, in 1814;
also between the years 1806 and 1810 he published the Raymayaoa, in the
original text, carefully collated with the most authentic MSS. in three vo-
lomes, 4to. His philological wolrka of a later date are a Bengalee Dictionary,
in three Tolnroes, 4to. 1818, of which a second edition was published in 1826,
sod another in 8yo. in 1827-1830 ; a BhotanU Dictionary, 4to. 1826 ; also
a Grammar of the same hmguage, edited by him and Dr. Mursham. He
had also prepared a Dictionary of the Sangskrit, which was nearly com-
pleted, when a fire broke out in Serampore, and burnt down the printing
office, destroying the impression together with the copy, and other property.'

476 SLAVERY IN BRITISH INDIA,

In the Goofurattee, by Messrs. Skinner and Fyvie, between
1820 and 1832.

In the Hinduwee and UrdeCf some books of the Old Tes-
tament, by Mr. Robertson.

Of many of these versions of the Scriptures very large
editions have been printed and circulated ; and it is impos-
sible at the present moment fully to estimate the extent to
which they may subserve that great Missionary enterprise,
the evangelization of India.

SLAVERY IN BRITISH INDIA.

For the last forty years the E.I. Company's government have
been gradually, but safely abolishing slavery throughout their
dominions ; they began in 1789* with putting down the mari-
time traffic, by prosecuting any person caught in exporting or
importing slaves by sea, long before the British government
abolished that infernal commerce in the western world, and
they have ever since sedulously sought the final extinction of
that domestic servitude which for ages has existed throughout
ifche East, as recognized by the Hindoo and Mahomedan law.
Mr. Robertson, in reference to Cawnpore observes :f —

* Domestic slavery exists ; but of an agricultural slave I do
not recollect a single instance. When I speak of dotnesiie
slavery, I mean that status which I must call slavery for want
of any more accurate designation. It does not, however,
resemble that which is understood in Europe to be slavery :
it is the mildest species of servitude.

'The domestic slaves are certain persons purchased in
times of scarcity; children purchased from their parents:

* In their despatches of this date» it was termed an ' inkwmm
mid entel traffic f and French, Datch, or Danish snhjects captured wiclun
the limits of their dominions ia the act of parchasing or conTeying slates^
were imprisoned and hearily fined, and every encouragement was ipven la
their dvil and military servants to aid in protecting the first rights of
humanity.

t Lords' Evidence, 1687.

STATE OF CRIMB IN BRITISH INDIA. 477

^ey grow up in the family, and are almost entirely employed
in domestic offices in the house ; not liable to be resold.

'There is a certain species of slavery in South Bahar,
where a man mortgages his labour for a certain sum of money ;
and this species of slavery exists also in Arracan and Ava.
It is for his life, or until he shall pay the sum, that he Us
obliged to labour for the person who lends him the money r
and if he can repay the sum, he emancipates himself.

* Masters have no power of punishment recognized by our
laws. Whatever may be the provision of the Mohamedan or
Hindoo codes to that effect, it is a dead letter ; for we would
not recognize it. The master doubtless may sometimes inflict
domestic punishment ; but if he does, the slave rarely thinks
pf complaining of it. Were he to do so, his complaint
would be received.' This, in fact, is the palladium of liberty
in England.

In Malabar, according to the evidence of Mr. Baber,
slavevgr as mentioned by Mr. Robertson also exists, and
perhaps the same is the case in Guzerat and to the N. ; but
the wonder is not that such is the case but that it is so partial
in extent and fortunately so mild in character, approximating
indeed so much towards the feudal state as to be almost be-
yond the reach as well as the necessity of laws which at pre-
sent would be practically inoperative. The fact that of
100,000,000 British inhabitants or allowing five to a family,
20,000,000 families, upwards of 16,000,000 are landed pro-
prietors, shews to what a confined extent even domestic sla-
very exists. A Commission has been appointed by the New
Charter to enquire into this important but delicate subject.

STATE OF CRIME IN BRITISH INDIA.

Intimately connected with the Press and education of a
'people is the state of crime in a country ; the judicial esta-
blishment of India has been detailed in the 4th Chapter, and
here it will only be necessary to refer to some statistics of
«rime; the official returns on the subject are few, not to the

478 DEATH SJBNTENCBS IN BENGAL FOR TWELVE YEARS.

latest^ BXkd consequently most favouraUe period, aad relat-
ing principally to the Bengal Presidency — audi as diey ar^
howeTer, they demonstrate, that while crime has increased
rapidly in England, owing to the poverty of the pec^la
and the severity and uncertainty still exbting in her cri-
minal laws, the contrary has taken place in the territoriea
of the East India Company; demonstrating the improved
condition of the people and the beneficent nature of their
government;* for assuredly whatever elevates a nation in
morality and temporal happiness, well deserves the appel«
lation of beneficent. To begin with the highest clasa of
offences for examination : —

Ntunber of Persons Sentenced to Death* and to Transportation or Impri-
sonment for Life, by the Court of Nizamut Adawlnt of Benfil, from
1816 to 1827.

To Tlranflporta-

•

To Tkaaspovta-

Fint

Sentenced

tionor

Second

BemeDcee

tioBor

Period.

to Death.

Imprisonment
for Lite.

Period.

to Death.

ImprlionnieBt
for life.

1816

115

282

1822

165

1817

114

268

1823

lis

1818

261

1824

145

1819

345

1825

128

1820

324

1826

171

1821

68-

278

1827

153

Totals

490

1,758

Totak

366

IXJV

Decrease of death senteDces on first period .
Ditto of life transportation or imprisonment .

Total decrease on six years .

124

878

The decrease which the foregoing tahle exhibits will de-
light every fHend of humanity; on death-sentencesf there

* Since the first edition of this work went to press, corporal
ments, as the penalty of civil crimes, have been abolished by the Anglo-
Indian Government.

t Let it be remembered chat sentences^of death in India are not merely
jMteneei; they are in sreneral fulfilled^ unless when extraordhiary cire«fl»>

STATE OF CRIMB IN INDIA AND IN BNOLAND.

479

was a decrease during the first period of one hundred and
twenty-four^ and comparing the two last with the two first
years^ after an interval of ten years, the difference will be
more strikingly observed : —

Iq 1816 and 1817, death 9enteoce8
In 1626 and 1827> ditto ditto •

Decrease on two yean

number 229
. 122

. 107

If we place the death-sentences in juxta-position with those
in England^ notwithstanding, as the note will explain, the
advantages in favour of England, independent of the popu-
lation in one country being 60,000,000, in the other scarcely
one-fifth of the number^ we shall observe yet more the im-
proved state of Indian morality and jurisprudence.

Number of Death-Sentences in England and in India for Fire Years.

Tears.

In EnghtiHl.

Popalatton

19,00«,000.

In Beocal.
PopaUnon
60»000,0«0.

1823
1824
1825
1826
1827

Total in both Countries

Thus, while those of India decreased twenty-two between
the first and last year, those of England increased five hun-
dred and sixty-one !

stances intervene. The decrease shows, therefore, an aetu»l decrease in
crime 5 not, as would be the case in England, only a decrease of the
sominal severity of the law, which in fiact is actually taking place from
year to year, not only by means of legislative enactments, but also by the
unwillingness of jurors to find judgments involving death $ yet, notwith-
standing these fiivourable circumstances in a comparison of India with
England, the amount of capital convictions is still on the increase in the
latter country.

480 JUDICIAL TEMPTATIONS TO <:RIMB«

Official returns of English crime come down to 1832, and
the following is a comparison for twelve years i —

DBATH 8BKTENCB8 IN SNOLAND AND WALKS FOR TWELYB TBABS.

From 18] 1 to 1816 .... No. 3,181
FVom 1827 to 1832 8,194

Increase on six years . . No. 6,013

It is terrible to witness such trifling with human life and
human feeling as the English returns exhibit ; the man
who steals a lamb, as well as he who murders the shep-
herd — ^he who forges a bank note, as well as he that slays a
Bank IMrector — ^the impoverished wretch whose necessities
or recklessness robs me of my purse, and the mbcreant who
wantonly takes the life of his sovereign, are equally sub-
jected to the severest doom which earthly vengeance can
inflict; or, on the other hand, a premium is held out for
crime by the uncertainty of its punishment. A thief reasons
thus : ' If I commit this crime, I merely run the chance of
being discovered ; if that chance fail me, I have another in
the law, a flaw in the indictment or so ;* and if the second
hazard turn up against me and I am sentenced to death, I
have a third cast for life, as not more than one in eighteen
are executed,f an^ I may perhaps be one of the seventeen
who escape; should I be the unlucky one, why then fate
willed it so, and it must be so.* Thus the commission of a
crime is made, by the very uncertainty of the laws, to depend
on a east of the die, or the twirl of a tee-totum; and thia is
what is called justice to society and criminal jurisprudence,

« n*om 1824 to 1830, there were in England-
Convictions number 80,86^
Acquittals ..... 22,330
No Bilb found .... 12,387
Thus the number of acquittals and no bills found were nearly equal in
number to half the convictions ; such is the fi^lorious uncertainty of the
lawr

t In the seven years ending with 1828, the death sentences bi Eni^land
and Wales were 7>980, of whom 456 were executed !

NO DIVINfi AUTHORITY FOR JUDICIAL EXECUTIONS. 481

m this enlightened country and enlightened age ! F«t better
were it to adopt the Draconian code in its full spirit^ and let
the pickpol^ket be decapitated by the side of the murderer.*

What is the avowed object of capital punishments? The
prevention of crime alone ; for all hopes of the reformation
of the o£fender is cut off, by man impiously daring to disobey
the command of his Creator, who emphatically declared,
• As I live,* saith the Lord God, * / desire not the death of
a sinner, but rather that he should turn from his wicked*
ness and live;' yet men — Englishmen — calling themselves
Christians, make a mockery of their professions by spilling
the blood of the divine image, when acting on the inhuman
Jewish code, which declares (as all savage or pagan nations
do) * an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.' The de*
claration of the Almighty, that * he who liveth by the sword
shall perish by the sword,*f gave no authority to man to be
the executioner of that decree ; the fulfilment of it rested
with the Omnipotent Being, in whose hands are the scales
of judgment. But, says my Lord Brougham, man may take
away the life of his fellows if it be conducive to the good of
society : I deny the abstract right, for earthly creatures pos-
sess none but what are in unison with the laws of God,
which are based on the eternal and immutable principles of
justice ; and as to any conventional right, it should first be
proved that the destruction of life was necessary to the pre-
vention of crime. J

* Sir Robert Peel's ^amended' forgery bill contained thirty-fi?e death-
punishments.

t Judge Park says, in passing sentence on Cook the mnrderer, 'Whoso
«heddeth man's blood» by man shall his blood be shed;' bat does this pre-
cept give any legal authority to man? Is it not merely a confirmation of
the decree, that those who live by violence shall perish by violence ? The
divine precept is clearly, that ' man should turn from his wickedness and
live.' If the execution of Cook would prevent another individual from
committing murd<*r, then there might be some worldly excuse ; but there
would be no decree from Heaven.

X In Russia, capital punishment was abolished with the most benefit-ial
consequences. In France, after the revolution, 115 capital offences were
reduced to fewer than 20, with the usual results ; even in monkish Por-
VOL. I. I I

482 SEVERITY AND UNCERTAINTY OF

It is well known that in proportion to tlie severity and un-
certainty of the laws, offences against person or property
are in an inverse ratio. In Tuscany, when capital punish-
ments were abolished in toto, crime decreased ;* but in Rome,
where executions daily occurredi crime increased : Spain^
with more capital punishments by law has more capital of-
fences than any country in Europe ; Majorca, under the same
political government, but with milder punishments, few crimes
being capital by law, has comparatively fewer offences ;-{- Ire-
land, with more severe criminal laws than England, is even
more rife with bloody deeds]: than the latter country, which
in its turn is yet more so than France, and France still more
so than America, where few offences are subject to the dis-
privation of life. In Prussia capital punishments have been

tugal the light of truth has penetrated with some success ; the results in
the United States are well known, and the profound as well as eloquent
writings of Sydney Taylor demonstrate what a wide field of impro?einent
is open for England to cultivate.

* In a French work on Italy, published in 1793, I find the followiBg
confirmation of this statement, which has recently been doubted. The
writer, in speaking of Leopold, Prince of Tuscany, thus continues : — ' 11
est occupy d'une reforme entiere de sa legislation. II a ru une lumiere
nouvelle dans quelques livres de la France ; 11 se hate de la fi&ire passer
dans les lois de Florence. II a commence par simplifier les lots civiles, et
par adoucir les lois criminelles. li y a dice am que le sang n*a C9uU en
Toicane 9ur un echafaud. La liberty seule est bannie des prisons : le grand
due les a remplies de justice et d'humanit^.

* Cet adoueiuememeftt des lots a adoud les mosurs publiques ; les crimes
graves deviennent rares depuis que lespeines atroces stmt aboUes: lesprismu
de la Toscane ont M vides pendant trots mois / / /*

t Westminster Review for July, 1832.

X In seven years in Ireland, ending with 1828, the number of penons
accused of murder were 2,604 ! But such is the repugnance of the people
to come forward as evidence, that out of the whole number of criminals,
but 224 were sentenced to death, and 155 executed. This is the state of
the law in a country where the pitch cap, the triangle, and the gallows
have superseded mildness, conciliation, and justice. The proportion of
crime in 1831 to the number of inhabitants has been in Dublin, 1 in 96 ;
in Edinburgh, where capital punishments are far less frequent, 1 in 540 ;
in Lo^on and Middlesex, which stands between both, the proportion had
been 1 in 400 ; and in Cardigan, where a capital punishment is a very rare
event, the proportion of commitments to the population is only 1 to 4920.

LAWS CONDUCIVB TO OFFENCES.

48S

mach lessened, with the usual beneficial results;* as has also
been the case in Norway^f Brunswick,;]: and Belgium.§ Thus

* In Prussia, with an avera^ population of 12,000,000, tbe executions
have been comparatively unfrequent. In the 17 years from 1818 to 1834
(indusire), there have been in all 123 executions, and the crimes for which
they took place are as folloMrs : — arson, 1 ; voluntary manslaughter, 22 ;
murder, 100. The one execution for arson took place in 1818, since which
time, consequently, the punishment of death has been inflicted only for
intentional homicide of different degrees. Even for murder, the sentence
b nearly as often commuted as executed. In the whole 17 years, there
were sentenced to death for murder 187, of whom 100 only were executed

\^th reference to the great diminution in severity of late years : —

In the first three years, 1818, 1819, 1820, there were executed 24.

In the last three years, 1832, 1833, 1834, there were executed 6 ; 2 in
each year.

Murder, — Rve years, ending 1824— capitally convicted 69, executed
47; or 68-100.

Five years, ending 1829— capitally convicted 60, executed 26 ; or 61-100.

Fire yean, ending 1834— capitally convicted 43, executed 16 ; or 37-100.

Here there is a diminution of executions in each of the two last periods,
and at the same time a diminution of crime. If we compare the two ex^
treme periods, we find one-third lets crime in the last with 16 executions,
than in the first with 47 executions.

t A code of penal law has been prepared by a commission in Norway.
It was published in 1834, and has been translated into German. By it the
only crimes punished capitally are murder, high treason, robbery where
the person robbed dies in consequence of the injuries he has received, and
arson where some person has lost his life by the fire.

X In the Duchy of Brunswick there was no execution during the reign
of Charles William, which lasted from 1780 to 1806; and in a criminal
code which has been prepared for Brunswick by Strombeck, an eminent
lawyer of that Duchy, no capital punishment is retained.

^ Punishment of death in Belgium : —

Total execated
for ▼artoos

Periods.

Crimes.

Murder.

OCber capital
crlnieo.

ft Yean codloc willi 1804

asft

180

188

ft 1809

ft .. 18U

ft 1819

ft 18S4

A 1829

S 1894

None

' • Ta tike last tbrec years twenty.two were sentenced to death for murder, of wtoom onlf

484^ OFFENCES AGAINST PERSON AND PROPERTY IN BENGAL,

it is evident that undue severity, when combined with uncer-
tainty, tends exceedingly to increase crime, while it is but a
burlesque on religion to make the scaffold a stepping stone to
heaven ; to make the twenty-four hours intervening between
the sentence ^nd execution of the culprit an expiatory period
for a long life, of guilt

These remarks are scarcely made with the hope that they
will be attended to in England, where the voice of reason as
well as of humanity has been almost raised in vain ; but if they
should be the means of encouraging the judges of the E. I.
Company's provinces in the almost holy path they have pur-
sued ; or if they should assist in rescuing one individual^
whether carved in ebony or in ivory,* from death; or if they
should even stimulate others to examine the truth of the doc-
trine laid down, the aim of the writer will have been accom-
plished.

Let us now proceed with the Bengal statistics of crime.
The last table gave the returns of the Court of Nizamut
Adawlut ; the following are those of the Courts of Circuit,
specifying the nature of the crimes :

No. I .— Sentences for OiTences against the Per- H No. 2.-^entences for Offsnces acninat F

pertj, passed by the Coorts or drcaK

son, passed bj the Courts of Clrcait
in Bengal, at Two Periods.

Offuices.

Ad^lterj

Ain«7

Assault

Maoslaoghter i

Rape

Shooting, wounding, or

poisoning

Sodomy

Felony ft Misdemeanour
Penary

Total..

Nnmber of Persons
sentenced.

183StO
18S4.

219

431

9A]
5

189
147

1825 to
1827.

1,136

174

250

199

107
66

3,196

1.960

Se n t e nces of the ttrat period.. No. 9,196
Ditto oftheaaoooddo 1,960

Decnaae of crime.. No. i,2S6

in Bengal, at Two Periods.

Ofltences.

Arson

Burglary

Cattle stealing

Child stealing

Ooonterfelting and atter<
ing counterfeit coin ..

Embezzlement

Forgery and uttering ..
Larceny

Number of
aentenoed.

1822 to

1824.

e6
1,195

85
107

47
10ft

71
491

Total.. 2,170

IttSto

1827-

1.026

«7

1,524

Sentences of the first period. . No. 2,170
Ditto of the last do i,Si«

Decrease of crime. . No 616

* Sir R. Blct, in his eFidence before the Lords in 1890, says, that
among a population of 150,000 persons in Bombay, during Uiree yean,
tkere was but one execution, and that was of an English sergeant.

AND THEIR DECREASE IN THE CIRCUIT COURTS. 4S5

This is a very great decrease on two years, and in looking
at the years preceding those given in the first table, the dimi-
nution is yet more gratifying to behold. For instance, adul-
teries were, from 1816 to 1818, in number 95 ; felony and
misdemeanour, in the same years, 376 ; shewing a decrease
on the former of 75 cases ; and on the latter of S69. In
the second table there is also a marked improvement in the
country.

Burglary. Cattle Stealing.

In 1816 to 1818 - No. 2,853 In 1816 to 1818 - No. 203
1826 to 1827 . - 1,036 1826 to 1827 - - 31

Decrease No. 1,817 Decrease No. 172

Embezzlement. Larceny.

In 1816 to 1818 - No. 150 In 1816 to 1818 . No. 1,516
1825 to 1827 . - 49 1825 to 1827 - - 223

Decrease No. 101 Decrease No. 1,293

But if the foregoing Circuit Court returns be refreshing to
humanity, those of the magistrates' courts for the Lower and
Western provinces of Bengal are much more so, for the de-
crease of crime is yet more extraordinary, whether as regards
offences arising from revenge, from destitution, from blood-
thirstiness, or from immorality. The following shews the
sentences of two years ; if we had them of a more recent
date, I am convinced we should observe a still great diminu-
tion.*

* The evidence of Mr. Mangles (Lords, 4th March, 1830), is confirm-
atory of this assumption in reference to the very great diminution in the
number of crimes. * Q. Can you state in what proportion the number of
crimes has diminished ? A. I think in the Lower Provinces the divenge of
dacoities of late years is about as one and a fraction to seven, as compared
with the state of things 25 or 30 years ago.' Mr. Mangles adds, ' in the
district of Kishnagur, formerly most notorious for dacoities, that crime
has decreased, from an average in former years of 260 or 300, to 18 or 20 !*

486 OFFENCES IN BENGAL AND THE W. PBOTINCE8 IN 1 886-527

Compantive Statement of OffeDoea against Property and against the
Person, on which the Magistrates passed Sentence in the Lower and
Western Provinces of Bengal, during the Years 1826 and 1827-

Nninber Sentenced.

Crimes.

1826

1827

Decreeaa
ofCrine.

Against
property.*

'Arson -

Burglary - - -
Frauds and other ofiences
Larceny - - -
Plundering . - -

154
2,433
6,161
8,301

768

31
1,995
3,302
7,927

123

438

2,859

374

671

Total - - No.

17,817

13,352

4,465

Against f Assault and battery
the • Manslaughter
person. iRiot - . - -

6,536

2,259

3,965

700

2,570

1,659

Total

8,838

4.676

4,162

Various
offences.'

-Bribery - - -
Escape from custody
False complaint
Neglect of duty
Perjury - - -
Resistance of process

L Vagrancy - - -

289

149

1.728

10,332

178
1,010

183

652

6,652

41
533

219

1,076

3,660

137

477

128

Total - - No.

13,869

8,075

5,794

Decrease of offences a^^st property in one year No. 4,465
Decrease of do. agamst persons in do. - 4,162
Decrease of ntrious other offences in do. • 5,794

Total decrease of crime in one year

14,421

In arson, burglary, fraud, larceny, bloodshed, bribery,
perjury, &c. we see a rapid decrease, amounting altogedier in
one year to upwards of 14,000!

In India, offences decreased one-half in one year; in EIng-
land they increased in five years at the enormous rate of up-
wards of a 1,000 per annum! When commencing these
tables, I have shewn the number of persons sentenced to
death and transportation, or imprisoned for Ufe, by the Ni-
zamut Adawlut: exile or incarceration sentences for seven
years have thus decreased before this court : —

TRANSPORTATION AND IMPRISONMENT SENTENCES, BENGAL. 487

SfeNTBNCSs or Sbvbn Vbars' Transportation or Imprisonment by

the NizAMUT Adawlut.

In 1S26 - - - - - number 334

1826 ------ 137

1B27 ------ 65

A decrease, after one year's interval, of 369 sentences.

Another method exists for testing the efficacy of the police
and of the laws, which is by looking at the returns of the
higher classes of crime, whether murder or robbery with
violence ; I have, therefore, prepared this table to exhibit the
result of the two periods of two years each, and I would fiiin
indulge the hope that the view these tables, one and all, ex-
hibit, will have some effect in England, by leading those who
have heretofore opposed the aboUtion of capital punishment,
to reflect seriously on the consequences of their perverseness.
In the execution of the laws there ought to be no such hopes
held out as those of clemency ; the strictest justice is the
greatest mercy, not only to the unfortunate individual but to

society.

State of Grime in the Lower and Western Provinces of Bengal, at Two

Periods of Two Years each.

Crimes.

Lower Provinces :
No. of Sentences.

Decrease of
Crime.

Western Proylnces :
No. of Sentences*

Total Decrease

in Lower and

Western Fio-

▼Inces*

ISMand
18S6.

l8S7and
1888.

1884 and
1886.

1887 and

1888.

]>epredatlons with mnrder ....
IMtto witb torture or wonndln;
IMtto with open Tiolence, but

wltboat personal ia^nrj ....
If order without depredation . .
Homielde not amonnttog to

morder

163
S88

830

368

803
86

96
194

S81
196

848

69
89

109
I6S

85
39

460

901

83
811

811
180

871
518

84
856

185
118

189
389

186

858
478

168

aig

181

AlBrays, with loss of life

101

Totals. . . .

1^26

1,008

683

8^46

1,376

871

1,894

Under a mild and equitable system, murders with and with-
out depredation decreased 676 on two years! If this argu-
ment be not adverse to the bloodthirsty Mosaic code which
England has so long followed, I know not what is,*

* The number of persons changed with shooting at, stabbing, and poi«
soning with intent to kill, in Engknd, have thus liunentably increased ;-«

' ""^^ " 1830 number 80

In 1826 number 47

1827 82

1828 72

Totals number 201

1831
1832

104
132

number 3 1&

488 WESTERN PROVINCES ; DSCREA8BO CRIME.

Western Provinces; the nmnber of murders widMiit

depredation were —

In 1818 and 1820 - pumb^ 496
1837 and 1828 - - 255

Decrease - number 241

Under ah eternal hanging system, would such a diminution
have taken place?

Aftnjs with loss of life were. Homicides.

In 1821 and 1823 - number 232 In 1818 and 1820 - number 377
1827 and 1828 - - - - 118 1827 and 1828 * - -185

Decrease - number 114 Decrease - nmnber 192

D^redations accompanied by torture and wounding —

In 1818 and 1820 •. number 1,000
1827 aud 1828 - . - 512

Decrease - number 488

In the Lower provinces the same Depredations with open violenee--^
offences were —

In 1818 and 1820 - number 319 In 1818 and 1820 - number 546

1827 and 1828 - - 194 1827 and 1828 - - . 221

Decrease - number 125 Decrease - number 324

Mr. Robertson gives^ in his pamphlet on the Civil Govern-
ment of India, published in 18^, several tables to shew the
decrease of crime.

Gaufi^-robberies were — Wilful murders —

In 1807 - - number 1,481 In 1807 - - number 406

1824 - - - . 234 1824 - - - 30

Decrease - number 1,247 Decrease - number 376

Violent affrays — Gang-robberies in the district of

Kishnagur were —
In 1807 - - number 482 In 1808 - - number 329
1824 . - - - 33 1824 ... 10

*
Decrease - number 449 Decrease - number 319

Let us, however, proceed to a closer analytical comparison
of crime in England and in the Lower and Western provinces
of Bengal, as exhibited in the following parliamentary table:

CRIMB COMPARED IN ENGLAND AND IN INDIA.

4«9

]|i£ogki«A and Wales* Lover Beofj^U aad the Weetern Proviooes.
Sentenced to Death, TransportatioDy and Imprisonment for Life« in
Six Yearsending 1827; (the PopulationofEngland and Wales, 13,000,000;
of Lower Bengal, 40,000,000 ; of the Westera Provinces 20,000,000.)

Sentences.

To death

Transportation or im-
prisonment for life
Executions

}

Total Sentences and Executions from 1822 to 1827.

England and
Wales.

Sentences.

To death .
Transportation or im-
prisonment for life
£xecations

6,815
377

Western
Proyiaces.

198
415
198

Yearly Averages.

}

Sentences.

England and
Wales.

l,135f

1201

6«i

Lower
Provinces.

77i
28

Western
Provinces.

69i

Yearly Averages in proportion to the Population.

To death .
Transportation or im-
prisonment for life
Executions

}

England and
Wales.

1 in 11,445
1 in 108,033
1 in 206,897

Lower
Provinces.

1 in 1,428,571
1 in 516,129
1 in 1,428,571

Western
Provinces.

1 in 606,060
1 in 289,159
1 in 606fi6O

While the executions in England are, in proportion to the
population^ one in 200,000, those in the Lower provinces
of Bengal are not more than one in 1,500,000; and while all
sentenced to death in India experienced the punishment
awarded them, in England not the 1-1 8th of those sentenced
to die suffered. Yet has crime augmented in the latter, and
diminished in the former country.*

* In England, the condemnation to death for 21 years, from 1813 to
1833, are given as 23,700; executions, 933 ; giving 1,128 average annual

480 RAPID INCREASE OF GRIME IN ENGLAND.

The number of committals in England and in Wales in six
years, stand thus : —

1805 (females 1,338) 4,605 I 1830 (females) 2,972) 18,107

1806 (do. 1,226) 4,346

1807 (do. 1,287) 4,446

Total (females 3,851) 13,397

1831 (do. 3,047) 19,647

1832 (do. 3,343) 20,829

Total (females) 9,362) 58,583

Last period - (females 9,362) - 58,583
First period - (do. 3,851) - 13,397

Increased crime (females 5,51 1) - 45,186

These returns shew the committals in England and Wales
to be, in proportion to the population, one in every 696 inha-
bitants. Great as this amount is, it has been exceeded during
the past year. In the foregoing table England and Wales
are included, but the proportion of crime in Wales bears no
comparison to England; in the latest returns England and
Wales are separated : —

Committals for Crime 1830,*

In Eni^rlaad - - 1 in 740 Inhabitants.

Wales - - 1 in 2,320 ditto.

Scotland - - 1 in 1,130 ditto.

Ireland - - 1 in 490 ditto.

Crime appears to be on the increase in Scotland, for a few
years ago the proportion was rated as one in 5,093. But the
state of morals must not be judged of in England by the
number (740), for unfortunately in many places the propor-
tions are less incUned to virtue's side.

It has been calculated that one-fifteenth of the population
of the United Kingdom subsist by prostitution ; one-fifteenth
by swindling, robbery, and every species of crime ; and five-
fifteenths are what are denominated poor, living from hand to
mouth. Such have been in a great measure the effect of an

condemnations^ and 44 executions ; an enormous proportion when con-
pared with those of France or Belgrinm. The medium executions in
France, from 1825 to 1832, amounted to 67, or 1 for 477,000 souk ; in
England, from 1827 to 1833, to 44, or 1 for 295,000 souls ; in Belirinm,
from 1815 to 1829, to 4}, or 1 for 680,000.
* Eclectic Review.

FRANCS, ENGLAND, AND BENGAL COMPARED.

491

ensanguined code of laws, which some have had the infatua-
tion to propose for adoption in India.* Let us compare crime
in the Company's Bengal territories (the only place whence
we have returns) with offences in England, in Ireland, and in
France ; with reference to the yearly averages, and the pro*
portion to the population :

Averaires of Sentences, and compariBon with the
Amonnt of Popolation, in England and Wales,
In Fkance, and in Bengal,

Yemrlj Avengo.

Kagland,
fur4 7fs.

Todwilh
TVmiwportstioa

■WBifor Ufa
Do. for7jMn

li»l)

IB
V9.

InlaiMl* Fraaett
ror7 7n.'l7T.(ia9)

81*

iSn

BCBftl,

for 4 jn.

ATenges of Sentences, and comparison
with the Amonnt of Popnlation, m Bng.
land, &c. — eontimied.

Proportion of Yearly Avctafes to PopalaUon.

Englondt
Po^Utlon

Ireland i

Popoladoa

7to8/XXM)00«

llnlQ^M7

lin«7471
ltai48|6I0

lis 36,840

1 in 198,380
lia 08,419

Prance i

PopuUtioB

sOfOOOyooo.

liaWiOTS

Bcnnl t
Popuatioa

VOflOOfiOO,

l,in 1004,181

1 in 100,800 1 in 40S,01O
I in »,0«l|lln I«7,M8

The following extract from the Supreme Court's Reports
of Calcutta, for February, 1833, adds a further gratifying in*
stance of the decrease of crime in India.

Number of offences
Persons apprehended
— conYicted
Property stolen .
■ recovered

1831.

1,304

1,256

675

1,23,714

33,828

1832.
1,329
2,023
718
62,981
6,793

1833.

1830.

2,330

. 3,556

. . 626

Rs. 1,36,383

. 4,854

The preceding tables, as well as the facts stated in the
foregoing pages, are the best criterion of the efficiency of
the Company's Government, and the excellence of their
criminal code ; I question whether any country in Europe
would present so rapid and so remarkable a diminution of
crime as the Bengal tables demonstrate. It is to be regretted

* In seven years, ending with 1828, there have been in England the fol-
lowing executions : — ^93 for murder ; 104 for burglary ; 72 for highway
robbery ; 37 for horse-stealing ; 31 for attempts to murder ; 27 for rape,
&c. $ 23 for forgery ; 12 for coining, and several others for various offisnoes ;
Ibe executions for crimes committed in the City of London and County of
Middlesex, were in number 126. What a wanton efiusion of human
blood! Have any one of these crimes decreased? Not one—the very
reverse ; while those crimes in which death-punishments have been abo-
lished nearly (sheep-stealing for instance), have actually decreased.

498 BISHOP HEBEn's RETROSPECTIVE VIEW OF INDIA.

that we have not complete tables of all India, as also returns
from all the British Colonies ; I would therefore suggest, that
extensive statistics of crime be prepared for the India-house
and Colonial office, which would not only be most valuable
in themselves, but also offer the best possible proof of the
condition of the people subject to the authority of the E. I.
Company and of the Crown,*

Before closing this Chapter, it may be advisable to glance
at the general condition of British India^ as stated by various
authorities in and out of Parliament*

GENERAL CONDITION OR ASPECT OF BRITISH INDIA.

No man was better qualified from his acute powers of

observation, or his extensive knowledge of other countries to

form an opinion of our possessions in the East than Bishop

Heber, who thus graphically dwells on this subject : —

Bishop Heher** Vxexe of the visible Improvement in Hindoitan —
* Southern Malwa from a mere wilderness is now a garden/ p. 74.
' During the years of trouble, Malwa (except in the neighbourhood of
fortified towns and among the most inaccessible mountains) was entirely
depopulated. All the irillagers hereabout had emigrated chiefly into
Berar, Candeish, and the Deckan : and some had become servants and
camp foUowers to the British army, till, within the last three or four
years, they returned each man to his inheritance, on hearing that they
might do so with safety/ p. 98. Life of Bishop Heber.

' Every where, making due allowances for the late great droughts aad
consequent scarcity, amounting almost to absolute famine, with its dfead*
ful attendant evils of pestilence and the weakening of all moral ties ; tlie
country seems to thrive under its present system of Qovemment. The
burdens of the peasantry are decidedly less in amount and collected in a
less oppressive manner, than under the old monarchy. The Englidi

* It would be extremely desirable if the number of gaols m India and
in the colonies, and the number of prisoners in each gaol, were specified,
as also the mode of emp]03ring the prisoners, and the general effects of
prison disciplbe. There can be no doubt that the public exposure of
criminals in road gangs not only hardens the offender, but takea away, io a
great measure the dread of punishment from those inclined to crime, as
witnessed by me in New South Wales.

BENBPIT OF BRITISH INFLUENCE. 483

name is therefore popular with all, but those who are inevitably fjrrear
losers by our comings — the courtiers of the Peishwa, such of the traders
as lived by the splendor of his Court, and probably, though this does not
appear, the Brahmins ;^ p. 211.

' Though our influence has not done the good which might be desired
or expected in Central India, that which has been done, is really con^
siderabte. Except from the poor Bheels^ and from the few gangs of
marauders which still lurk iu different parts of the country, that
country is now at peace; and how slight are these dangers, and how
easy to be borne are the oppressions of the native rajas, in comparison
with the annual swarm of Pindaric horsemen, who robbed, burned,
ravished^ enslaved, tortured, and murdered over the whole extent of terri*
tones from the Runn to the Bay of Bengal? While their inroads are
remembered, to say nothlug of Jeswunt Rao, Holkar, and Ameer Khftn,
the coming of the English cannot but be considered as a blessing; and I
only hope, that tee may not destroy the reverence and aw/Ul regard, with
which our nation is still looked up to here; vol. 2, p. 74.

* The country people seem content and thriving;' p. 114.

The Bishop and Archdeacon Corrie^ (who has been in
India nearly 40 years) give the following description of the
country traversed during a visitation : —

Sept. 15.-^' We passed Mirzapoor, the size and apparent opulence of
which surprised me, as it is a place of no andent importance or renown,
Ims grown up completely since the English power has been established
here ; and under oar government, is only an inferior civil station, with
a few native troops. It is, however, a very great town, as large, I should
think, as Patna, with many handsome native houses, and a vast number of
mosques and temples, numerous and elegant bungalows in its outskirts ;
and on the opposite side of the river, a great number of boats of all kinds,
moored at its ghftts, and is compnted to contain between two and three
hundred thousand people.

* This is indeed a most rich and striking land. Here, in the space of
little more than two hundred miles, along the same river, I have passed
oix towns, none of them less populous than Chester,— two (Patna and
Mirzapoor), more so than Birmingham ; and one, Benares, more peopled
Ihaa any city in Europe, except London or Paris 1 And this, besides vil-
lages innumerable. I observed to Mr. Corrie, that I had expected to find
agriculture in Hindostan in a flourishing state, but the great cities ruined
in consequence of the ruin of the Mussulman nobles. He answered, that
certainly very many ancient families had gone to decay, but he did not
think the gap had been ever perceptible in his time, in this part of India,
since it had been more filled up by a new order rising from the middling

4d4 IMPROVEMENT UNDER BRITISH RULE.

dasses, wbose wealth had, daring his recoUectioiiy increased Tery f^readj.
Far indeed from those dties which we had already passed decajring, most
of them had much increased in the nnmber of their houses; and in what
is a sure si^ of wealth in India, the number and neatness of their gfaita
and temples since he was last here. Nothini^y he said, was plainer to
him, from the multitude of little improvements of this kind, of small
temples and bungalows, partly in the European style, but obviously in-
habited by natives, that wealth was becoming more abundant among the
middling ranks ; and that such of them as are rich, are not afnud of ap-
pearing so. The great cities in the Doab, he said, were indeed scenes of
desolation. The whole country round Delhi and Agra, when he first saw
it, was filled with the marbled nuns of nuUas, mosques and palaces, with
the fragments of tanks and canals, and the vestiges of inclosures. But
this ruin had occurred before the British arms had extended thus far, and
while the country was under the tyranny and never ending invasions of
the Persians, Affghans and Mahrattas. Even here a great improvement
had taken place before he left Agra, and he hoped to find a much greater
on his return. He apprehended that on the whole, all India had gained
under British rule, except, perhaps, Dacca and its neighbourhood, where
the manufactures had been nearly ruined ; p. 314.

In another place the lamented Heber says —

* One of the strongest proofs that I have met with of the satisfaction
of the Hindoos with their rulers was the mutual felicitations which the
archdeacon overheard between two villagers near Cawnpore, and which
was not intended for his ear. ' A good rain this for the bread* ssnd one
of the villagers to another ; ' yes,' was the answer, ' and a good govern-
ment under which a man may eat his bread in safety.'

But Bishop Heber is not the only testimony on which the
shadows of partiality cannot be cast; Major General Sir
Lionel Smith, K.C.B., an old king's officer who visited Taiioas
parts of India, resided there a great number of years, and
describes himself as very partial to the natives, says —

* I should say the condition of the people had been highly ameliorated
by the government since the conquest.' (5532). — ' Do not you think the
people are better protected, and that they pay less than under the native
government i A, Yes ; the government in several bad years made reniB-
sions to them inthe amount of the taxes.' (5508).

Mr. Robertson, in his interesting remarks on the civil go-
vernment of India, thus alludes to the condition of the people^
and the cultivation of the country —

IMPROVEMENT IN CULTIVATION. 495

* I have never sjerved in the Benares pronnce, but of Befaar I can speak
with confidence as being cultivated to an extent that, in many places,
hardly leaves room for carriage roads. The people do not generally bear
any marks of poverty.

' I have, as magistrate of Patna, often been surprised at the readiness
with which fines of twenty or thirty rupees^ commutable into only one
month's imprisonment, have been paid by common villagers ; and my
own belief is, that the labouring peasantry of that province are, with re*
ference to the climate and their wants, fully as well off as the peasantry
of England, certainly beyond all comparison, in a better condition than
the same class in Ireland, and in many parts of Scotland.'

Mr. Harris, an extensive indigo planter^ in speaking of the
condition of the peasantry during the years when they fell
under his observation, from 1808 to 1822, says — ' their con*
dition was greatly improved latterly, from the time I first went
there, to the time I came away ; their houses were better, and
their condition greatly improved,' (Lords, 4288). — 'The
-whole country (the district of Tipperah) is cultivated like a
garden, there is not a spot of ground where they could feed
a bullock, scarcely,' (4^9).

W. Malcolm Fleming, an Indian judge, was asked (Xiords,
1141): — * Did the country improve during the time you were
acquainted with it? — ^Very much. Both in population and in
wealth ? — ^Yes. Did it appear to you that there was more
agricultural capital in the country when you left it than when
you went to it ? — ^Yes ; certainly, much more. Was there
more applied to the cultivation of land ! — Yes. Was there
more applied to manufactures or trade ? — I do not think that
there was; but there was a great deal more land brought
into cultivation. Did the people appear to you more com-
fortable than when you first knew it ? — Much more so.

Mr. Christian described the whole country to be improved,
and, with reference to the Upper Provinces, particularly
stated, that ' cultivation has extended very considerably,'
(Lords, 905).

Mr. R. D. Mangles, says : — ^The incomes of the proprietors
of land in the liOwer Provinces, taken on the average, are
equal to the Government revenue ; all agricultural produce

496 RESTORATION OF DESERTED VILLAOES.

has risen very considerably, and the extension of cultivation
is very great, (Lords, p. 59).

Mr. Sullivan describes the ' progress of population, in-
crease of stock, improvements in agriculture, and the creation
of capital employed in different works in Coimbatoor," (Com-
mons, 679).

Mr. Rickards admits the * efforts of the Government for
the encouragement of agriculture,' (2,809).

Mr. Fortescue describes the * population of the Delhi ter-
ritory as rapidly increasing,* (Lords, 459); and, in another
place, thus depicts the blessings which have resulted from
the occupation of the country by Great Britain. Did the
people appear to be satisfied with the administration of jus-
tice ? — ^I do think they were particularly so. Has the revenue
increased in that country of late years, since we first got pos-
session of it ?— Extremely ; almost beyond calculation. And
the population ? — Yes ; and the population also. When we
took possession there were about 600 deserted villages; when
I came away, there were about 400 of them that had been
re-peopled again, chiefly by the descendants of those who
had a proprietary right in those villages, and this in conse-
quence of our administration. (March, 1830, Lords).

While on the subject of deserted villages, I cannot help
directing the reader's attention to an Appendix in the late
Sir John Malcolm's Central India, in which will be found de-
tailed accounts of the villages restored, or rather recovered
firom the tigers and wild animals, who were their sole inmates.
The total of khalsa, or Government villages re-peopled in
Holkar's country, were :— In 1818, no. 269 ; 1819, 343 ; 18«0,
508 : leaving of villages uninhabited, but since peopled, 54S.

In Dhar, the restoration of villages were: — In 1818, no.
28; 1819,68; 1820,52: leavmg then uninhabited, 217.

In Dewas, villages restored: — ^In 1818, no. 85; 1819, 106:
leaving then uninhabited, 141.

In many places not only were hundreds of villages left roof-

FORMER STATB OF CANDBISU, NAGPOOR, &C. 497

less, but the wretched inhabitants, when returning to them
on the establishment of our sway, were devoured by the nu-
merous tigers that overran the country. Capt. Ambrose
despatched to his superior authority in 1818, a list of the
people killed by these ferocious animals in one district within
the year, amounting to 86 ! The names of the individuals
and the vQIages they belonged to, were stated in the return ;
Sir John Malcolm says, an intelligent native gave the number
of men kiDed by the tigers, in 1818, at 150; in consequence
of the exertions of Government, much fewer lost their hves
in 1819, and in 1890 scarcely any. In several other parts of
India also, on the restoration of tranquillity « the tigers dis-
puted with the returning peasantry for the possession of the
villages. Such is the country which, within 10 or 12 years,
has been reclaimed from the lair of wild beasts, and re^
peopled by men.

Enough has been said to shew the present state of India ;
a few words as to its condition under the native princes may
not be amiss, although the fearful details at the conclusion of
the first chapter sufficiently illustrate the unfortunate situa-
tion of its inhabitants. Colonel Briggs thus describes the
state of Candeish :•<—

4018. Was it in a very unsettled state when you went there?— It was in
a very unsettled sUte, and had been so for the last thirty years previous
to our taking possession of the country. It had been overrun by bands
of freebooters ; 1 believe there were at different times about eighty dis-
tract bodies^ which had been in the habit of ravafpng (he country ; this
was the cause of its beinfir very much depopulated. I think 1,100 out of,
I bdierey 2,700 villaj^s, for I merely speak from recollection, were ren-
dered dewlate altogether: and those which remained were open to the pil^
la^es of a race of people denominated Bheels. These people are supposed
by some to be the aborigines of the country ; but they have been for a
long period attached to villages as guardians or watchmen, with certain
immunities in land and fees from the people themselves. The consequence
of those ravages deprived the inhabitants of the means of supporting the
Bheels, who went into the hills, and were in the habit of attacking the
villages.

Of the Nagpore territories Mr. Jenkins thus speaks : — * I

VOL. I. K K

408 VALUE OF MONEY.

faad scarcely arrived at Nagpoor in 1807, before I saw die
whole country in a blaze, and almost every village burning
within a few miles of the city of Nagpoor, and this going on
from year to year !' (Lords, S,197).

Mr. Jenkins stated that the people were very well satisfied
with the administration of justice while we had the country ;
their Lordships then enquired:—

2207. From your own observation, when you went there had you reason
to believe that the people were satisfied with the native government ? —
Far/r&mitf for tkty had littte protection from foreifpi invasion. The
Pindarees were etmttanify nwag'ing' the country ; and the Ri^'s troops,
if they were sent to suppress them, plundered them ; and the xemindars
plundered the rpoie in the districts immediately near them.

Mr. Jenkins states, that during the eight or nine years
that Nagpoor was under the controul of the Company, IS or
14 additional banking-houses were established, the agricultu-
ral class to every appearance possessed more wealth, the ex-
penditure of the Rajah was reduced, and an annual surplus
of near five lacs of rupees created.

I might fill pages upon pages with testimony equally aa
conclusive aa that of Colonel Briggs and Mr. Jenkins; I
therefore pass on to notice an assertion, ' that the value of
money in India has not undergone a visible change, and that
as the money-prices of grain and other commodities, and the
wages of labour, have undergone no change since the estab-
lishment of the British Government in India, we may con-
clude that the value of money has, throughout this period,
been equally steady.'*

The following table has been prepared by the statistical
reporter at Bombay, Colonel Sykes, and laid before the Par-
liamentary Committee : —

• Rickard'8 India, Vol. 1, p. 598.

WAGES OF LABOUR AND ARTIFICERS IN 1824 AND IN 1828. 499

Comparison of tbe Wages of Artiticere and other Public Servants, under the
Peishwa's and British Governments in the Dukhein, in 1828 and 1814.

Under the British

Under the

role in 1828.

Feishw«*» in 1814.

Monthly Wa^res.

Monthly Wares.

Head Carpenter Rapees

25, 35, and 45

15, 20, 40

Common ditto

Two Hawvers
Head Smith

15 and 22i

25andd0

Smith . . . .

15 and 22^

Head Armourer

File Man . . . .

Hammer Man

6, 8, and 13i

Head LVather Worker .

Head Bricklayer .

25 and 35

15 and 20

Tailor . . . .

Chief of Dooly Bearers

15 and 20

Groom* . . . .

Camel Man

7 and 9

Head of Palankeen Hamals .

The Price of Grain, Poise, and other Articles under the respective

Administrations

per Rupee

Under the BritUh
rnle In ISSS.

Under the
Peishwa's in isu.

Seen.
16

Beers.
12

13
18

14*

16
2

11
li

Rice (Putnee)

Ditto (Ambesnor)

Wheat . - - • .

Joaree (Andropof^on Sporzhum) -
Bijree (Pftnicum spicatum)
Dhall (Cytisus Cajan)
Ghee (clarified butter)

This table confirms tbe statements of the several authorities
quoted as to the improved condition of the country ; for if
the price of food be augmented in the Dukhun (or Deckhan)
and the rate of wages be simultaneously increased^ there can
be no stronger proof of prosperity, not only in that part of
India referred to, but also in those parts which have been
longer under the Government of the East India Company.
Colonel Galloway, adverting to the * increase of cultivation^

* Under the Peishwa*s government^ one man attended on two horses,
and one man on two camels.

500 RISE IN THE PRICE OF FOOD AND OF WAGES IN BENGAL.

and the high price the husbandman now receives for the
produce of his labour/ (Law and Constitution of India, p.
198) says, * I have in many parts of the ceded and conquered
provinces seen grain selling at 25 seers* per rupee, where
we were credibly informed by the natives that 120 seers were
oflben, even generally procurable for that sum.'

As regards Bengal, I made particular enquiry in 1830 on
the subject; and the authority from whom I received the
following statements, is Dwarkanaut Tagore, than whom no
man in Bengal is better qualified to make them. The in-
crease of wealth, throughout Bengal,f has been most rapid ;
^notwithstanding the disadvantages under which the agricul-
turists labour, by the English markets being shut against
their raw and manufactured produce, and the great number
of artizans thrown out of employment by the introduction of
piece goods, &c. from England ; land purchased at Calcutta
SO years ago for 15 rupees, is now worth, and would readily
sell for 300. Ten years ago a labourer in Calcutta received
two rupees per month, now he is not satisfied with less than
four or five rupees per month,:|: and there is even a scarcity
of workmen; 12 field labourers were formerly to be had for
less than one rupee a day, now half that number could not
be had at that rate of wages. A cabinet-maker§ was glad to
obtain eight rupees a month, for the exercise of his skill,
now he readily obtains 16 or 20 rupees for the same period ;
I need not go through the other classes of handicraftsmen,
or labourers, all have risen in a like proportion ; and as to
^he price of food, it is sufficient to state one article as a cri-

* A seer u 2 lbs.

t Land is now worth 67 years' purchase of the revenue.

X Mr. Golebrooksays, in 1804 in his Husbandry of Bengal, ' that a col-
tivaitor entertains a labourer for every plough, and pays him wages, on an
average, one rupee per mensem, and in some districts, not half a rupee per
mensem ;' this was at a period when not one third of the land of a zemin-
darry was cultivated, whereas now there is frequently not an acre on an
estate un tilled.

§ The wages of a HkMvo carpenter at Calcutta may be estimated at 6dL,
of a Chinese at 2s., and of Jthe lowest European, €«. per day.

MIDDLE CLASS OF SOCIETY ARISING IN INDIA. 501

terioii — ^rice^ the staff of life in Bengal, was wont to be sold
at eight annas (half a rupee) per maund (821bs.)y its price has
increased four*fold, being now averaged at two rupees per
znaund. In fine, a new order of society has sprung into ex-
istence that was before unknown, the country being hereto-
fore divided between the few nobles, in whose hands the
wealth of the land was concentrated, and the bulk of the
people, who were in a state of abject poverty; from the latter
have arisen a middle rank which mil form the connecting
link between the Government and the mass of the nation.
The advantages to be derived from this change are indalcu-
lable; — ^whenever such an order have been created, freedom
and prosperity have followed in their train. Do we need
example? Look at England after the Norman conquest,
when the people were serfs, and the feudal Barons were the
very counterparts of the India zemindars ; but watch the pro-
gress of society up to the eighth Henry, when wealth became
more equally diffused ; and continue the view to the present
day when the power of the middle ranks has become so para^
mount, by reason of the mass of wealth and intelligence con-
oentrated in their ranks.

The country of the foaming Guadalquiver is a melancholy
illustration of a nation possessing but two ranks of society,
where the most beggarly Asturian, who can support a bare
existence without mental or bodily labour, claims the rank of
an Hidalgo, and strongly reminds one of the lazy proud
' Suwars,' so admirably delineated by Bishop Heber, in his
highly interesting work. Look at Hungary and other places,
where the peasantry are sold with the soil ; in fact, in every
country where there have been only two extremes of society,
mental and bodily despotism have supervened. The East
India Company's Government have broken through that
curse, — they have annihilated a feudalism which has ever
marked an ag^ of barbarism. It is true, that society has
been levelled ; that the slavish dependence of the low, upon
the high caste, has been severed; and millions of human
beings are now, for the first time, learning to know their own

B02 ROADS AND BRIDGES EXECUTED BY THE E. I.C. SINCE 1814.

worth ; to be conscious that, by industry, talent, and integ-
rity, they may elevate themselves to the foremost rank of
society, and ' redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled,* the
meanest Indian peasant may hurl defiance at any petty tyrant,
who, from the insolence of office, alleged hereditary rights,
or domineering Brahaminical priesthood, may still foolishly
think to retain longer in subjection a submissiye people, who
had, alas ! too long licked the dust of the earth.

In the language of Bishop Heber to the Supreme Govern-
ment, in 1825*^' It is my earnest prayer to that good Provi-
dence, who has already made the mild and just, and stable
Government of British functionaries productive of so much
advantage to Hindoostan, that He would preserve and pros-
per an influence which has been hitherto so well employed,^

* The followin^^ is a ?ery brief abstract of iome of the roads and bridges
constructed in India since tne last renewal of the E. I. Company's Charter ;
the official docament from which it is taken extends to ten times the length
of the present statement :

Bbngal» 1812 — ^road from Calcutta to Jugg'umauth, upwards of 900
miles in length, with branches to the principal towns near which it paaaes.

1813— canal, between Ganges and Bumittee rivers.

1814 — military road from Cfdcutta to Benares, 500 miles, restored to its
original width, repaired, bridges erected &c. ; pucka road from AUahabad
to Bardwan, 450 miles*

1815— erection of lighthouses at diflferent places ; building a bridge at
Meerut ; cutting a road 12 feet wide for beasts of burthen from Bummuee
to Almorah, and cutting bridges.

1816 — rebuilding the houses of the Botanical Garden ; establishment of
a native hospital at Patna ; erection of a lighthouse at Kedgeree. *

1817— repair of an ancient aqueduct in the Deyra Doon ; restoration of
the Delhi canal; ditto in Goruckpore; construction of a new road at
MoochucoUah ; erection of telegraphs between Calcutta and Nagpore, 733
miles ; construction of a road from Tondah to Bumouree ; completion of
the new road from Patna to Gyah.

1818— eight bridges built for the entrances on the land side of the dty
of Delhi ; a new road from Puttah Ghaut to Hurripaul ; ditto between
Patna and Shehargotty.

1819— K'onstroction of a chapel at Benares ; extension as far as Ruder-
pore of the road constructed from Bumouree to Tondah in Kumaoon, Ibr
the purpose of opening a communication between the Plains and Almoiah ;
repairing the bndge over the Ramgunga, and const meting a new bridge
over the Soorjoo nvers in Kumaoon.

1820— formation of a botanical garden at Saharunpore ; road from the
Barrackpore to opposite Buddee Pkintee.

1821— roads from Agra to Mhow via Lakheree and Mokundiah i Mbow
to Delhi, by Neemutch and Nusseerabad ; Asseerghur to Husaingabad,
then to Miiowrra Muudlasir, and to Nagpore via Berhampore and £Uic^

BRIEF ABSTRACT OF PUBLIC WORKS IN INDIA* 503

that He would eventually make our nation the dispenser of
stiU greater blessings to our Asiatic brethren, and in bis own

poor ; Cawnpore to Sau|(or throuii^h Bundlecund, and thence to Nagpore
by two routs, viz. by Jubblepore and by HussiDgabad j Calcutta to Nag-
pore, through the Bingboom country.

1822 — canal to unite the Hooghly with the (janges, through the salt-
water Lake ; survey and improvement of the port of Cuttack ; a line of
telegraphs from Fort William to Ghunar ; road from Chilkeah to Howd
Bangh in Kumaoon, for facilitating the commerce between Tartary and the
Plains.

1823— « canal to unite the Damrah and Churramunnee ; re-opening of
Feroze Shidi's canal in Delhi, completed ; restoration of Zabita Khan's
canal in the Upper Dooab ; the course of all Murdher's canal, drawn into
Delhi ; erection of a splendid new mint at Calcutta, in progress.

1824 — ^road between Nagpore and Ryepore; erection of a chapel at
Dum Dum, another at Meerut, two churches at Cawnpore, a church at
Dacca, an additional church at Calcutta, and a church at JBurdwan ; a new
road from Mirzapore to Saogor, Jubbulpore, Nagpore, and Omrawatty to
Bhopalpore, Mhow, &c.

lK25--e8tablishment of a botanical garden at Singapore $ erection of
bungalows and seraies for travellers in the military r<Mui from Calcutta to
Boiares ; road from Cuttack to Padamoondy or Ahva.

1826---a new dawk road between Calcutta and the new anchorage.

1827-*fc#r Shakesperian bridges.

1828-— removing rocks in the Jumna i nine iron chain bridges over the
rivers in Kumaoon.

1829 — roads in the districts of Jounsai and Bhowar $ a road from Bala-
sore to the eea beach.

1890-«« new road from Cuttack to Qaigam ; Jynta road ditto ; ma
Hooghly and Burdwan to Bancoorah ; staging bungalows and seraies at
Oopeegunge, Allahabad, &c. &c. ; seven telegraphic towers on the sema-
phore principle from Kedgeree to Calcutta

1831— assisting the '* Strand Road*' at Cakutto.

Maprab, 1815— new street on the beach ; St. George's ehurch; bridge
over the Mambaroota river.

1816— bridge over the Flsramboor, and a new road between the Black
Town and the N. W. approaches to Madras.

1817 — ^formation of wells; chapel at Arcot, and one at Poonamalee.

18 IB— stone bridge across the Madras river; a new observatory.

1819 — a road in the Neilgherry Hills; repairs to the bridges across the
Cauveryr

1820— rebuilding of the lighthouse at Madras.

1821 — l)uikling a church for the Missionary Society ; erection of a cha*
pel at St Thomas's Mount, and of a church at Vepery ; a stone bulwark
at Fort St. George against the inroads of the sea.

182*^— erection of bridges at the island of Samoodra,in Coirobatoor;
Scotch Church (St. Andrew's.)

1823— a new cut for the Votary nuUah ; a new bridge, &g«

lg24 — a canal at Chunmapore ; a church at Tellicherry ; great road from
Secunderabad to Masulipatam ; great road from Madras through the
Northern Cprcars, to the Bengal frontier.

1826— a tunnel from Fort St. George to the sea.

502 ROADS AND BRIDGES EXECUTE'^

worth ; to be conscious tV y peaceable means as only

rity, they may elevate >/^''^*e ^ «» *" community of

society, and * redeem ^ ^^^ ^d poUtical institutions, the
meanest Indian pep /^>^^^ *"* ^'8^^y intelligent race,
who, from the ir /f^^i^^"^^ ^^ ^ «*»^ ^^ ^^^ *^ ^
or domineeriiy > ':V''

think to retat '*y

11 I , . r-\i' 0d roads in various places.

naa, aias l ? y» Mentioned in the returns.

In the ) ji,/^^^ names may be seen in the official document.
/'f?2!!^throu(!;h Coory, and other works.
ment, m {^^!^'^ro8B the Kendalseroo river in Nellore, &c. &e.
dence, ^^j!^^ ^^ f"^™ Bancoote to M undfl^um ; repair of the
r* /^^^^oipi^tion of the slope in the dock-yard ; a church at

adv' /''^ ^ ^aadorah to Crorabunder.

P'^y^idtk church ; a chapel at Golabba.
P^ SlS^ifflk at Bohur ; chapel at Tannah \ new mint.

yW/j^^^Ljedact ; the flats of Bombay drained ; church in the N. Concao.
Z^^^apel at Poonah ; tank in Salsette.
M^ew wharf at Bombay.
l^^own hall undertaken.

/^Z-military road from S. Mahratta country to coast ; clmrch at Da>

'^ . also churches in the east zillah north of the Myhee, and at Baroda

j^T^oman Catholic chapel at Colabba ; road from Nassick to Bhewndy.

^^1^5.— improvement of Sion causeway; bridge over theMoolla; aoeir

.^gjfatory, and a church at Mhow.

1827 — improvement of the Bhore Ohaut ; a chui^h at Kirkhee ; road
ffom Malligaum to Surat.
1828 — ^bungalows at Malabar Point, and botanical ^i^arden at Dapooree.
J 831 — subscription for a church at Byctilla.

[Various other works« since undertaken or completed, not included in
the foregoinfjT return.]

The line of road proposed, in 1831, by Lord'W.Bentinck, then to be con-
structed or repaired, or which were in progress, were — 1st, the main road
from Calcutta to Delhi, extending 908 miles (passing through Benares, Alla-
habad, Cawnpore, and Cod) ; 2nd, the completion of the road from Mirza-
pore to Jubulpore (opening a communication with central India), 239 miles;
3rd, the completion of the Cuttack road (the line between Calcutta and
Madras Presidencv)* 248 miles ; 4th» the Calcutta and Moorshedaftad road,
107 miles ; 5th, the Patna branch road, 83 miles ; and, 6th, a road from
Calcutta to Dacca (opening a communication with the E. frontier), 199
miles; — ^total 1,784 miles. The number of prisoners at work on these
roads in January, 1834, was 10,000. It is proposed also to open a road of
460 miles from Mirzapore on the Ganges, through Jubbulpore towanli
Bombay, as far as Amroutee, the great cotton mart of central India. Crosi
roads are forming in difierent directions.

XbrMonlgonay Martm'c HiatoiTof ikus Bxhuih C<Aamem \<iU.tom»emmmB m Aua

J. C WW S

RMui^d6y(hdinini!'AMrt'ivn»^1Ka»iooJVaii^Zomiim^J»4.

506

CHAPTER VIU.

CBTLON, ITS AREA, PHTSICAL ABPBCT, CLIMATE, AND NATURAL PRO-
DUCTIONS ; EARLY HISTORY — EUROPEAN CONQUEST AND BRITISH
SETTLEMENT— POPULATION MALE AND PEMALE, WHITE, PREB> BLACK,
AND SLAVES, IN EACH DISTRICT— CLASSIFICATION — ^BOODBIST RB-
LIOION^-CIVIL eOFERNMENT — JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENTS-^MILITARY
FORCE — REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE ; GOVERNMENT AND MISSIONARY
SCHOOLS — INTERNAL AND MARITIME COMMERCE — SAILING DIRECTIONS
— SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ASPECT, IN A MILITARY AND NAUTICAL VIEW,
AND ADVANTAGES TO GREAT BRITAIN. . .

Cetlon (SelaUf Singhala^ Lanka^ Serendib, or Taprobane),
situate between the parallels of 5.56. to 9.50. N. lat, and
from 80. to 82. E. long., is one of the most magnificent is-
lands on the face of the globe ; in shape it somewhat resem-
bles an egg ; the extreme length is about 270 miles from N.
to S., with an extreme breadth of 145 miles (an average of
100), a circuit of -750 miles, and a superficial area of about
24ffiM square miles*

Favourably situate at the W. entrance of the Bay of Ben-
gal, it is separated on the N.W. from the Coromandel coast,
•by the Gulf of Manaar, in breadth 62 miles, and 150 miles
distant from Cape Comorin; on the S. and E. its beautiful
shores are laved by the Indian Ocean. The interior of the
island is formed of ranges of high mountains, in general, not
approaching nearer to the sea than 40 miles, with a belt of
rich alluvial earth, nearly surrounding the island, and well
watered by numerous rivers and streams. A picturesque
table land occupies the southern centre^ and thence, towards
the coast is a continuous range of low hills, and elevated flat
land extending nearly to the sea-shore. To the W. the
country is flat, and on the northern shore, broken into verdant
rocky islets, and a peninsula named Jafimpatam. The lofty
central division of the island varies in elevation above the

506 PHYSICAL ASPBCT OP CEYLON.

level of the sea^ firom 1,000 to 6,000 feet, but the range of
table land may be estimated at from ^,000 to 3,000 feet
higher above the sea. The mountains* run in general in
continuous chains witii the most lovely vallies the sun ever
shone on between tiiem ; the hills clothed to the very sunn
mits with gigantic forests, firom which issue magnificent
cades and foaming cataracts, that form in the vallies
rivers and babbling brooks firinged with turfy banks, and all
the beautiAil verdure df the tropics.

Rivers. — ^The rivers, as may be expected, are numerous,
in fact, the whole island abounds with perennial mountain
streams, rivulets, and rivers, the latter more numerous on the
S. and W. than on the N.E. The principal are — ^the Malta^
Yilla-Gunga, which is navigable for boats, and rafts during
a great part of the year, firom Trincomalee (where it fiJIs
into the sea), nearly as far as Kandy (in the centre of die
island), where its course is impeded by a ledge of rocks ; the
Calany Gunga, or Mutwal, is not inferior in importance to
the former, and is the medium for much internal intercourse
for 50 miles firom Columbo to Ruanwelle : the Welawe and
Gindora, &c., all of which serve rather the purposes of irri-
gation than navigation. There is, however, an inland rivetr
navigation over 100 miles of picturesque country firom CSiHaw
to Putlam 30 miles N. of Caltura.

Lakes. — ^There are a few lagunes on the table land, the
principal advantage of which is, the abundant supplies of
fish which they afibrd, and in irrigating the rice lands. In

* Heights above the sea, in English feet, of some of the principal Movan-
tains, &c. in the interior of Ceylon (L by levelling ; A by geodealcal
operations) :— Upper Lake in Kand^, 1678, L. ; Mattel PMtanna, the iim
above it, 3192 A ; Oorraggalle, the rocky rklge of Hantumd to the tooHi.
waidof the town, 4810, A; Hoonasagiria Peak, 4990, A^ 'The Ksacklae^,
a part of the same chain, 5870, A ; Highest point in the road let/iSmg
through the Kaddooganawa Pass, 1731, L. ; Adam's Peak, 7420, A ; Nam-
moonnakooUe, near Baddoolla, 6740, A; AmbooUoawa, near GampsJIa,
3640, A ; Pedrotallagalla, close to the Rest House of Nnwera Enia,'8280» A i
Diatalaw^, near Hangoorankett^, 6090, A; AUoogalle, near AmoooapooiT^
3440, A.

OEOLOOY OF C£YLON« 507

the maritime provinces, particularly in Batticaloa, the com*
mttnication between one district and another is maintained by
canals connecting extensive salt water lakes, which have em-
bankments of a stupendous nature,, constructed by the Cinga*
lese three centuries before the Christian era. Small vessels
firom India may land their cargoes at Calpentyn bi the Gulf
of Manaar, and have them conveyed by canal to Columbo.

Geoloot. — ^The island would seem to have been at no very '
distant period connected with the peninsula of Hindostan,
from which it was probably separated by an irruption of the
ocean.* Uniformity of formation characterises Ceylon, the
whole of the island, with few exceptions, consistuig of primi-
tive formations, the varieties of which are extremely nume-
rous ; the most prevailing species is granite or gneiss ; the
more limited are quartz, hornblende, dolomite, and a few
others. The varieties of granite and gneiss are innumerable,

* The rid^e called, * Adam's Bridge/ consists of a mass of loose sand,
with DO firm foundation of rock or clay to support it. The sand appears to
be transported in ^rr^t quantities from one side to the other of the ridf<e.
aoeording to the direction of the monsoon ; for, in addition to the action
of the surf, which washes it o?er to the lee side, where it is narrow,-— in
other parts, where it is broad, streams of it, in a dry state, are carried
across by the wind itself, and deposited there. The channels through the
strait are very shallow, and not more than sufficient for the small country
boats to pass ; but it is stated, in the records of the Dutch government at
Ceylon, that a Dutch fleet once passed through the diannels of Adam's
Bridge to avoid a Danish fleet in chase of them. It has been justly ob-
served, that if such really were the case, the channels must have been in
a very different state, as some parts of the ' bridge' are now dry, and a few
feet of water is the greatest depth any where on it.

The principal channel now used by the Dhonies, and other smaU country
boats, lies on the western side of the strait, on which channel some curious
dams appear to have been formed by the action of the sea on the soft sand-
stone. According to the records of the P^oda of Ramtsseram, it appears
tliat this island was, about the dose of the fifteenth century, connected
with the Peninsula, at which time, it is recorded, that pilgrims passed over
it on tiieir way to the Ptkgoda.

It is proposed to deepen the principal channel, which probably might
be aocoraplished for a moderate sum, so as to make it available not only for
the coasting trade, but for large vessels, by which a great deal of time
would be saved.

508 SOILS AND CORAL BANKS OF CEYLON.

passing often from one into another^ occasionaDy changing
their character altogether and assuming appearances for
which, in small masses, it would be extremely difficult to find
appropriate names. Regular granite is not of very common
occurrence ; well formed gneiss is more abundant, but sienite
is not common : pure hornblende, and primitive greenstone,
are far from uncommon ; and dolomite sometimes of a pure
snow white, well adapted for the statuary occasionally con-
stitutes low hills in the interior : limestone is principally con-
fined to the northerly province of Jafnapatam, and the island
appears to be surrounded by an interrupted chain, or belt of
sandstone, interspersed with coral.

Soil. — The N. division of the island is sandy and calca-
reous, resting upon madrepore,* as it is little elevated aboTe
the level of the sea; the surface of the elevated lands of
Saffragam, and Lower Ouva, is much stronger and well
adapted for tillage ; the granitic soil of the interior produces
the most luxuriant crops wherever there are a sufficiency of
hands to call forth the gifts of industry. The soil of the
southern plains is sandy, resting on a strong red marl termed
' Cahooki the base of which is granite, and in the neigh-
bourhood of Columbo, the lands are low and subject to inun-
dations from the Mutwal River.

The foundations of the island are apparently calcareous,
yet the greater proportion of its soil is siliceous, in many
places (as in the cinnamon gardens near Columbo), the sur-
face being as white as snow, and formed of pure quartz sand.
The soils of Ceylon are stated to be in general derived frx>ni

* The coral of the Pamban banks is not the zoophile of the Meiliterrm-
nean and the South Seas, but a light, porous, crumbling substance, same-
times cut and shaped into bricks by the Dutch ; and more frequently bumt
into lime. Of this species of lime the late fort of Negapatam was built ;
and so great is the hardness which it acquires by long exposure to the irea-
ther, that when Major De Haviland, some years ago, requested a specimea
of the masonry of the fort ta be procured and sent up to him, the iron
crows and other instruments used in detaching the blocks, were blnnted
and bent in all durections by the solidity of the chunam, which is far more
adhesive than that obtained from shells. A stone capable of being cooTerted
into so valuable a cement would almost pay the expense of its excavatioa.

CLIMATE AND WINDS OF CEYLON. 509

the decomposition of gneis, granite, or clay, ironstone, the
principal ingredient being quartz in the form of sand or
gravel, decomposed felspar in the state of clay combined
with different proportions of the oxide of iron, quartz in
most instances being the predominating substance, and in
many places, forming nine-tenths of the whole, the natural
soils seldom containing more than three per cent, vegetable
matter. The most productive earths are a brown loam re-
sulting from the decomposition of gneis, or granite, exceeding
in felspar, or a reddish loam originating from the decomposi-
tion of clay ironstone : the worst soils are those where quartz
predominate, proceeding from the disintegration of quartz
rock, or of granite and gneis, containing a very large propor-
tion of quartz.

Climate. — Ceylon is under the complete influence of the
monsoons, the N.E. prevailing from November to February,
and the S.W. from April to September ; the intervening or
equinoctial ,months having variable winds or calms. The
eastern side of the island is hot and dry like the Coromandel
coast, occasioned by the N.E. monsoon ; the opposite divi-
sion of the isle is temperate and humid Uke the southern
Malabar shore under the influence of the S.W. monsoon;
the climate, however, of the southern coast is more congenial
to Europeans than perhaps any part of the continent of
India. On the whole the N. and N.E. may be said to be
dry, and the S.W. moist. The S.W. wind is more general
all over the island, as both at Columbo and Trincomalee it
blows for five months in succession, whereas the N.E. blows
at Columbo only in the months of December and January,
seldom beyond them. Among the mountains of the interior,
the winds are modified by local circumstances, according to
their proximity to the E. or W. coast : and the highest and
most central land have peculiarities of their own. Thus,
at Badulla, in Upper Ouva (where there is an excellent
hospital and miUtary station), the wind for three-fourths of
the year is from the N.E., and in June, July, and August
variable.

Owing to its intertropical position the quantity of rain that

510 RAINY SEASONS — CLIMATE OP KANDY, GALLE, &C.

falls in Ceylon is very great, probably about three times that
of England. Being less frequent, the showers are much
heavier while they last, a fall of two or three inches being
not uncommon in 24 hours ; the average of the alpine region
is about 84 inches ; on an average, however, less rain fiills on
the E. than on the W. side of the island ; a lofty mountainous
ridge often acdng as a line of demarcation, one side of which
is drenched with rain, while the other is broiling under an
unclouded sun. Colonel Colebrook, in his valuable report
on this lovely island, justly remarks that, the climate and
seasons of the N. and S, districts are strikingly contrasted.
On one side of the island, and even on one side of a moun-
tain the rain may fall in torrents, while on the other, the
earth is parched and the herbage withered ; the inhabitants
may be securing themselves from inundations, while in an-
other they are carefiilly husbanding the little water of a
former season which may be retained in their wells and
tanks. Thus, throughout the southern division, where the
rains are copious (owing, probably, to its exposure to the
Southern Ocean) canals are not less useftil in draining the
lowlands, than in the conveyance of produce ; and embank-
ments are much required to secure the crops from destruc-
tion durinff the rainy season ; while in the N. division of the
island, taiULS and water-courses are in the greatest request,
to secure the inhabitants against the frequent droughts to
which those districts are liable.

Owing, also, to its insular position, no climate is more
favoured than Cevlon, its temperature being moderate when
compared with the scorching plains of India. Along the
sea^oast the mean annual temperature may be taken at 80.
Farenheit ; the extreme range line from 68. to 90., and the
medium from 75. to 85. The climate of the mountains is of
course cooler, but its vicissitude^ greater. At Kandy, which
is 1,467 feet above the sea, the mean annual temperature is
78. ; at the top of Mamini Cooli Kandi 5,900 feet high, Dr.
Davy found the temperature at eight a.m. 57. At Columbo
(the capital) the mean daily variation of the temperature does
not exceed 3., while the annual range of the thermometer is
from 76. to 86^. F. At Galle the mean daily variation is 4„
and the annual range 71. to 87. Jafihapatam, iqean daily
variation 5., annual range 70. to 90. Trincomalee, greatest
daily variation 17., annual range 74. to 91. At Kandy (the
capital of the mountain, or table land in the interior), mean
dailv variation 6., annual range 66. to 86.- At Newera Ellia,
a nulitary convalescent station, mean daily variations as high
as IL, and annual variation from 35. to 80.

511

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51S IMPROVEMENT IN CLIMATE BY CLEARIKG.

The climate of Ceylon, where the. soil is not cleared, is un-
doubtedly subject to pernicious miasmata^ arising from stag-
nant marshes, and dank and noisome jimgles, and even when
the jungles are cleared, it requires the sun to act on them for
some time before the unhealthy miasmata are dissipated ; at
certain seasons, therefore, endemic fevers appear in situations
favourable to their propagation, but the whole island is be-
coming more uniformly salubrious as it becomes cleared, and
cultivated. The environs of Trincomalee, which were for-
merly very unhealthy have become much less so by clearing
the jungles in the environs, and if the salt-water lake (' Snake
Island' I think it is termed) to the northward of Columbo
were cleared, the maritime capital of Ceylon, though within
8. of the equator, would be one of the healthiest and plea-
santest residences in India.

It is true that our troops have suffered much in Ceylon,
but it should be recollected, that as compared with the
Indian army, their wear and tear of duty is much more severe
than the latter, and they have not the facilities of water com-
munication which the Ganges and its tributaries afford ; the
one country is in many parts quite unpeopled, and the other
comparatively civilized; add to which a pernicious system
prevails in Ceylon, of making the troops commence marches
at midnight, than which, nothing can be more injurious. A
late intelligent Deputy Inspector General of the hospitals in
Ceylon (H. Marshall, Esq.) has drawn up the following com-
parative table of the health and mortality of troops in India,
Ceylon, and Mauritius, but it must be remembered, in the
first place, that the data for Ceylon .were made some time
ago, since which period the country is materially improved,
and in order to judge more correctly, we should know the
ages of the deceased and invalided, and the tropical servitude
endured. I give, however, the table, in the hope that it may
induce further inquiry based on more extensive facts ; there
are no class of persons better qualified for topographical
details than the medical officers of the British army, who

STATE OF HEALTH OF EUROPEAN SOLDIERS.

513

have contnbuted so much to extend the literature and science
of England throughout her colonies.

Health of Troops in India, Cejrloii, md Mauritius.

p„«.

Ik
1 1

UB
M

»■
»■»

frt..-n

SUtiOM.

111

BtottiAimj'""* '

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«th ditto .

tatb Man )

«t». feto . . .
7mli ditto

Cinoir:
lWiB(tlm«t .
73d dittot

'HAUBITIVg !

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ism
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When Ceylon is cleared and cultivated all over, as our
West India Islands are, it will be as healthy as England. I
have known Europeans and the descendants of Europeans,
in Columbo, nearly 100 years of age, without scarcely ever
suffering pun or sickness. Fogs and mists are rare, except
in some of the deep densely foiiaged vallies of the interior,
and all round the sea-coast there is an unvarying alternation
of sea and land breezes, twice in the 24 hours, which are felt
nearly across the island in every direction.

A delightful station has been formed at Newera EUia,
S.W. from Kandy50 mUes, 14 from Fort M'Donald, 15 from
Maturatte, and 1S2 from Columbo. The road between Ne-
wera ElUa and Kandy leads through a wild and mountainous

* This pdlsDt ijpgiment auffered much dDrinf^ tlie Burmese war, and the
dispro{K)rtiDDste morttilitf was oiriD|{ to the aaliealthineas of Raofprnn, &c.

t The mortality of this rc^timent was owing to its ^at fatigue and
expoture dorinfi; the Kandyaii war, and subaequent rebellion in the moan-
tain and jungly districts.

<514 CLIMATE AND SCENERY OF NEWERA ELLIA.

cbuntry, the scenery always picturesque^ sometimes magnifi-
cent in the extreme ; at one time^ the traveller is surrounded
by steep and inaccessible mountains^ whose sides are clothed
with dense forests ; rocks of an enormous size, deep and pre-
cipitate ravines, and cataracts rushing with foaming velocity
from the heights, diversify the scene. The height of Newera
Ellia plain (four miles long, and one and a half broad) is
nearly 6,000 feet above the sea, and it is surrounded by steep
mountains of irregular height (covered with wood to the very
summit), one in particular — rising almost 2,000 feet above
the level of Newera Ellia River, which meanders through
lovely banks across the plain. The climate is delicious, never
approaching tropical heat in summer, and yielding ice in win*
ter ; the mean temperature, by day and night, for the entire
year 55. F. The water is so pure as to form a transparent so-
lution with nitrate of silver ; several chalybeate springs have
been met with. The daisy, buttercup, violet, ribwort, dan-
dehon, barbery, briar, &c. flourish indigenously; the rose,
pink, mignionette, and carnation, are as fragrant as in England;
delicious strawberries are abundant; and potatoes, carrots,
* artichokes, peas, beans, salads, cabbages, turnips, parsnips,
and in fact every British culinary vegetable thrive luxuriantly.
The soil (in which limestone has been found) is of a deep
black mould, resting on a stratum of yellow clay and gravel,
numerous varieties of beautiful quartz exist, and the fre-
quenters of the climate within a few degrees of the equator,
will learn, with astonishment, that a fire is always enjoyed
by night, and frequently in the day.

Vegetable Productions. — ^No island on the face of the
earth is richer in vegetable productions, than is this famed
isle of palm afad spices ; I need scarcely allude to dnnaman,
of which, it may be said, to have a monopoly, as China has
of tea. This delightful spice grows wild as well as cultivated,
in every southern part of the island, whether in the white
quartz soil of the gardens on the sea-shore at Columbor or
in the red Cabook hiUs of Kandy, wherever in faet, there is
sufiicient moisture.

CINNAMON — DESCRIPTION OF, &C. 515

The iaurus cinnamomim, although cullivated in many tropical places,
has it9 principal habitation at Ceylon, which is capable of yieldini; a suf-
ficient supply for every country in Europe ; the tree whence the cinnamon
bark is derived grows to the heighlh of from 15 to 20 feet, with an irre-
gular and knotty stem, l)ranchy and ligneous roots, fibrous and inodorous
wood, external bark, rough, thick, scabrous, and of an ash colour, inner
bark reddish, (the young shoots are often delicately speckled with dark
green and light orange colours) $ branches umbrageous inclining horizon-
tally and downwards ; leaves oblong and in pairs, from six to nine inches
in length and three broad, petiolated, colour dark green; flowers clustered
on one peduncle, white, wanting calyx, smell resembling a mixture of rose
and lilac ; fruit an oval berry, larger than a black currant, receptacle thick,
green and hexangular. The roots have the pungent smell of camphor, and
the delicious odour of cinnamon, yielding camphor by distillation, the
leaves have the pungent taste of cloves ; the berries, by boiling, yield an
unctuous substance like wax, emitting an agreeable odour, and formerly
used as candles for the exclusive use of the Kandian Court. Cattle of every
kind eagerly feed on the luxuriant foliage, while pigeons, crows, and other
birds, devour the berries with avidity. To the industry of man belongs the
bark, the varieties of which are dependent on the nature of the soil, on the
skill in cultivating and peeling, and on the age and healthiness of the plant.
About 2,000 acres of land are laid out in regular cinnamon plantations in
Ceylon, and about 30,000 persons employed thereon. The peeling of the
bark begins with May and ends with October : the peelers (chalias, a dis-
tinct caste in Ceylon) commence the process by striking a sharp bilUhook
into a shoot which seems fit for peeling ; if on opening the gash the bark
separates gently, it is fit for decortication ; if otherwise, the shoot is un-
healthy, the gash is carefully closed, and the sucker left for future exami-
nation ; shoots thus found fit (generally from three to five feet long, and
three-quarters of an inch in diameter) are then cut down, conveyed to sheds,
and there cleared of leaves and twigs ; by nieaos of two longitudinal slits
the bark peels off in two semi-circular slips ; when a sufficient number are
collected, the sectionb are placed in close contact (as two quill-halves would
be laid one within the other) and the whole bundle is firmly pressed and
bound up together for twenty-four hours, until a d^ree of fermentation is
produced, which facilitates the removal of the cuticle ; subsequently the
interior side of each section of bark is placed upon a convex piece of wood
fitted to its size, and the epidermis, together with the green succulent
matter carefully scraped off (if any of the outer pulpy substance be allowed
to remain, the cinnamon has an unpleasant bitterness) ; a few hours after
the removal of the cuticle, the pieces are again placed in each other, and
the bark in drying gradually contracts and rolls itself into a quill-like form*
During the first day it is placed under shelter on open platforms, subse-

51G VARIOUS USES OF THE COCOA NUT TREE.

quently it is finally dried in the sun, and made up into bnndles of about
30 pounds weii^ht. A plantation requires seven or eight years' growth
before yielding produce^ the tree is least advantageously propagated by
seeds, — layers and shoots, or transplanted stumps, are the best means of
extending the growth. The following are the quantities of cinnamon
recently imported, exported, and consumed in England : —

Impoited.

■sported.

Consoued.

Imported.

BxpoTtod.

18S7, lbs. 267.444

1828, .. 337.483

1829, .. 541,225

1830, .. 464,175

1831, .. S25,86tf

359,692
354,536
886. 108
635,223
504,643

14,451
15,696
29,720
NU.
23,172

1832, lbs. 36.762

1833, .. 102,402

1834, .. 221,222
1885,

1836,

524,277
447,855
232,493

15,«71
11,073
11,066

The duty on importation is 6d. per lb.

From Columbo to Tangalle^ a distance of 100 miles along
the sea-shore, plantations of cinnamon amidst groves of
cocoa nut trees, skirt the whole coast for 10 miles from the
.bordering of the tide, which laves the very roots of those
graceful and indispensable palms, the cocoa nut, being in
reality the most valuable product of the island ;* I recoDect
hearing in Ceylon an enumeration of 99 distinct articles made
from this tree, among the principal were : — 1. Arrack (the
spirit under this name, made from the cocoa nut blossom, is
far superior to the Batavian arrack, made from rice) which is
distilled from the sweet juice of the incised flower-stock,
termed — 2. * Toddy, in itself a delicious wholesome beve-
rage, when 'dTank fresh drawn before the morning sun has
caused fermentation to commence. 3. Jaghery, a coarse,
strong grained, but peculiar flavoured sugar (well adapted
for crystalization, or refining in England), made in abundance
from toddy. 4. Vinegar equal to any made from white wine,
also prepared from the toddy, and .used in making exquisite
5. pickles from the young shoots. 6. Coir, or ropes, strong
and elastic, and having the peculiar property of being best
preserved for use in sea-water (hence their adaption for
mooring, and other purposes, to which they are now applied
in Mauritius harbour and elsewhere, as also for runniBg
Tigging in the India shipping). 7. Brushes and brooms, of

* See Cwnmerce, In 1813 it was calculated that there grew along the
•coast between Dondrahead and Calpentyn (184 miles), ten miOion cocoa
nut trees.

VARIOUS USES OP THE COCOA NUT TREE. 517

various descriptions. 8. Matting of excellent quality. 9.
Rafters for houses. 10. Oil of much value, and now used in
England for candles as well as lamps. 11. Gutters or water-
spouts, or conveyances, for which the hollow stem or trunk is
so well adapted. IS. Thatching for the peasants' cottages,
the shady hroad leaf heing admirahly suited for the purpose.
13. Alkaline ashes from the burnt leaves, and used by wash-
ermen. 14. The roots are sometimes masticated in place of
areca nut. 15. Baskets of the young shoots. 16. Drums
of the crust of the trunk. 17. Reticulated clbth^ cradles or
couches for infants. 18. The terminal buds, used instead of
cabbage. 19. Translucent lanterns of the young leaves. 20.
Tablets for writing upon with an iron stylus or pen (after the
Roman manner), from the leaflets. 21, An i^olian harp of
the stripes of the leaf. 22. Stuffing (cosV), in place of hair,
for couch cushions, mattresses, saddles, &c. To particula-
rise further, would, however, be tedious, suffice it to say,
that the natives of the Maldive islands send an annual em-
bassy to Ceylon, the boats conveying whom are entirely pre-
pared from this tree, the persons composing the embassy,
clothed and fed on its products, and the numerous presents
for the Governor of Ceylon, are all manufactured from this
queen of the palms.

From Tangalle to Chilaw, a distance of 135 miles, it is
nearly one continued grove of cocoa-nut, bread-fruit, and
jack fruit trees (the latter being scarcely inferior in import-
ance to the natives as an article of food, &c. than the cocoa-
nut). Cotton grows with the greatest facility, whether Nan-
kin, Bourbon, or Brazil, the buds are ripe within four months
after the seed is put in the ground, and the interior, particu-
larly about Taldeina, contains immense supplies of the
gigantic cotton tree, whose silky pods when bursting cover
the earth around with their beautiftd glossy filaments, which
our manufacturers in Manchester would be so glad to obtain.

Every village, or hut, has its patch of sugar-cane and to-
bacco ; the latter, in many parts of the island, has a delicious
aroma. Coffee grows luxuriantly, and even without care, of
an excellent quality ; when properly attended to it is con-

518 NATURE AND QUANTITY OF PRODUCE IN CEYLON.

sidered by many superior to Mocha.* The pepper-vine grows
nearly in a state of wildness all over the island. Cardamom
plants are equally plentiful. The much sought after areca-
nut is of the finest species, and unsurpassed, nay, even un-
equalled in any part of the East. The rice of Ceylon has a
richness of flavour I have never found in any other country.
Teak forests abound ; and excellent masts and yards, of the
largest size, are everywhere procurable. Calamander, ebony,
satin, rose, sappan, iron, jack, &c., and every species of the
most beautiful cabinet-making woods are in rich profusion
(see the Ceylon cabinet desks, dressing-cases, &c., so much
and so justly admired in England). Enchanting groves of
the Palmyra palms surround the villages in the northward of
the island, and like the cocoa palms in the S., are of the
greatest value to the peasantry in seasons of drought. The
following shews the

Nature of Crop and Number of Acreti iu euch Crop.

«>

18S6 189,47A

1839 165,350 j 49,779

1830 106.497 I in,748

1831 158,049
1833, 161,338
18SS 313,136
1834.

44,484

190,M8

88,131

103,069

•

8
1

No. Of
Id Crop.

«1

tit ,

389

•0
a

805

S.70I

105

5.6«7

' 1

iJft^OOl

3,880

95 j 3

441

133 896

890

7,405

84488> 811,301 .1,«94.0«8

9*803

965 ! 6

886 800! 1,119

910

74)14

77705 410,968 {1,885,864

10,953

1,350 ! 9

330 911 1,040

764

10,481

75887 381,059 11,045,594

13,172

1.349

6 1448 913; 1J97

1184

10,771

115815 894,689 8,130^381

13,616

3,057

3085

513

1,131

1330

0.704

111430

456,800

1,074,186

Nature and Quantity of Produce Raised.

•

boshelB.

bofthels.

bath.

bosh.

bash

bosh.

bush.

bnah.

lbs.

Vm.

1688

6,048,678

570*819

4,009

900

5.109

17,780

• •

35,715

« •

1889

5,163,991

494,781

3,335

193

5,80b

17,030

■ •

84,740

• *

1830

5.831,187

070. 188

28,938

1,531

897

5,964

104,810

8.574

00,796

• •

1831

5.399.095

057,710

33,756

3,658

548

5.385

108.037

8,834

73,615

9,088,510

18B8

14,590,608

709*110

61,110

5.437

1,008

10,393

S0,100

8.047
84.878

834,598

1,144,140

1033

3,970,540

fc04,937

88,37b

0,873

983

36,947

34.477

1,330^547

3,084.084

1834

* The importation of Ceylon coffee into the united kingdom in 1832, ^ns
2,824,998 Ihs. not\vith8taudin<i; a tax of 9fL per ib. being levied on it in
England. Next year, however, the duty will be 6d.

ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS OF CEYLON.

519

Avenge Prices of each Description of Produce.

1828
IMP

1830

1881
1

1883
1884

U.44.

U.4d.

rl84Lto

\ 1$. 9d,
8^. to
U.Otf.
9d.to
9t,6d,

per

boahd.

U. 0i(.

1«.

U.
6d.U>

3». 7d.

3K*tO

0«. ad.

per
bushel.
34, nL
U,6d.

44.

8«.tO

7»-4d,

5c.8d:to

IS*. 4d,

fit. to
SS«.6rf.

per
bushel.

8«. 4^

bw,

0«.
44.64.

to lit.

441. to

954, 6d,

A4,9d,tO

SSt. 6rf.

per
bush.

1«.

9d.

8t. to

84, 4d.
44. to
64,lOd.

-a

per
bushel.

Sf.

94,

34. 9d.

l«.9d.to

%4.3d.

9d.to

4^4.

4tf.to7«.

per
bushel.

l4.3d,

U.
3il.to
U. M.
fill, to
U. llil.
4Ato
34. 9d.

per
bushel.

U. 1<K<.
U.fiil.

tOSf.

8«.8tf.to
4«.6<i.
Is. to
U.4d.

per lb.
id,

fid.
Id. to

4M.
i^to
l«. fid.
fid. to
8«. 4d.

per lb.

Id.
8d.tofid.

8d. to
fid.
I4d. to
St. Id.
8s.4d.to
St. 4d.

Live Stock.

Years.

1888
1880
1830
1831
1838
1833
1834

Horses.

1,187
1.087
MS8
l,14fi
804
1,188

' Homed Csttie.

Sheep.

U0.904

34,415

U0,8S3

19.797

651,419

31,110

687,803

89,610

568,740

40.877

501,709

40,J78

Goats.

40,873

31,019
38,015
38.336

47,9fi8
40,76fi

Animals. — If the vegetable kingdom be rich in Ceylon^
the animated one is no less so, from the gigantic elephant
to the many-coloured chamelion; indeed earth, air, and
water is instinct with life. The elephants of Ceylon have
long been famed for their size and docility ; as regards the
former, some writers have of late stated that the African
elephant is the larger of the two. I have, when traversing
parts of Ceylon and districts of Africa, had ample opportu-
nities of comparing both beasts in their wild state. Often
have I been obliged to sleep in a gigantic cotton or umbra-
geous jack tree, while a herd of those magnificent animals
were grazing beneath me, or browsing off the nethermost
branches of my nightly shelter; and at other times I have
chosen a safe position for firing (in youthful thoughtlessness)
at these sagacious and generous brutes, w^o have subsequently
spared my life when I was at theiir mercy : I may, therefore,
consider myself qu«ilified to judge between (he two animalsu

5S0 ELEPHANTS, TIGERS, DEER, SNAKES, &C.

The Asiatic elephant is considerably taller than any I ever
saw in Africa ; his head is not so large, nor his limbs so un-
wieldly as that of the latter ; and, according to the accounts
of those who catch and domesticate them, the former is a
much more valuable animal than the latter to man. Though
still extremely numerous in Ceylon (I have seen wild herds
of 100 and SOO young and old elephants), this extraordinary
creature will doubtlessly disappear before cultivation and
civilization, particularly as his noble nature disdains to pro-
duce a breed of slaves. They have been for some time used
in government works, in drawing timber and stones for
bridges, and in . conveying the baggage of a regiment when
on the march, a duty which their sure-footedness over the
mountains render them peculiarly adapted for.

The tiger of Ceylon is a formidable and destructive animal,
and so bold that it has been known to come into a bazaar
and snatch off some unfortunate cooley, or seize on an Euro-
pean soldier's child while the mother has been spreading out
her washed clothes on the hedge opposite her dwelling. The
buffalo in its wild state is also a very troublesome opponent,
particularly if his antagonist have a red coat or jacket on.
The elk of Ceylon assimilates in appearance with the fossil
remains of those found in Ireland. Deer of every variety are
plentiful, and their flesh, when preserved in honey for two or
three years by the wild Veddas, forms a feast which a Lon-
don alderman once tasting would never forget.

Snakes are numerous ; but of 20 different kinds^ examined
by Dr. Davy, 16 were found harmless. The tic polonga of
the coluber species is the most deadly in its poison ; I have
seen a strong dog die in 15 minutes after being bit, and a
fowl in less than three minutes ; the cobra capello caror
walla, and three or four others are nearly equally fataL The
natives say that the tic polonga lies in wait on the road side
to dart out on travellers, my observations lead me to believe
such is the case. A large snake called the pimberah exists,
the length of which is 30 feet. While travelling through
Ovah, and the central provinces, I have been assiured by the

MINERAL KINGDOM OF CEYLON. 521

Mohanderems of the districts^ particularly towards Ruan
Welle, of the existence of boas of a much greater size than
30 feet, and their ovi- and vivi-parous habits distinguished.
The alligator is found in most rivers, and the jackal in every
tope ; the mountain provinces are infested with a species of
small leech, that cling with peculiar tenacity to any bare
flesh, and draw much blood ; their bites in diseased constitu-
tions being productive of considerable after suffering.

Wild peacocks are abundant in the interior. The jungle
cock of Ceylon is a splendid bird, equal, if not superior, in
plumage to the golden pheasant. The quail, snipe, and
woodcock of the upper districts would please any epicure,
and a fish gourmand, whether on the coast or inland, might
never feel satiety, if variety and exquisiteness of flavour
could ensure appetite. The beef is small, but sweet; and
the mutton of Jaflhapatam equal to South Down. Eating is
a favourite pursuit with some old Europeans in Ceylon, ^d
certes it is a good place to indulge that faculty in.

Mineral Kingdom. — ^The metallic riches of Ceylon are
yet almost unknown ; the island, as before observed, is prin-
cipally composed of granite, with veins of quartz, hornblende
and dolomite ; rock and shell Umestone are found near Kandy
and Jaflhapatam ; iron and plumbago (the latter now forms
an article of considerable export) are abundant; and gold
(some say also quicksilver) and silver are found in the hill-
streams. Amethyst, topazes, cats-eyes, garnet, cinnamon-
stone, sapphires, rock crystals, shorl, zircon, rubies, and
diamonds, &c., the island has long been famed for ; the cele-
brated pearl fishery in the Gulf of Manaar my limits forbid
me here dwelling on.* Nitre caves are numerous; alum

* The natural history of the pearl oyster is imperfectly known ; the
banks have been found suddenly to fail when a productive fishery had been
anticipated. At certain seasons the young oysters are seen floating in
masses, and are carried by the current round the coast ; they afterwards
settle and attach themselves by a fibre or beard to the coral rocks, and on
sand they adhere together in clusters. When full grown they are again
separated and become locomotive. The pearls enlarge during six years.

622 INDUCEMENTS FOR CAPITALISTS TO EMIGRATE.

is plentiful, and the coast from Chilaw to Manaar and Jaffiia,
on the western side^ and from Tangalle, through the Maha-
gampatoo, to the eastward, contains the most extensive and
valuable salt formations which are to be met with in India.
The Leways, or natural deposits at Hambantotte, yield the
large supply of the finest salt, owing to the peculiar dryness
of the air, and the rapid evaporation at certain seasons, the
salt which thus crystalises spontaneously is of great purity,
and more slowly dissolved when exposed to the moisture of
the atmosphere than that which is artificially prepared.*

General HisTORY.f — ^Theoriginal Singhalese, or Ceylonese,
are probably descendedfirom acolony of iS'm^A^, or Rajpoots (to
whom, in appearance, even at the present day, they bear a strik-
ing resemblance) 500 years B.C. But the Malabars, it is stated,
several times succeeded in invading the island SOO years B.C.
At an early era the island seems to have attracted the atten-
tion of the western world; thus Dionysius, the geographer,
mentions Taprobane (its ancient and classic name) as femous
for its elephants ; Ovid speaks of it as a place so far distant

and the oyster is supposed to die after seven years ; they are fished at a
depth of 36 feet in the calm season. The length of time which the diven
remain under water is almost incredible to an European.

* There are many inducements for capltalbts to emifprate to Ceylon ; its
extensive fisheries of pearl and chank, ivduia gramt) the mannfactore of
coir ropes, cocoa-nut oil, and indigo, the dbtillation of arrack, the prepaia-
tion of plumbago, the collection of Chaya roots^ (oldenkndia wmbellaU of
Linnasus, used for dying red, orange and purple) Sapan wood and ivory,
for the Indian and English markets, and the cultivation of cinnamon, pep*
per, cardamoms, tobacco, grain, ginger, cotton, silk, &c. &c.

t Since the text was written I have received the Oeybn Almanac, cm-
tjuning. Mr. George Tumour's erudite epitome of the history of Ceylon,
derived from Pali and Singhalese records ; it does not, however, invali-
date the statement, that we know little certain of the early colonization of
Ceylon. Mr. Turnour begins his chronology 543 years before the birth of
our Saviour, and names the first King, Wejaya, who landed on the island
with 700 followers, and founded a government at Tamananowera ; but Mr.
T. does not stote whether the P^i accounts remark if the island was then
inhabited.

GIGANTIC ANCIENT WORKS* SS3

that it could be no advantage to have his fame extended
thither ; Pliny thought it the commencement of another con-
tinentf and extolled it for the purity of its gold and the size
of its pearls. In the reign of Claudius, a R<Mnany who farmed
(says the Rev. Mr. Fellows) the customs in the Red Sea, was
driven in his bark by a gale of wind from the coast of Arabia
to Taprobancj where he received a most favourable reception,
and so extolled the glory of the imperial city that the sove-
reign of Taprobane sent to Rome an embassy of four persons
via the Red Sea. We have existing evidence that, in remote
ages, Ceylon was an extensively peopled and civilized country
(it has now only 58 mouths to the square mib). Near Man-
totte are the ruins of a very large city, ccMistructed of brick
and mortar, and an immense artificial tank, or reservoir for
water, the basin of which is 16 or 18 miles in extent ; an
embankment about nine miles from the tank is formed of
huge stones, eight feet long, four feet broad, and three feet
thick (these are cemented together by lime), the length of the
dam is 600 feet, the breadth about 60, and the height from
8 to 12 feet. This gigantic work is said to have been exe-
cuted by the Hindoos, who made Mantotte the capital of a
kingdom which they established over the northern parts of
the island. Of an antiquity, however, more remote than the
foregoing, are various buildings and works towards the in-
terior, constructed of vast stones, elegantly cut and dove-
tailed-like into each other. No mortar has been used in
some of the edifices which still exist (as if in defiance of the
ravaging hand of time), with visible inscriptions on them,
which no existing human being can understand. Among the
works of this remote age is the Lake of Kandely, near Trin-
comalee, which is 15 miles in circumference, formed by the
artificial junction of two hills, which in one part in particular
exhibits a parapet formed of huge blocks of stone, 12 to In-
fect long, and broad and thick in proportion. This parapet
is at the base 150 feet broad, and at the summit 30 feet. By
means of this wonderful structure the adjoining high lands
arc connected.

524 GIGANTIC ANCIENT WORKS.

It is also singular that arches are to be found in the para-
pet, and over them conduits, similar to those used by the
Romans in Italy, and termed eondottori.

Belonging also to this age is a gigantic pagoda (40 miles
S. of Batticaloa), the base of whose cone is a quarts of a
mile in circumference, surrounded by an enclosure one mik
in circumference, consisting of a broad wall of brick and mor-
tar, with numerous cells in- it, and an entering colonade of
stone pillars 10 feet high.

Mr. Brooke, in tracing the course of the Maha Villaguuga
in 1826 y came on the ruined tracks of several very extensive
canals, one of which he estimated to have been from five to
15 feet deep, and from 40 to 100 feet wide. The natives told
him that this canal was cut by people whose stature was forty
feet high! The largest recorded bridge was one in the
southern part of the island, stated to be 280 cubits (630 feet)
long ; the next in size was 193 feet long, across the Kaloo-
Ganga, on the road from Adam's Peak to Bentotte. The
remains of a stone bridge exist near the Fort of Kalawo Oya,
the stones of which are from 8 to 14 feet long, jointed into
one another and laid in regular lines, the upright pillars
being grooved into the rocks below ; this bridge was built
15,000 years ago, and Captain Forbes demonstrates that the
Singalese, at that remote period, used the wedge and chisel
for sphtting and shaping those huge blocks of stone, after the
manner which has only been introduced into Britain in the
nineteenth century.

It is recorded in ancient manuscripts that, Anorajhapoora,
the ancient Cingalese capital, was surrounded by a wall 16
miles square, ilnd indeed a list of streets of the city is still in
existence. To the N. of the ruins of this place, are six pa-
godas of immense magnitude, the form being half a sphere
with a spire built on it ; the two largest are each 270 feet
high, of solid brick-work, once entu-ely covered with chunam
(lime poUshed Uke marble,) the solid contents of one of the
largest is about 456,071 cubic yards, and with the materials
of which it is composed, a wall of brick might be constructed

PORTUGUESE CONQUEST. 625

12 feet high, two feet wide, and 97 miles long ; the roofs are
composed of curiously carved rafters of wood, and the ex-
pense and labour employed in the whole of the structures
must have been immense.*

But we must leave these remote ages and come to some
later period. In the sixth century Ceylon was the chief mart
for eastern commerce ;f in the thirteenth century it was vi-
sited by Marco Polo, who pretty accurately narrated the
particulars of the island, which he described as ' the finest
in the world/ The central situation of Ceylon had led to its
port being frequented by ships from China, India, Arabia,
&c. by which means Galle and Columbo, from their favour-
able situation, became entrepots for the general commerce of
the East. When the Portuguese first visited the island,
A.D. 1505, they found it had for a long period been declin-
ing, owing to intestine wars, and invasions from Malabar and
Arabia ; the Cingalese King availed himself of the assistance
of the Portugese Admiral (Almeida) for the expulsion of the
invaders, promising in return an annual tribute in cinnamon.
In 1518, the Portuguese, under Alvarenga, began to fortify
themselves in Columbo, Galle, &c., and soon after they ob-
tained complete possession of the maritime provinces, and
drove the King of KanTly to such extremities, that he was
glad to retain even possession of the interior provinces.

For a century the Portuguese held their sway,.when in 1603,
the first Dutch fleet arrived at Trincomalee and Batticaloa,
and offered to assist the King of Kandy against the Portu-

* In the ancient histories of Trincomalee it is stated by Sir Alexander
Johnston that two kings of Solamandelum, Manumethy Candesolam, and his
SOD Kaiocarta Maharasa, reined over the greater part of Ceylon, and over
the southern peninsula of India, about the 51 2th year of the Cali Yug,
or 4,400 years ago, who constructed the great buildings and tanks, the
remains of which are yet extant.

t In the sixteenth year of the reign of Praakrama Bahoo the 1 st, ( A.D.
1153,) this Singalese monarch sent a fleet of 500 ships, with an army on
board, and provisioned for 12 months, to avenge the insults offered to the
Singalese ambassador and to Singalese merchants by the King of Cambodiae
and Arramana. This vast fleet was equipped in six months.

526 DUTCH, AND ENOLTSH CONQUESTS.

guese. In 1632, a strong Dutch armament, acting in con-
junction with the King of Kandy's forces, commenced a series
of contests with the Portuguese, and after a long and san-
guinary struggle, which lasted until 1656-7, the latter were
finally driven from an island of the sea coast of which they
had been roasters for nearly 150 years.

The Cingalese, however, soon found that they had ex-
changed masters to no advantage, for from 1656 to 1796,
when the British in their turn came to the aid of the Kandians,
the Dutch were engaged in a series of perpetual hostilities
with their mountain neighbours. Nor were we more fortunate
than our predecessors, for in 1798, on the elevation of a new
king to the Kandian throne, we became involved in hostilities,
which led to our capture of the Kandian capital in 1803.

We did not, however, long retain the capital, the
Kandians attacked us with great violence, compelled our
troops to a precipitate retreat, massacred 150 sick soldiers
in the hospitals, and having surrounded the British force, re-
quired them to lay down their arms ; the commanding officer,
Major Davie, unfortunately did so, the Malay troops were
picked aside, and the whole English force instantly mas-
sacred, except three European officers retained as prisoners,
and one mutilated corporal, who made his escape to Columbo
with the melancholy intelligence. Until 1815 we retained the
maritime provinces, while the King of Kandy kept the in-
terior, but in that year the monarch being deposed on account
of his repeated acts of oppression and cruelty (one act was
making the wife of his prime minister pound to death her own
children in a rice mortar), General Brownrigg was invited by
the Kandian chiefs to take possession of the interior, and ex-
cepting an expensive and troublesome insurrection, which
lasted from 1817 to 1819, Ceylon has ever since had the Bri-
tish sway estabUshed over the whole island.

CAPTAINS-GENERAL AND \K)VERN0RS OF CEYLON. WHILST IN

POSSESSION OF THE PORTUGUESE.

Pedro Lopez de Souza, Jerome de Azevedo, Francois de Menezes, Manuel Mas-
carenhas Homen, Nanha Alvares Pereira, Constantine de Say Noranha, D. George

PORTUGUESE, DUTCH AND ENGLISH GOVERNORS OF CEYLON. 527

d* Almeida, George d'Albuque, Diego de Melho, Antoine MascarenhaB, Phillippe
Maficarenhaa, Manuel Maacarenhas Homen, Francois de MeUo Castro, Antoine de
Sousa Continho, under whose administration Colombo was surrendered to the
Dutdi ; A. D. Mezely Menezes, last Captain-General, (in command of Jafflia and
Manar.)

GOVERNORS, VraiLST IN THE POSSESSION OF THE DUTCH.

At Gallb. — ^William Jacobszen Coster, Commander at the surrender of that
place; administration commenced 13th March, 1640. Jan Tbysz, President and
Governor, 1st August, 1640. Joan Matsuyker, Ordinary Councillor and Governor,
24th May, 1646. Jacob Van Kittenstein, Governor, 26th Feb. 1650. Adrian Van
der Meyden, Governor, 11th Oct. 1653.

Colombo. — ^Adrian Van der Meyden, Governor, 12th May, 1656. Ryklof Van
Goens, Governor, 12th May, 1660. Jacob Hustaar Extraordinary Coundllorof
India, and Governor, 27th Dec. 1663. Ryklof Van Goens, Governor, from 19th
Nov. 1664. Lourens Van Peil, Commander, President, Governor, and Extraordinary
Councillor of India, 3rd Dec. 1680. Thomas Van Rhee, Governor, 19th June,
1693. Paulus de Rhoo, appointed Governor and Director of Ceylon, 29th Jan.
1695. Gerrit de Heer, Governor, 22d Feb. 1697. The members of the Council,
26th Nov. 1702. Mr. Cornells Johannes Slmonsz, Governor, May, 1763. Hen-
drick Becker, Governor, 22d Dec. 1707. Mr. Isaak Augistin Rumph, Governor
and Extraordinary Councillor of India, 7th Dec. 1716. Arnold Moll, Commander
mtGalle, Uth June, 1723. Johannes Hertenberg, Governor, 12th January, 1724.
Jan Paulus Schagen, Commander at Galle, 19th Oct. 1725. Petrus Vuyst, Go-
vernor, and Extraordinary Councillor of India, 16th Sept. 1726. Stephanus Vers-
luys, Governor, and Extraordinary Councillor of India; administration com-
menced 27th Aug. 1729. Gualterus Woutersz, Commander of Jafifhapatam. 25th
Aug. 1732. Jacob Christian Pielaat, Extraordinary Councillor of India, and Com-
missary 21st Dec. 1732. DiederickVan Domburg, Governor, 21st Jan. 1734. Jan
Maccara, Commander of Galle, 1st June, 1736. Gustaff Willem Baron Van Im-
hoff. Extraordinary Councillor of India, and Governor, 33d July, 1736. Willem
Maurits Bruininck, Governor, 12th March, 1740. Daniel Overbeck, Governor,
and Extraordii|ary Councillor of India, 3d Jan. 1742. Julius Valentyn Stein Van
Gollnesse, Extraordinary Councillor of India, 1 1th May, 1743. Gerrard Van Vree-
land, Extraordinary Councillor of India, and Governor, 6th March, 1751. Jacob
de Jong, Commander of JafTnapatam, administration commenced 26th Feb. 1751.
Joan Gideon Loten, 30th Sept. 1752. Jan Schreuder, Councillor and Governor
of India, 17th Mdrch, 1757. Lubbeit Jan Baron Van Eck, Governor, (under
whose administration Kandy was taken on the 19th Feb. 1763) 11th Nov. 1762.
Anthony Mooyart, Commander of Jaffnapatam, 13th May, 1765. Iman Willem
Falck, Governor, &c. 9th Aug. 1765. Willem Jacob Van de Graaf, Governor, &c.
of India, 7th Feb. 1785. Joan Gerard Van Angelbeek, Governor, &c. under whose
administration Colombo surrendered to the arms of his Britannic Majesty, on the
16th Feb. 1796.

ENGLISH GOVERNORS.

The Hon. the Governor of Madras in Council ; administration commenced 16th

528 POPULATION OF CEYLON.

Feb. 1796. The Hon. Frederick North, 12th Oct. 1798. Lieut.-Gen. Right Hon.
Sir Thomas Maitiand, G.C3. 19th July, 1805. Miuor-Gen. John Wilson, Meut.-
Governor, 19th March, 1811. General Sir Robert Brownrigg, Bart G.C.B. 11th
March, 1812. Major-Gen. Sir E. Barnes, K.C.B. Lieut.-Govemor, 1st Feb. 1820.
Lieut.-Gen. the Hon. Sir £. Paget, K.C.B. 2d Feb. 1823. Mijor Gen. Sir J.
Campbell, K.C.B. Lieut. Governor, 6th Nov. 1822. Lieuf.-Gen. Sor £. Barnes,
G.C.B. 18th Jan. 1824. M^jor-Gen. Sir J. Wilson, K.S.S. Lieut.-Govemor, 13th
Oct. 1831. The Right Hon. Sir Robert Wilmot Horton, G.C.B. 23d Oct. 1831.

Population, — ^That Ceylon was formerly extensively peo-
pled, is evident from the works and structures before alluded
to, but it would appear the number of the inhabitants had
been declining for the last four or five centuries. An increase
has now commenced in the maritime provinces, which had in
1814,— mouths, 475,883: in 1824, 595,106; and in 1832,
698,611. Col. Colebrooke states in his report^ that the
population in 1824, was in the southern or Cingalese pro-
vinces 399,408 ; in the northern or Malabar districts, 195,697,
and in the interior or^ Kiindyan provinces, 256,835, total
852,940* The returns from the maritime provinces are
doubtless correct, as the village registers of marriages, and
births, and deaths are kept as punctually there as in Eng-
land ;* but having myself traversed the Kandyan provinces
more extensively perhaps than any European, I should think
the estimate of their population is under rather than over
the mark: it is to be feared, however, that the decreasing of the
semi-barbarous inhabitants of this splendid region, has scaxedy
reached its acme, perhaps, it may now be consid^ed atatioii-
ary, as the comforts of the people are on the increase*

A Colonial Office Manuscript affords me a few consecutive
years of the aggregate population of the island (I derive 18S1
and 1832 from the Ceylon Almanac): it appears singular
that the number of slaves should be on the increase, aMioagfa
every child bom of bond parents since 1812 has been bom free
according to the generous determination of the slave owners.

* The coroner's inquests held in the Maritime Pipovinces for the year
1833 shewed 148 deaths, of whom 38 fell from trees, 37 were drowned, 19
fell into wells, 6 from bites of serpents, 1 alli^tor, 2 elephants, 8 murder,
10 natural, and among the remainder are included 8 murders.

POPULATION OP CEYLON, &C.

529

Population of Ceylon^ (Colonial Office manuscript).

White and Ftee

Coloured

People.

18SS*

I8a4«

1897
1888
I8S9
1830
1881
1838

1833 ;

1834

374088
370865
4(J4747
479045
486410
499938
490474
519079

347805
347057
401104
490959
490387
434717
439309
409091

Slarei.

10509
11/98
10151
9739
10590
19394
10501
11373

Total.

11850,305491

IS 190; 388003

9530 474898

9790 488777

9808 497109

10059 507839

101551500975

11016 594059

359055
300955
410070
430049

Persons
employed in

995194

430955 301570
445309 1 309954
449517 300891

474337

304095

33089
38309
38033
S9593
90390

a
I

Marltiine
ProTinces.

99595

31919
31973
30197

47710

18739
18009

90993

18705

5183
5108

4745
8114

10988
19018

17998
17095

Census of the Maritime Districts of Ceylon in 1814.

Above the Age of Paberty.

•

Children.

Total
Males.

Total
Females.

Grand

Males.

• Penales.

Hales.

Pemales.

TotaL

150^447

149,453

95,091

81,899

951,538

994,345

475,888

The following in some respects complete view of the popu-
lation is highly interesting ; it shews how thinly the island is
peopled^ there not being in some districts more than four, five.
Or six mouths to a square mile !— The average for the mari-
time districts is 66 — (ot the Kandyan provinces 31 — ^and for
the whole island but 40.

* I should think these years embrace only the maritime provinces. Dr.
Davy estimated the population of the Kandyan districts^ in 1819, at 300,000
— a number I should think, from my own knowled|^e of the country, rather
loo high ; but it u perhaps difficult to say whether the population be in«
creasing or decreasing in the interior.

VOL. I.

II M

530

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CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF THE POPULATION.

531

The following table demonstrates that in the Colombo dis-
trict, at least, population is on the increase; and it will be
observed that the augmentation (except in the fort and pettah)
has been steady for the last five years*

Population of the District of Colombo

Town of Colombo.

Gimnd

Petteh or Natiye Towo.

TotaL

Corlesor
DiTiiioiio.

Total of
Colombo

Yean.

Fort«

District.

Wltiiin.

WiOumt.

1816

fl57

4,8P4

91,664

3741S

161,986

188,501

1895

4,975

95,475

31.188

184,179

915,860

18S7

514

4.736

93,916

89.169

199.989

999,144

1898

49g

4,006

94,454

98,959

196,543

995,509

1899

405

4,343

94,799

99.630

196,637

998,967

18S0

46B

4,500

M,990

31,955

900,766

939,793

1881

439

4,760

96,357

31,549

903,943

934,791

1839

937,781

1883

The population of the island, although comprizing a' variety
of different nations, may be divided into four distinct classes :
— first, The Singalese or Ceylonese (descended, as some say,
from the Sings or Rajpoots of Hindoostan, and by others
from the Siamese)* proper, who occupy Kandy, and die S«
and S. W« coasts of the island from Hambantotte to Chilaw.
Second, the Malabars or Hindoos, who invaded Ceylon from
the opposite coast, and are in possession of the north and east
coasts, and of the peninsula of Jaffiiapatam* Third, the
Moors or descendants of the Arabs, or perhaps, from Maho-
medans of Upper India, who are dispersed all over die island
(as die Moslems are over Hindoostan) and in Pultam district
form the mass of population. Fourth, Yeddas or Beddas the
aborigines of the island, who dwell in the most untutored state
(having neither habitations nor clothing) in the great forests
which extend from the S. to the £• and N., and also in die
most inaccessible parts of the interior, wild fruits and beasts
being dieir sole sustenance, and the branches of large trees
their resting place. There are some Malays, Cafires, and

* b it not probable that the Jains of Upper India and Rajpooto are one
aad the tame people with the Siaakeie or Buddhists of Siam ^

532 THE SINOALESE — BEAU IDEAL OF BEAUTY.

JavanesCi a few Chinese, and Parsee traders, and a good
many descendants of the Portuguese and Dutchi and even of
the English mixed with native blood, scattered over the
island. In colour the Singalese vary from light brown or
olive to black ; the eyes sometimes hazel, l^ut the hair almost
always black, long and silky ; in height they are frpm 5 ft. 4
to 5 fU 7; clean made, with neat muscle^ and small bone ;
the chest capacious, and the shoulders broad ; and in the
mountainous districts, like most other Highlanders^ they have
short but strong and rather muscular, legs and thighs; the
hands and feet, like those of the Hindoos, are uncommonly
small; the head well shaped, perhaps in general iQ.nger thap
the European ; the features often handsome, and generally
intelligent and animated ; the beard is unshorn, giving man-
liness to the youthful countenance, and dignity to that of age.
The Singalese . woman, particularly those of the maritime
provinces, are really handsome* The beau ideal is thus de-
scribed by a Kandian courtier, well versed in the attributes
of an Eastern Venus : — * her hair 8hoi4d be voluminous, like
the tail of a peacock — 4ong, reaching ;to. th^ ko^esj^^an^ ter-
minating in graceful curls; her eyebrows should reseQi^W the
rainbow, her eyes the blue sapphire, and the petffls pf the
blue manilla-flower ; her nose should be like, the bill of .the
hawk; her lips should be bright and red^.like cor^or ^e^
young leaf of the iron tree; her teeth should be spiull, Re-
gular, closely set, and like jessamine-buds ^ her neck, sli^oiild
be large and round, resembling the herrigodea; hf^r^ct^t
capacious ; her breast firm and conical, like the yellow |C9^-
nut, and her waist small— ahnost small enough to he. clasped
by the hand; her hips wide; limbs tapering$sQle;9;!of &et
without any hollow ; and the surface of h^r bodj^i^. general
soft, delicate, smooth, and rounded, without the aspenties of
projecting bones and sinews/ The foregoing may be ,pan-
sidered the most general external character of th^ .Singalese,
who are rather remarkable for agility and flexibility, cC fibre-
than for strength and power of limb* Whatever may have
been the extent of civilization in Ceylon at a remote period.

CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS CASTES — VARIETY OF DITTO. 533

at present I cannot say that the Singalese are superior, if in-
deed equal, to the Hindoos, in the domestic and fine arts ;
although many branches of manufactures, such as the weaving
of cotton and silk, the smelting of, and woijcing in, gold, silver,
irdn, copper, &c. ; the cutting and setting of precious stones,
the glazing of pottery, application of lacker, preparation of
gunpowder, castilig of cannon, distillation of spirits, &o. &c.
are carrii^d on, it is by the most simple instruments, and with
li(;tle aid from mechanics, and less froto science. In the fine
arts they are scarcely on a par with the Hindoos, and in their
structures of a recent period certainly far behind the latter
people, or even less advanced than the Burmese. They how-
ever possess great capabilities of ii!lstruction, and in the neigh-
)b6urhood of the principal British stadons are beginning to
prdfi^by the superior handicraft of the European artizan.

Cctstey asT re£(pect8 the Singalese and Malabars, is scru-
'^tiTodsly preserved, and Very widely ramified, almost every
6ccupati(5n having its distinct caste. There are for instance,
the gold and sHversmith's caste, the fisher's, the barber's, the
washer^M^T^, the manufacturers of jaghery (sugar), the toddy
dhiwer's,' the lime-maker's, &c. &c. &c. ; but the highest ai)d
most esteemed cartels thatof VeIlalah8,or Goyas, whose occu-
pations are purely agricultural ; however as land is assigned for
the performance of every description of service, the practice
of agriculture is not confined to this class, but is exercised
by p^rsbn's of all castes for their subsistence. By th^ Kan-
dyan laws the intermarriage of the high and low castes is
prohibited, and many distinctions recognized and enforced by
ivhich the latter are degraded and reduced to a servile state,
nofv considered hereditary. While the Malabars* professing
the Hindu faith maintain the religious, as well as the civil
distinction of caste, the Singalese or Buddhists have abolished
the former and retained the latter ; hence, perhaps, the hos-
tilities which prevailed between both sects, whose sacred
dogmas are both apparently based on the creed, and doctrines
of Menil, the great Hindoo lawgiver, an illustration for which
will be found by contemplating the parallel of the Romanists

534 THE BUDDHIST AND HINDOO RELIGIONS COMPARED.

and LutberanSy the essentials of whose religion stripped of ex-
ternals are for the most part alike. The distinctions of caste
in Hindoostan as well as in Siam, Birmah, and Ceylon, had thdr
origin in a superabundant populaticm jnresting too closely on the
heels of subsistence, and it was perhaps thought that the in*
troduction of a minute division of labour would not only ghre
more extended emplojrment, but also enable each person to
learn more carefully his business; probably, also, it was po-
litically conjectured that the division of an immense popuhif-
tion of so many millions into castes or sects, would render the
task of government mote easy, by keeping every individual in
a fixed station in society. Women, as in most parts of the
East, are looked on as an inferior race of beings, and not fit
to be trusted, as will be seen by the following popular distich,
translated from the Singalese language : —

' Pve seen the udumbara tree* in flower, white plumage on the crow.
And fishes' footsteps o'er the deep, hare traced through ebb and flow ;
If man it is who thus asserts, his word you may beBeve,
But all that woman says distrust— she speaks but to decdve/

BUDDHIST OR SINGHALESE RELIGION.

The religion of the Singalese is Buddhism, the early his-
tory of which is little known. Many Hindoo writers agree,
that Budh or Boodh, is supposed to be the ninth avatar or
incarnation of Vishnu (the second person of the Hindoo
Triad, and God of preservation ;) having appeared for
the purpose of reclaiming the Hindoos from many abomi-
nations into which they had faUen, and to teach them more
benevolent forms of worship, than through the means of
human and animal sacrifices which they then extensively
(and with respect to animals now) practised. These doctrines,
says Mr. Coleman, being too simple, and therefore interfering
too strongly with the privileges of the Brahminical priests, a
religious war ensued between the old and new sects, and the
Buddhists were ultimately expelled from the peninsula of India*

* A species of. fig-tree* which never bears flowers.

COMMANDMENTS, HEAVENS AND HELLS OF THE BUDDHISTS. 535

[Here we find a striking analogy to the incarnation of our
Saviour.] But the Buddhists, in general, will not tolerate the
idea of superior antiquity heing vested in the Brahminical
faith ; they deny the identity of their deity with ike ninth
avatar of Vishnu, which they declare was a mere manifesta-
tion of his power. They do not acknowledge a creation of
the universe, but assert that it has been destroyed many
times and by some extraordinary operation as often repro-
duced. They enumerate twenty-two of these regenerated
worlds, each of which was successively governed by Budd-
has, and that the present universe has been ruled succes-
sively by four, of whom Gautama or Gaudanui (whose doc-
trines now prevail in Ceylon, Ava, Siam, &c.) is the fourth ; a
fifth, Maitree Buddha, is yet to come, previous to which this
world will be destroyed.

The commandments of Buddha, were originally five (ne-
cessary towards salvation) but five others were added, which
were meritorious but not imperative. The first five are —
Hit. Not to kill a living creature of any kind ; 2nd. Not to
steal; 3rd. Not to commit adultery; 4th. Not to speak an
untruth on any occasion ; 5th. Not to use intoxicating liquors
or drugs. The meritorious commands are — not to eat after
mid-day ; and not to sleep on costly, soft, or elevated beds,
(but on clean mats) or indulge sensually. The others inculcate,
generally, virtue and benevolence, and the practice of indi-
vidual abstinence.

The heavens of the Buddhists are twenty-six, placed one
above another ; which together with their hells are thus de-
scribed by Mr. Coleman ; and it will be seen that there is
indeed much need of the light of education and Christianity,
to remove such ideas from the minds of an otherwise intelli-
gent and fine looking race of human beings : —

The Heavens of the Buddhas are 26, placed one -above another. At the end
of the maha calpi, when the world will be at an end, six of the lower of these celes*
tial abodes will be destroyed by fire, four by storms, and six by waiter. The four
superior heavens will escape destruction ; but what will become of the six inter-
mediate ones does not so clearly appear.

The great hells are 34 ; but besides these there are 120 smaller hells. Those

536 DESTRUCTION OP THB WORLD AND A FUTURE STATE.

vhich are hot lie immediately under the earth ; which may possibly account for
the many volcanoes, whirlpools, and sundry explosive and other turbulent things
that it contains.

The punishment for sinners in these hells are as correspbndbigly degrading, as
tiie condition of the good is in the heavens transcendency happy ; with this difi^-
ence, that in their amended state they contrive to forget (a thing very taicommon
in this lower world of ours) what they ascended from : whereas. In their debased
situation, their reminiscences are more perfect ; as we are told of a priestly digni-
tary, who having, for practices it may be presumed partakmg of the nature of the
insect, been transformed into a louse, became so absollitely miserable at l^e idea
of his goods and chattels, especially hk garment, in which he took great pride
(unlike the pious and patriardial pastors of the western world, who entertain no
such proud or selftsh feelings, or worldly considerations for rich garments or rich
chattels of any kind) being divided among the surviving priests, that his agitation
was painfyilly obvious to his old associsEtes, who, with the feeling coitimon to their
order towards sentient animals, applied to Gautama to knc^w whut to do. The! ddlCy
desired them to >v^ seven days (the tcbrm of a loused' fife,) hi -Which time the
miserable insect would be emancipated in some tray from' his then unhappy state.
A louse's mental agony is, however, biit as the bite of one to some' of the infernal
punishments of the Buddha's Tartarus. Assura Nat are thehr Mihlos and Rlmda-
manthus, and, as it may be iniagined, are not very tender In awarding toi ^eir op-
ponents their full share of any tortures whlieh their misdeeds may hav<e called for.
One of these is, that a man as big as three mounftams, and Vho is. always in a
hungry state, is tantalized by having a moutfi no longer tham the cfye ($f the finest
needle. The punishments Attributed to the hells of liie Buddhas asslridlacte very
nearly to those ascribed to the Tartari of the Hhidus.

The destruction op the wokld will, it is imagined; tak'e place Ih'^ih&'foK^.
ing manner. A great rain will, at a future time fsll, in torrents ; aftd* whid^inlt
a drop will descend from the heavens for a hundred thousaiid years, hi t6is period:
plants, animals, and every living thing vritl perish, the sun and 13ie moon will dis-
appear, and, in their stead, two false suns will ib-ise: The one 'iHlt ^cceed tlie
other, rising when it sets. There will then be no nighi. Th6 heat MiriSL he intense^
and small bodies of water dried up. A third sun wfH alrise and dry up^^e'lsig^
rivers; a fourth, and fifth will come and dryu^ the flifi'erent'seas; a sixth wiU
rend asunder the 1,010,000 earths, from whose rents will he emitti^ smoke and
flames. By the seventh sun the heavenly mountain Mietitho, and all its cel^rtia!
inhabitants, will be consumed. The destroying fire, haViii^ then nothing more to
feed it, will expire of its own accord.

Future State. — The Buddhas allege that every thiiig iixists froih oatohi
causes ; that virtue brings its own reward, and vice its own phnishment ; and
that the state of man is probationary. If he be virtuous, he will afW death,
ascend to one of the lower heavens, but will be born again matk'y times : and as he
may each time continue vhtuous, or accordhng'to the extent of his virtue, he will
progressively ascend in the scale of celestial bliss, till he may finally reacli the
highest heaven, and obtain Nivani or absorption, not as the Hindus believe, into a
supreme being, which would not be in accordance with the doctrines of the Budd-

PB1B8THOOD OF THE BUDDHISTS — RiT£S, &C. 537

has, but a kind of cessation of animal suffering, and exemption from farther trans-
migration. [In fact nothingnest.']

If he have been wicked, be will, in like manner, descend into the different hells,
and will exist again in the forms of different animals, according to the nature and
extent of his sins ; but the duration of his punishment is not eternal, and is still
supposed to depend upon hunself. He may thus, according to his conduct in the
various forms he may exist in, be again elevated to the probationary condition of
man ; and, although his crimes may have once degenerated him into a lion, or, as
just noticed, into a louse, a monkey, a mammoth, or a maggot, he will still, on
attaining, the state of man, be in a condition to look forward, by the practice of
virtue, to obtain at a future period the blissful reward of Nivani. [Or NotfUngnets /]
If, however, he continue to be wicked in this degraded and degenerate state, he
will descend still lower and become a devil, than which nothing can be imagined
more base or miserable.

Gaudama has enjoined, as a necessary qualification to obtain Nivani or abtorp*
lian^ the performance of dwa, or the bestowing of alms ; and of bttvana, which
consists in pronouncing three words : aneizzOf doccha, and anatta. The first is to
shew that he recollects that life is subject to vicissitudes ; the second, that man is
thereby liable to misfortune ; and the third, that exemption from either does not
depend upon himself.

Pnisax^oos, — ^The Buddhas do not, like the Brahmins, respect fire ; and the
rafums (or priests), never kindle one, lest they should thereby destroy the life of an
animal.* They consequently do not cook any food; though they eat that which
has possessed life, provided it be ready dressed ; such, at least, appears to be the
case' in J^ya, but in some places it is said to be different. They commonly subsist
on provisions given as alms ; to collect which they issue every morning from their
converts, as early as it is su^&dently light for them to distinguish the veins on their
hands. They, do not beg* but they stop before every house in a street. If food be
given to them, they put it into their ao^ei^ or baskets, and pass on without return-
ing thanks : if none be given, they go on to the next house in silence. They are
clothed in a laige yellow mantle, folded becomingly rouild them, passing over the
left shoulder and leavii^ the right shQulder and breast uncovered. They shave
their heads and beards, and go barefooted: are usually clean, but do not wear any
ornaments. On receiving the sacerdotal rank, they are enjoined to live in houses
built under trees in the woods: but these injunctions are qualified, so that they
usually reside in convents or colleges, which in Ava are described as the best habi*
tatiqns 4n the empirei built in the most agreeable situations.

They are well-conducted, kind and hospitable to strangersi and are the best in-
formed men in the Burman empire* Each college has a head, called $ara or
teacher ; of which, according to the size of the colleges, or the estimation in which
they are held, there are degrees. The head of the colleges is the zamdo or royal
abbot. Towards the whole of them the utmost respect and attention are shewn.
They are the gratuitous instructors of youth, which ia considered as a work of
merit.

* A Buddhist priest on being shewn the animalculae in a glass of water, rather
than continue to live even on water, is said to have voluntarily starved himself.

538 EXECUTIVE 60TERNMENT OF CEYLON, AND

Daring their priesthood they must remain in a state of celibacy, and obaenre
other strict regulations ; but may, at any time leave theu: convent and many,
which is frequently done.

The Buddhists do not, strictly speaking, believe in a Supreme Being ; the Jains,
however, (one of the sects of Boodh) do, and also admit-of castes, which the for-
mer deny ; yet the Jains assert that the Supreme Being has no power over the
universe. The dead are generally burned as among the Hindoos, where the Ganges
IS not contiguous.

CIVIL GOVERNMENT OF CEYLON.

The legislative administration of the island is confided to the
govemoiy aided by a council composed from among the
oldest and most distinguished European civil servants^ ap-
pointed by the governor or sometimes by the Secretary of
State for the Colonies in England, and comprising six unof-
ficial members selected from the chief landed proprietors, or
principal merchants : it is provided that printed copies of pro-
posed ordinances be sent to the members ten days before the
summoning of the council, and the regulations or laws of the
government are published in the Official Gazette some time
before their enactment, in order to elicit public discussion;
when passed into law they take immediate effect in the mari-
time districts on their publication, and in the Kandyan db-
tricts by the governor's proclamation, subject in both to the
final approval of the king in council. There is a special board
for the administration of the affairs of the Kandyan Provinces,
whom the governor is in the habit of consulting previous to
his extension of an enactment there, which may have been
ordained for the lower or maritime provinces. In the maritiiiie
provinces the governor is restricted from authorising contin-
gent disbursements exceeding 75/., without the concurrence of
the council ; but in the Kandyan provinces he orders expendi-
ture on his own control. In his executive capacity the gOTemor
refers, or not to the council, as he wills, but his proceedings are
recorded in the secretary for government's office or in the de-
partment charged with the execution of the measure. The
regulations of the government are published with the transla-

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF PERSONS EMPLOYED THEREIN. 539

tionsy in the native languages^ (Cingalese and Malabar), and
widely disseminated.

Three classes of persons are employed in carrying on the
business of government : first, the civil servants, who are sent
out as * writers* from England, under the patronage of the
Secretary of State for the Colonies ; there are twenty-five
principal appointments in the island to which these gentlemen
are alone eligible, the seniors being exclusively employed as
heads of departments, in the revenue, as government agents,
chief secretary, paymaster, or auditor-general, &c« &c. : as
collectors of districts and provincial judges and magistrates.
The juniors as assistants to the collectors or magistrates, and
in the chief secretary's department. On its present footing
the effective civil service consists of thirty-eight members ; an
acquirement of one or both of the native languages is indis-
pensable previous to the holding of a responsible situation.
The second class is formed of Europeans {not of the civil
service), or their descendants, from among whom are ap-
pointed provincial magistrates, (of which rank there are six-
teen), and clerks in public offices. The third class comprises
the natives, who hold the situations of modeliars (or Lieuts.)
or korles (or districts), interpreters to the courts of justice,
and to the collectors' offices or cutcheries. The modeliars
are still recognized according to ancient custom as com-
manders of the lascoreigns or district militia, although at pre-
sent chiefly employed in the civil administration of the country,
and in the execution of public works. There are, of course,
gradations of native officers in authority under them ; the as-
sistants of all natives are still regulated in a great degree by
caste. Independent of the numerous government * headmen'
and the titular ' headmen' who receive no emoluments, there
are, in conformity to ancient usage, headmen appointed to
each caste or class, some of whom receive certain perquisites
as the head of fishermen do of the fish caught, &c. Since 18^
no ' headmen' have been appointed who could not read and
write the English language, and the headmen form a valuable
connecting link in the social fabric, as well as an intelligent

540 PATRONAGE OF GOVERNMENT — JUDICIAL ESTABLISHMENTS.

and respctable body of individuals^ from among whom the go«
vernment can select officers for the more immediate service of
the state. The number of principal headmen in (he Cingalese
districts amount to 243. In the Malabar to IIS^ ahd iii the
Kandyan to 47 ; these numbers do not include tHe headm^
of villages^ who are more numerous. ' '' '

The fourth class consists of officers selected 'frotn the re-
giments serving in Ceylon, for the fulfilment of th6 p6st of
government agents or sitting magistrates iri the' Ks^dfyan
Provinces, the duties of which are performed efficiently axid
creditably upon small salaries in addition to thefrmiirtur^ Al-
lowances. ' ' *'' '^

Patronage. — ^AU appointments to the higher bffic^k'kr^
provisionally made by the governor,' whb' selects 'liUmidHdiirtes
from the civil service according to ihefr' seniority, %hetfi'dt!faer-
wise qualified, subject, however, to th^ cohfirhiati6h"tff ihe
Secretary of State in England. * ' ' '

The magistrates and clerks are also appoiriield by 'the
government; the modeliars and principal headm^ii^ hold their
appointments under His Excellency's Warrant, being f com-
mended by the Commissioner of Revenue, the pifoviA'cialliead-
men being recommended by the Collectors 6f Districts In
the Kandyan Provinces appointments are similab^tyniicd^^by
the Governor, on the recommendation of the Boaird"^ of
Commissioners (to whom the more immediate inandj^etaietifc of
those Provinces is committed) including the chleib di* priii-
cipal headmen of provinces or departments, ' the 'chiefs of
temples, and the priests in the colleges or mharei. ' £)' 4l!ie
Northern or Malabar provinces^ the headmen of viilageif or
castes are commonly appointed on the tioniinatioii' 6f^tli^ in-
habitants, a deputation of villagers making' a return to^tbe
magistrate of the candidate approved of by^tSieni. ^ '

JUDICIAL.

Justice is administered first by a supreaie coiirty with.pDwers
equivalent to the Court of King's Bench, and in eqintdble

TRIAL BY JURV. — NEW COURTS. 541

jurisdiction to the High Court of Cliancery ; it is presided
over by three judges,* appointed from England, aided by a
Ki^g*s Advocate (whose functions are similar to the Lord
Advocate of Scotland^} Master in Equity and Registrar, also
appointed from home : and thanks to the enlightened patriot-
ism of Sir Alexander Johnson, trial by jury, (with reference
to Europeans or natives), is established under its supremacy.

The island has been recently divided into five provinces^ the
N., S.,£., W. and central, each of which are again subdivided
into district^.

Within each district, there is one court, called the District
Court, holden before one judge, and three assessors ; the
district, judge is appointed by the crown and removable at
pleasure ; ^he assessors are selected from amongst the inha-
bitants of the island, whether natives or otherwise, twenty-
one years of age, possessing certain qualifications. The
right pf appointing, in each district court, one person to act
as, permanent assessor, is reserved to the crown. The oflicers
of the district courts are appointed in like manner as those
of the SupreiAe Court.

. The Supreme Courtis held ^t Colombo (except on circuit),
and the district courts at a convenient specified place in each
district.

Each district .court is a court of civil and criminal juris-
diction, afid has cognizance of and full power to hear and
determine civil suits^ in which the defendant is resident, or in
whiq]^ the subject of action shall have occurred, within the
district (where the judge is a party, the court adjoining takes
cognizance of tbe cause) ; and to try all ofFences, short of
such as are punishable with death, transportation or banish-
ment, imprisonment for more than a year, whipping exceeding
one hundred lashes, a fine exceeding lOf, which shall have
been committed within the district.

Each district court has the care and custody of the persons

* The <ib!ef and twa fmisn^ judges hold office daring the pleasure of the
crown» aid may be soipeoded upon proof of incapacity or misconduct by
the governor and coancil.

S4& DISTRICTS, AND SUPREME COURTS OF JUDICATURE

and estates of idiots and lunatics resident within the district,
with power to appoint guardians and curators ; and power to
appoint administrators of intestates' efiects within the dis-
trict, and to determine the validity of wills and to record and
grant probate thereof, and to take securities from executors
and administrators, and to require accounts of such persons.

Offences against the revenue laws are cognizable before the
district courts (saving the rights of the Vice Admiralty
Courts), limited as in respect to criminal prosecutions.

The judgements and interlocutory and other orders of the
district courts, are pronounced in open court, the judge
stating, in the hearing of the assessors, the questions of law
and fact, with the grounds and reasons of his opinion ; and
the assessors declare, in open court, their respective opinions
and votes on each and every question of law or fact : in case
of a difference of opinion between the judge and the majority
of the assessors, the opinion of the judge prevails and is taken
as the sentence of the whole court, a record being made and
preserved of the vote of each.

The Supreme Court is a court of sole appellaite jurisdiction
for the district courts, with original criminal jurisdiction
throughout the island : civil and criminal sessions of the su-
preme court are held by one of the judges in each circuit,
twice in each year : all the judges are required to be never
absent at the same time from Colombo, and also to be resi-
dent at the same time at Colombo, not less than one month,
twice in each year.

At every civil sessions of the supreme court, on circuit,
three assessors are associated wiUi the judge; and every
criminal sessions is held before the judge and a jinry of tbk^
teen men. In aU civil suits, the judge and assessors ddiver
their opinions and votes as in the district courts ; in appeals
from the district courts, in criminal prosecutimis, the appeal
has not the effidct of staying the execution of die sentence,
unless the judge of the district court see fit. AU questicms of
fact, upon which issue shall be joined at any criminal sessions
of the supreme court, on circuit, are decided by the jury, or

IN CEYLON ; POWERS OF SUPREME COURT. 543

major part of them ; questions of law are decided by the
judge in open court, with the grounds and reasons thereo£

Where a person is adjudged to die by the supreme court,
at a criminal sessions, execution is respited till the case be
reported by the presiding judge to the governor*

Judges on drouit bedding criminal sessions, are required to
direct all fiscals and keepers of prisons, within the circuit, to
certify the persons committed and their offences, who may be
required to be brought before the judge.

The judges of the supreme court, on circuit, examine the
records of the district courts, and if it shall appear that con*
tradictory or inconsistent dedoons have been given by the
same or different district courts, the judges report the same
to the suiNreme court at C!olombo, who prepare the drafik of
a declaratory law upon the subject, and transmit it to the
governor, who submits such draft to the legislative council.
The supreme court also make rules and orders for the re*
moval of doubts.

The supreme court, or any judge of the same, at sessions
or on circuit, may grant or refuse writs of habeas corpus and
iigunctions; it may require district courts to transmit to
Colombo the records in any case appealed, and may hear and
decide appeals, in a summary way, without argument, and
may frame and establish rules and orders of the court, not
repugnant to the charter, which promote the discovery of
truth, economy, and expedition in business, to be drawn up
in plain and succinct terms, avoiding unnecessary repetitions
and obscurity.

Appeals are allowed to the King in Council, subject to the
following rules and limitations: — 1. The appeal must be
brou^t, by way of review, before the judges of the supreme
court collectively, holding a general sessions at Colombo, at
which all the jud|;es shall be present. 2. The matter in dis-
pute must exceed . the vahie of 500/. 3. Leave to appeal
must be applied for within 14 days. 4. If the appellant be
the parly against whom sentence is jpiven, the sentence shaU
be carried into execution, if the respondent shaU give secu-

544 APPEA.L8 TO KINO IN GOUNCt]4--^eOLlCE.

rity for the immediate performance of any sentencenfW^-
nounced by the Privy Couneil ; until which Abe Beotenee up-
pealed from shall be stayed. 5» If the appellant shall, show
that real justice requires the stay of e.j:aoutio% pfudjng JSb^
appeal, the supreme court may stay exeoutioni on secmity,
as before. 6» In all cases, the appellant shall give ^ecuiily
to prosecute the appeal, and for costs. . 7. '^he.cDiii^ 9^
pealed from shall determine the nature of .the sefsmpti^fu &
Where the subject of litigation is immoveable .propwlju and
the judgement appealed from shall not aSect the occupamyi
security is not to be required ; but if the judgemettt do^nffest
the occupancy, then the security shall not be of greHter
amount than to restore the property, ai^l the ii^jtermediat^
}tfofit accruing from the occupancy, pending the.iappeaL
9. Where the subject of litigation consists of dbattelihOil per*
sonal property, the security shall, in all cases, be a bond. -to
the amount, or mortgage* 10. The security, for proseawtipn
of appeal and for costs, shall in no case exceed ^SQO/. Ih
The security must be completed within three months fimn
the date of the petition of leave to appeal. IfL Any person
feeling aggrieved by any order respeeting security or apfieait
may petition the Privy CounciL . .

The same laws are administered in the District Covota as
in the Supreme Court, — ^namely the Dutch, (or Roman laar
with certain exceptions.) ... 7 ' .

A prisoner can only be tried in the supoeme..ooi»^ iqMS
the prosecution of the king's advocate, he has. the- right- isf
challenge to the jury before whom he is to be arcaigned».he
is entitled on his trial to the assistance of an eminent prodor
or barrister, paid by the- gavermmemi (an. adaurable proraMi)
and the witnesses on both sides, in crhninaL cases* before ths
supreme court, are also paid by the government

Police. —Crimes, except in some of the maritime proviMes
where the drinking of arrack leads ta every speciee ef nvsoe,
are in general rare, and the Singalese bei^g in tf|lt««9gregate
a quiet, docile people, petty litigation (owing to the eii^tended
division of property) usurps the place of passion and its

HTLITARY POnCB OF CETLOK. 545

attendant - resultB. Owing to the peculiar constitution of
the Tillage comniunitiesi each of which has its ** Headman"
and subordinate officers^ and peons or constables ; the com-
mission of an offence is speedfly followed by detection;
among the principal ofiences are ear and nose ofitting and
the imitilation of the limbs^ fbr the purpose of carrying off
the gold and precious stones with which women and children
are adomed : violent murdera are more rare than poisonings,
the latter mode of rerenge being more suited to a timid
people* In Ae Kandj^an provinces crime is very unfrequent^
and the village police excellent.

Military. — The regular armed force maintained in the
idarid consists at present of four King^s regiments of infantry
(the head^^uarters of which are stationed at Colombo^ Kandy
and:Trincoiimlee)^ two companies of the Royal Foot Artillery,
a mounted b^dy^^uard for the Governor, and the 1st Ceyloii
regimeiit, ' composed principally of Malays, nearly !S,000
strong, and one of the finest regiments in His Majesty's ser-
vice. I have never seen any native troops on the continent
of India to e^ual the 1st Ceylon Kght infantry, either in
apfworanee oir manoeuvring, and their conduct during the
Kandyan war proved them to be inferior to no light infantry
in the world. Their dress is dark green, and their arms ji
compact rifle, with a short strong sword attachable instead
of a bayonet. They are native officered, aa in the E. I. C.'s
sepoy re^ments, with European officers to each of the 16
companies, and their fideMty to their leaders has been evinced
in every possible manner whenever an opportunity presented
itself. I have seen many regfanents of diffi^rent nations
under 'arms, but none ever oflfered* to my view such a striking
roup iTcril as H. M.'s Ist Ceylon rifle regiment.

The general as well as military reader will be gratified
by the following account of military allowances, expenses,
amnasments, and annoyances, as detailed in a letter from
Ceyktti dated July, )83S :—

'The btmcks in Colombo fort u-e small detached ones, not holding more than
a company, buflt bj the Dutch so immediately under the ramparts as to exclude

VOL. I. N N

646 MILITARY ALLOWANCES, EXPEKCSS, AMVSEMENTS, &C.

the breeze wliich is so necetiary ia tfaii^mnte. The moitsUty ocG^skmedlMt
year by the cholera has attracted the altention of govemmeot to the aocommoda-
tion of the troops, and measures are now in progress that will add considerably to
their comforts. The hospital Is not good, the wards are not sufficient to allow a
classification of the diseases, and there is not a proper place lor eon^aleMaeBts.
The offleos hire booses in the ftxrt ; they seldom contain, more than four V9a$nM,
with accommodation for servants. Bath and stabling, and very good quazters,
may be got for 21. 5s. per month, in some situations for 1/. 10#.; in the prindpal
street, where the houses are very superior, 3/. 15«. to 61. is paid. Officers find
their own furniture, but that is of little importance where all the articles for com-
fort or luxury are to be bought on terms that would astonish a London ^np-
holsterer. Six arm-chairs» with rattanned seats, cost about 21. 5t. ; a pifr of
couches, 21 i titles, varying from lOs. upwards, but a good one to dine four,,may
be purchased for that price ; they are all made of jack wood, which is handsome,
and takes a high polish. No European servants are allowed, two natiyes are Staffi-
cient for a bachelor, — a head servant at 1/. a month, a boy at 9s. ; if you keep a
horse, a servant to attend him, and accompany his master on foot when he goes
out, will cost 15#. a month. They support and clothe themselves. To meet these
extra expenses the island allowance monthly is, for a Heutenant-colond, 39<. ; a
major, 23/.; a captain 13/. 16«. ; a lieutenant, 8/. 5«. an ensign, 6/.; a sorgeon,
17/.; assistant-surgeon, iO/. ; quarter-master and ac^utant, 10/.; 5/. exta is al-
lowed for the commandants of corps. This is to cover all expenses of house rent,
servants, fuel, candles, and marching money. The allowance of the subs should
be 10/., to enable them to meet the extra expenses they are put to by those who
are paid more liberally. Messing is sbout 2t. a day, bat 6^. more may be added
for contingent expenses. The dinners, particulady in Cokmibo, are good r— every
variety of poultry, excellent fish, venison and game, are to be bought reasonabie.
Madeira and light French claret are the usual wines, and are drunk at 3«. a bottle.
Sherry is getting much in vogue, but many of the messes on stranger-days sport
champagne, hock, and Carbonnel's or Sneyd's best claret, to the great detriment of
the finances of the junior members. The duty in Colombo is a snbattem'a gnanL
The captains assist the fidd officers in doing the garrison duty. There is a garri-
son field-day every Monday morning, and regimental parades once a day. The
society of Colombo is composed of the families of the military and the gentlemen
holding the civil situations under Government. It ia sociable and agreeable ; there
are numerous private parties, and a public ball onoe a, month ; the messes ft«-
quently invite their friends to evening parties. The style of living is good, and
combines more both of comfort and luxury than is uiually found in the same
of society in Europe.

' There is a subscription libnry. supplied with a large asiOTtment of
and every publication of interest, and standard works. Each regiment (Colombo is
the head-quarters of two European regiments) has its own billiard^tahle ; it ia very
rare indeed to hear of high play at them : they are a source of amusement in a
place where the heat will not admit of exposure during the day, and, as it Is unat-
tended with expense, has not been productire of evil conseqnemie.'

Revenue. — ^The gross aggregate reVdhue* of Cr^tnt has

REVRNUE OF CEYLON FOR 1832.

547

for some years averaged somewhat more tban SSOfiOOL per
annum, but from the great expenses attending the realization
of some of the principal branches of revenue, and from the
changes which are now taking place (the cinnamon monopoly,
fbr instance, being abolished) it is difficult to state the net or
even precise revenue of the last year, it may be averaged,
however At Jive MUings a head per annum.

THE FOLLOWING ITKMS FORMED THE REVENUE OP CETLON FOR 1832.

l4Uid Rente

CiDnamon .

Sah

Pearl Fishing

Fish Rente

Licences

Sea Customs

Land ditto

Lands and Houses

Steam Engine

Starajfs

Judicial Receipta

Fines and Forfeitures

Commutation Tax

21,300 Premium on Bills . 3,976

147,549 Post Offices . . 1,549

24,653 Stud of Horses' Sale 508

3,887 Auction Duty 216

6,986 Interest of various Monies 2,740

29,179 Tribute from Wedderate . 104

65,176 Sale of Government Gazette 437

4,176 Sundries ... - 1,000

195 Receipte in aid of Revenue 25,234

1 , 127 Arrears of Revenue in for-

2,729 mer years 12,346

10,461 Making an aggregate income of

979 £ 370,000.
3,008

The land assessment is trifling as regards the receipts of
treasury, and collected under a bad system, namely, in kind,
and from speculators who farm it out from the Government.
The grain, when collected by Government, is stored for the
use of the troops and for sale ; every attempt at a permanent
settlement on the land has hitherto failed, and owing to the
quantity of waste land, and that held only by service tenure,
the difficulties in the way of such a desirable measure have
hitherto been found impracticable.

Li the land-rents are included the duties levied on cocoa-
nut trees, and it affords a singular view of the importance of
that palm to the people, when we find that while the tax ori
rice-lands does not yield a larger revenue than 21,000/., the
revenue derived from the cocoa-nut tree amounts to SSySTS/.*

* Schedule of duties levied on cocoa-nut plantations : —

Distilling of arrack je3,644 Exports of jaghery . £\^2.

Retail of ditto 24,975 Ditto of copperas 1,639.

Export of ditto . . 3,136 Ditto of cocoa nuts 1,551.

Ditto of coira or rope • 153 Dilto of eocoa-not oil . 413.

648 DIPI\BIl£ifT JbEYBtiV£DV71£ik.io» ut- ^i

The revenue on eitmanon k w Ibitunrfio^beifoUuiled^iulhft-)
export, instead of aBih^retofoire enA'moiiQpolir off dierrakJtl''
The Jisk rent9 are raised by a. duty (g»ereUyto£ teft-tebtk^ri
on all fish caught'; tbciiann of eachiiiUtioniitf anni»d|lgE.:09ldiii
The duty as levied iBeKe^diflglylvoiiatitans/.aDdltilrjtkmUii
indeed be desirable to raise an- equal lamauMiofvevenudiby^
some less obgaetioQable vb^axiB^ fat inistaiice^ )^/a system oF
licenses for boats or fishers^ or, if possible^ to'doiattmy miA'*
so heavy a tax on the subsistence of <die>peop1b. TIie)]^i>
venue from the pearl fishery in the. Gtilf of 'ManaMs ia> ex-
tremely precarious ; the ^Vei'age amount, of reveauefibritlw
last 82 yean is 14,€62& per annum. Thd fishery joflSBdi
realized a profit to the Government of 89,0O(Mi 71 vbafi'thsi/
speculators who farmed it fi^mtbeXjnaveniittfeBtlsiiBfcaiacd a
lossi the produce ^f the oysters ]9eing extremely^Vlu[^to^)ae?
cording to the season* Cbanks/oc sett-shefls^ ifhiksh die.BliiM
doos use as bangles^ or omamenls, fori. die tvrriiits^aiidiaMlefi^*
are also monopolised by the Gotetnttcbit^ laodii&ilBediiottt'/
often to the> pearljfishery farmet s^ is (thetdmss teithelatiBfc^
answer for the former; in ISI69 the chaA ifistteny /prodnceJl
6,70Q/.| ithas^.now.daclined to>i32/. luarianliiHnotiXhei^bsso
revenue, denived .fbem theisidefof'sak iatgV^78i2j'^eb:aB»»l^
the profit of ' tine GoTtemment (finr whom >saliiis.nKad0ipaidy(i
by voluntary » partly r])y.oompulsory'kbi]iH'^<and inabiB^ easys
by debtors, who hate etddiheir ietrvice^fimU^ tOitbeioamcrsii
of the salt pans>' in> ctesideiretioit- of %& otuSQms^.iAii&axf^-i
\h I7s.6d. or 2li 5«wl) on the sale of aalt/vaiiesi in^the>]dift<]
fereut £stricts fcom 800 to 1,000 p^r oent. on^th^ eoaist«ndn
collecting it ; the amouDtofi cetttingent^ekfens^ancurralicsbi
account: o£ it eseeeds. iifiODL :per' annum^ imA with^^die edtai»^ >
men! «cons(fcitutei a- charge >ctf 1 20 ^or 35 per - jeeoftu iqn ' the igcosfr t

* The notice for abolUhing ^e cinnamon monopoly is j^venin the ^evloii
GoTcmment Gazette, 9th March, 1833 ; after lOth July, the ifenfeAi eii-'
port of ctoaaoD was pemriH^ frbm' the porbr of CMombor'snd-Gidlle^Us''
payment of. w doty ef 8i, per.l); «n erery ssrt wltheiit< distMH^i. Atf
reatrictiona ag^iost the cnltivatioav aale^ or poaaeition ^t.tmmB^ bfT t^
vate individuals of course has ceased. »....„ 1.. w

I ' ■ I • •ill' 'II III ••

HARBOUA JAKZ^BXI^RT dVTffiS TOO HIGH. 549

revtaae. ' ^ Colboel Col^brook^s veport on tbe salt monopoly
B^te9$9it^to be most iDJurious in. its operation on the moraUt
hedlthy'ttwA dointeir»''of die people ; it isio be hoped that
hii^SoBggbdtion fbrredociDg: thb' monopoly price, pemnttang
thi^fdriletttibn-of 'sak by^thepeo^ for exportatioB^ and also
foF^hercuringiaiidipresetvatton of fish, will-be attended - to«
No lecadse aysflem^eoiM be pesaiUy more destructive to a
colinAryftban the mode- in which the sate rerenae is coHected
in'Seyldn. Want of ^paoe forbids rae here entering on it
—&?a^^eaj^itim«, it win be perceived^ form, next to cninamoa,
tWilapgestttems of reTeniie;-*-63,667/« per annum, of which
iAiWDli ave levied on goods imported, and 20,486i. are j)ro*
dodedv ctxportikd, or canned coastwise. Of the ewpart duties
of. the year" 16001, amounting to £1,021/., there was levied on.
arvackiS^Sd^/j'yandon other prodacttons of the eocoa<-nut tree
SfilSt. on tbbaeco 11,1921., and on areka nuts 5,456/. Of the
119991*1^ diities of the same year, amounting to 44*,6I5/., there
wBs le/vscd* <an gvain 17,013/., and on cotton cloth 17,146/.,
bekig>> together mere than three^fourths of the whole amount. .
IBiC'duty on> Briti&li ^ottone is 5 per cent* ad valorem, att<}
oB> India cottons by taridBT from 8 to 05 per cent. The pro*
grcassve abolition of the export duties would materially im-
poAve^he agricuUure and commerce of this island.

-The hourboar duties levied in the principal ports are chiefly
derinred frcim<&es on pcnrt clearances, &c. Imt the charges on
shipping^^as/well* as on goods exported, is too high if* the
prtoSpeiSityiof the island be desired. The stamp duties are
otoiof die lalrgest inranclies of inteitial revenue. The eol«
leetioti of stamps tmd f^s in the provincial and magiatrates'
CeUDts* amount^ to 8,155/. per annum, and the stamps sold
foP'gancaral puiqposes to 3,198. There ia an auction- duty of
S per cent, on moveable property, which yields but 282L per
annum ; on the sale of immoveable property there is a stamp
d^ty.pf Si.per cent. The. judicial fines and fbrfiutures pro^
dace lv388^.(and. .the toll on bridges^ canals, and ferries
4r,ik4ij ffftwfmam. ' The stamps oti petitions to the Govern-
ment should certainly be repealed.

550 EXFENDITtJRE Of CEYLON,

The capitation tax of U. 6d. per head, though ceased to
be leyied in the Cingalese districts, owing to its gteat napo^
pularity, is still levied in the Malabar districts as a convmita-
tion for other personal taxes formerly lened — ^rils. a tax on
toddy drawers, a tax for post carriers, a tax on the wearing of
jewels, and other native ornaments, which in the year 1800,
were generally imposed throughout the country. The annual
revenue on spirits is, for distilling arrack 3,645/., and for
retail sale of ditto 24,975/. The revenue derived for licensing
gambling-houses (446/.) will, it is to be hoped, be abolished,
as also the licenses for honorary ceremonies of the natives,
tending as they do to perpetuate caste (319/), the privilege
of collecting precious stones (revenue 73/*}, and of gleaning
pearls from the sands after a pearl fishery (revenue 40/.), are
too trifling and too contemptible to need comment. The
nominal revenue derived from the sale of horses bred by
government, Delf Island (768/.) per annum, is unworthy consi-
deration, as the cost of their production is upwards of 1,000^
a year. The amount realised by government by the sale of
elephants has not lately exceeded 61/. per annum, and the
amount produced by the sale of tusks, is 37/. per annum.
The Wedderati tribute of 78/. per annum, is derived from an
annual tribute of wax, &c. from the * Weddahs' or ' Beddas'
wild tribes, inhabiting the forests of the interior. The pre-
mium upon bills drawn by the Colonial Government upon its
agent in London amounting to 4,800/. a year is included bi
the colonial receipts, though it can scarcely be considered a
source of revenue. As the whole of the revenue system of
Ceylon is now under the consideration and modification of
the government, it would be unnecessary to particularize
further.

Expenditure. — ^From the time of our acquisition of fbis
island, its revenue has been inadequate to meet the expeadi*
ture, whether wisely or unnecessarily incurred. Certainly
much of the expenditure arose from causes which now oeaae
to oi)erate — namely, internal war with the Kandyans, and, in
consequences of hostilities in Europe or British India : even

NET REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CEY|X3lN FOR 14 YEARS. S5l

ftti ihi^ moukHkt, a lafger military force is kept up at Ceylon
than is required for the mere protection of the island, in con<-
^9^ffff9fi» of its bekig.the Makaor Gik^altar of our eastern
possep^ipn»« Xbe following abstract was laid before the
tuaw^ conwittee of parliament in 1828.

Net Revenue and Expenditure of Ceylon for Fourteen Years.

T««rs.

1611

1812

1814
J8U
1816

W17

Net

Espendl*

BeTenne.

tore.

30U7S8

411«94g

271,310

870,301

a20.8M

491,776

892.416

409.369

S76.7W

(11,434

d44,84«

450,502

340,020

416,491

a,237,813

3,061»122

Ekcnsof

V^ATS

Net

Expendi-

Expenditnre.

Rcyenne.

ture.

100,491

1818

859,595

454,496

99.091

I8I9

848,375

478,940

170,070

1820

404,123

476,054

36,953

1821

370,497

410,196

134,677

1822

313.142

369,038

105,656

1823

286,862

404,480

76,471

1824

297,945

393,548

750.409

2,374,539

2,986,682

Excess of

Expenditare.

94.901
136.565
71.981
39,629
55,896
117.618
95,603

613,143

We perceive from the foregoing, that notwithstanding the
heavy expenses incurred by the Kandyan war, and the neces-
sity for occupying a large extent of the interiori which, for
several years could not be expected to meet the charges re-
quisite for its maintenance and peace ; yet the excess of ex-
penditare in the latter years had considerably diminished ;
but a more agreeable prospect of the finances of the colony
is presented to us in the Ceylon Almanac for 1831, which
gives die revenue and expenditure from 1821 to 1832,
thus —

•

. 1

■

•1

«
9

ExCCMSOf

Expenditure

•mm

1
3

S a

Mil

459.699

481,854

• •

22,156

1827

264,785

411,648

m %

146.913

1882

478.669

458,346

15,328

• m

1828

305.712

839,516

• •

38,894

Ittt

855,406

476,242

* ■ t

190,886

' 1829

889.584

344,757

44,777

• •

I8S4

887,259

441,592

• •

54,333

1830

408 .475

847,029

56,446

• •

IMS

'3U,320

49I.K9

• ■

140.209

1881

490,170

356,565

73,605

1820

278,358

394,229

■ •

115,879

1832
! Total

869.437

338,100

81,337

•«

Total

2,209.711

2,-47,792

15,328

453,412

2,153,113

2,187,615

206,165

185,807

552 . nEmof.'^xiff»9f^fyn».i mh h

•— ' 1 if,' '♦ ,!• -i ^ -n'M- if*/fU \h^BL bnfi nis

ordinary, 26,604/. ; cx^oi^iuvy^ 9f l^W- ..Rwre^iMUt. WttwWt .^feKHjl
extraordiDary, 32,2/0/. Miscellaneous, 1,582.— Tot(^.^v|^ j^^^yy^fiii^
Judidal, 186,696/. ; (exclusive of arrears of past years.) ..

^Utary EapendUure, — ^Pay and Allovvances to' European ana*Dati?e
troops, 4£r,959fc Do.Sftifr, »,M^i'; DbVElr^J^i^ a^^kHiB^tiftinlft,^;
Extra for Contingent Charges, 6,672/. •'>j < I* >^<1

Commifitfrfo/. *« Provtaions, 25^2£i5/.; Barracks, 1,290/^^, Epn^f^f^
3,736/.; Contingencies, 5,778— Total Conomissariat, 36,069. ,j,ot.nifii/

The charges for the 1 at Ceylon Li^ht Infantry ( 1600. rank ji^dj^^
1823 strong) as voted in the army estima,tes for 1835^^^ are;^pav^i^^on|^
allowances, 33,974/. ; annual allowances to oMcers, &c. .^^24/.^ ^^othmg^ ^
1,600/. ; — ^total, 36,098/. There is also a charge .fur t^ Ceylon mvalidi
(the remnant of disbanded corps, rank and file 153, and 165 strong) of
I,969/< Tba ^tMchmgth in . tho^Afsiy dttiimibH^/iw thesafne feu^mnSa
the head of Ceylo;^ arcrrifffit*^/ »^, ^^37/,d,/Mf*!p«^fii9^A^nTff9rti

3,704/. There is no garrison charge. The Ordnance estimates for !J^g§^;

give the following for Ceylon : — Ordinary 2,268/. ; Eatraardmary, ^614.

Fixed EstabHsbident in Ceylon, 4, 196/. ; Contit!g«ttt Ekjyens^^Sfl;t7A.

InsoraBioe, 2,969/. ; Lohddn Charges, 10,776t ; FMf^ Vb^yoM^tAM^^' '
Total; 42;300/L • - •. j •»•«.. v- * ..}',-,ni»(K> vftuljirpovl bn»

Total Mificary Ex^eodkut^, ¥»JWt.^*^€M aNr»«t<o;964,«tel. ''''^
To the fbregolof is to b« added thfe Ajyflnt^y>ibEp€qiei^ln^>Blfi |IIM i }f >
27»765/.| MUitary Antarsof fomier'yekirft; 5,^/ ^^-iflMkiiilg^ Iftl^^oW
of for 1832, 328,860/. *' " ' *m n^m .m.^» . ^^k*- •

A return to the House of Cpmmbnsi Akted* ^wi/XtLnL,
1833, gives upder. Ceylow (in, th^j Aifflfty C9^fliHjrt„4^^5jiS^
ment^ — Ordinary^ 78,602/..; JS4r^ra»rc/e9|(|^^/1^1^.7i()0fiaU(!
96,660^., with anaadition of IfiO^ Hoolofiwl featidifoliiKiiti$/

* The ordinary expfiwe^of.tlMirCTytfiHrfiideiiaittDeili'te'ihiiaiBlMcydi by-
Colonel Colebrooke: — Commissioner of Revenue, l,?nn/ 1 ffifllrlwi ojri
Reveoue».23,24dt»,CoUeaaii ofvMaaicloMS JX»|itetaN^>0OW» io^^l;^08iC|
20,243/. ; Revenue Commiw»iieri0f Kandy, 34li(Ui s> €rVV|nnlneBfr>A|9Hii •
of Kandyaft Pmnnofyi^5«339/K; Ev^ed.^adlunfixiMi.Cfiitaii^Ddai^tC^itf.^ -
Totat, 40,41$/. , t\ .1 ».vf - . T ..^ ^ .n •

t Estimate of Colonial Ag^nti'«;iexipfiidita]t«ria.Sigland0lbr'l889fM^--
CiTil Fun4, U,80Qtf,< Judge's Pension, ^ififXA^ Boftrd af CokuM Aitf t»
2,500i{:f Agent's Salary aadEstabliahmen^ lylfi^A; SlO0es,8iippli«i^«id(
Contingencies, 8,086/. J— Total 27»73W. • . -.,j^.., .. .

JUDICIAf*^ EXI^£HDtT0Rte OT C£YtON. 553

evpeiMies^ ^atid by akioffaer ParKamehtary return of the xnQi-
tary and naval disbursements, defrayed from the several mili-
tary' lohests an> the Coloniesy Ceylon ie marked down at
9&fii8l,, th^ military expenditurei may, therefore, be tahen
at l(»,e06?. a year.

Mr. Cameron, the late commissioner of inquiry, at Ceylon,
tIuH9 detailed the judicial expenditure for about 1,000,000
people.

Stiprclne Cbutt. . . ' 13,030 Provincial Courts . 8,987

Magistrates . 6,008 Judicial Comm. Kandy . 2,443

IbdepeDdent Agent Kurnegalle 272 Magistrate ditto . . 345

Agents of GoveratneDt (half) 2,919 Contingencies fixed • 538

Circuits of Supreme Courts 872 Ditto unfixed . ... 831

Total Expenses 36,245/. per annum.

I Under a recent revision of the goTemment offices and re-
tretlelnnent, the following eeale of salaries has been estab-
JMied :— '

I *

iSipiififfu^^p 4(ftke^ear(ywtlue af 300/. and ubwer^ Governor 7fiO0t. ;
CQ^pniai 9fififfitfirYi QifiOOii ; Assistant ditto, and Clerk to tlie ExecutiTe
and Legislative Councils, 600/. ; Treasurer and Commissioner of Siamps,
1,600/. ioAM<itpr„Qf»erri, mid iComptrollenr of Rev«»iia, 1«600/.; Qvii
£9)jii^r.md,9ujr¥i^«i[ Qeoei«l, 800/.; IVistmMtQr Oe%«ral, 300/. ; Har-
b^iHT M9«tear «ktjQD}pwbo> 70(^/.} Ditto Galle, 600/.; CoUeetor of Customs,
1,000/.; Government Agent at Colombo, 1,200/.; Assistant Do. at Do.
30Q/. ; Po. pxfr at Caltura, 400/. ; Government Agent at Galle, 1,000/. ;
Assistant to Do. at Matura, 400/. ; Do. at Batticaloa, 400/. ; Government
Agd^t'atTHncomalee, 1,006/.'; Do. at Jaffna, 1,200/.; Assistant Do. at
Do! '300/.; Do. at Mttn^r , 400f. ; Do. at Cbilaw, 400/.; Government
Agetrt ^at- Kandy; 1,200A; Assistant Do. at KaronegnUe, 400/.; Do. at
Ratnapoora, 400/. ; — ^24,900/. Being an average decrease of 22,33 per
centl ilpMitbn<<^iitiiig «r0Cabitehment«, and 38,8? p^r cent, including tbe
offlees-BstalAitlted. • ■

Ctt9JOJhisiBf4ll€ye0'ifvtikie4fB9Oti und under, per <iiifMfm.<— Supeiitt-
teadaii^/Geiievalrvf Vfiboination, 450^ ; Five As^tants at 90/. eacb, 4^50/. ;
Harbb'or Master of T^inccitoalee, 40O/. ; Assistant Engineer and Surveyor,
300/. ; Superintendant of the Botanical Gardens, 260/. ; Supervisor of tbe
Peart Biifils; flOO/. ; AskisCant A^ent al BaduU4, 400/. ; Do. Alipoot, 400ir. ;
DojRnlu^l^ 400/.;^ D& MateH^, 400/.; Do. Port King, 4001.; Do.
MitiBMrakteane, 4(Mtfr— ^,750 ; being an average incniase of 14,63 per
cent, (exclusive of tbe six lust mentioned officers.)

554 RBVI8BD SCAhE OF 8ALARna» .

JudkM qfhei 0/ ike peuriy 99l$e ^ 5flQ/», 4im( ffM^tf,-*C1uef . .kutfce*
2,600/.; Senior Piusoe ^o^ 1^500/.; Ku^a Ajlv<mte,.I^200/.2 Dq^f
Do. 1,000/. ; Registrar of the Supreme Courts 600/. \ District Ja4ge of
Colombo, 1,000/.; Do. Galle, 1,000/.; Do. trincomaiee, l^OdA/. ; t)o.
Jaffna, 1,000/. ; Do. Chilai7 and Putlam, 500/. ; Do. tCandy, \fiMlS}%^.
Ratnapoora, 150/ ;— Total, 12,450/. ; %ehig aA a^Mg^^decifiate df 49(6^
pcr-oant. ■'..'!.: //..i' '■ iii-^n-'

JwikM Qficet tfnderBOQi.peramtfim^'^wiiBi q5 the Weatejrf l)fW9P<N
350/. ; PrlvfLte Secretary to, tlie Chief J^3tice, 270/. ; Do. Senior Puisne
Do 180/.; District Judge of Batticaloa, 250/.; Do. Manaar, 200/.;
Sitting Magistrates of Caltura, 135/. ; Do.Pantura, 225/. ; Do. N'egbmbo,
225/. ; Do. Amblaugodde, 225/. ; Do. Matnra, 225/. ; Do. Hambantotte,
135/.; Do. Mulletiv^e, 325/.; Do. Poiirt Vtdto, 1^/. ; Doi fiaUapw,
235/. ; Do. Kidu, 157/. 1 Do.Okuvagneherry 325/. ; Dd. Kiini^iiUe^l59/. ;
Da Bad«lla» .160/ ; Do. A%oot, 150/. ; Do. RaapweUe, 150/. f Dc Urn-
tele, 150/. ; Fori King» 150/. Nawera Ellia. 15Q/»-4«460/. ^eing i^i in.
crease of 26,76 per cent, (exclusive of the seven last mentioned offices.)

Offices newly created. — CiviL — ^Assistant Agient at Negombo, 40W. ;
Do. at Oalle, 300/. ; Do. at Hambantotte, 400/. ; Do. at Kandy, 300/.

4ftr(/iW(i/.— >Seoottd Paisne Juseioe^ 1,500/.; Private Sec^tafii fta Do.,
160/. ; District Judge of Nutvera Ellia, 150/.

£ecleiiM8tic0l.^^€o\\tge Professor (de£emed)» ^QO^m^Total* ^>5d0.

These salaries are not high, compared with those of the
other functionaries of the island, nor in reference to the tro-
pical nature of the climate, and the necessity of jMiyii^ dig-
nitaries vested with high authority, salaries placing them abore
the reach of temptation, for no policy can be more shortwriglited
than inadequately remunerating the servants of the State.
When the Dutch had Ceylon, for instance, the salaries of their
officers from the Governor downwards, were not pne-fifth of
our servants, but amends were made by the former plunder*
ing the people in every possible sbape^ and by the insti-
tution of trading monopolies in the hands of Oo^ctmneii^
from die hielsncholy effects of Which the i^Md ifl )MiH '«bf-
fermg.'

• By an important docomenJk pmenlfed to Farlismitot neat t]»^«loss/af
thelMt Session, stewing ftneduotiini in C«aoinal><exiieiiiU^bMP^fM«p{Qetifc
and immediate, Ceylon- « thns thareiii noted down^^OAffr^joftni mnArtf-
/ton emntence^, £l9{^b10i immedkie mti^, £3dJ^i pntpedmiim^
ing, £27»^7S ; Total re^reneliment, jC58,l 10.

ADMIRABLE CIVIL PENSION F9ND» — EDUCATION. SOS

There is a civil pension fund in Ceylon^ by the rules of
vrhich the subscribers are entitled to pensions after 12 years
actual service and subscription ; the amount of pension being
regulated according to the salary received by the officer
dttfing the last two years previous to his retirement: the
pensions now paid by the fund amount to 12,000/. a year ; —
it would be well if Great Britain had a similar institution, or
institutions, for the different departments of the service, by
which the future dead wfeight of the expenditure would be
mat^iially relieved, and it would be most desirable that every
colony had a pension fund fonned after the plan of Ceylon.

lSrBXTChriov.'*^Oof>smmeni and oiher schools — ^The Gioverafc*.
ment schools are in number about 100, of which the far
greater part are in the Singalese or maritime districts ; they
were originally established by the Dutch,* and, according to

* Accordinf^ to Bsldaeus^ when the Dnteh obtdned possession of this
island, they pursued the plan of enlif|;hteninfif its inhabitants by edacation,
as a means of Christianizing the natives. The foUomng most interesdng
staten^ent of the churches and schools established in Jaffbapatam and
Manaar in Ceylon, is given by Baldseus, in his account of Malabar and
Ceyfon, printed at Amsterdam, in 1672 : —

Jelipole, August, 1658, church established.

January 12th, 1661, sacrament first administered to 12 communicants
of the natives.

1665. 1,000 scholars, 2,000 auditors; Mallagam^ 200 scholars, 600
auditors ; Maylettit 750 scholars, 1,600 auditors y Jchiavelli, 500 scholars,
2,000 auditors; Oudetcill, 600 scholars, .1,000 auditors; Batecotte, 900
scholars, 2,000 auditors; Paneteripore, 600 scholars, 1,300 auditors;
Changane^ 700 scholars, church filled; Manipay, 560 scholars, 700 auditors ;
Vmmrpone, 200 scholars, 600 auditors ; Nalour, 590 scholars (the people
here still Incline to Paganism) { tSundeemfii, 450 scholars, 400 auditors.

Thus far of the Prpvinqa E|f lli|mme and its churches, unto which belong
Copay and Paniour, contiuning about 800 scholars and 2,000 souls..

The second Province of Jaffnapatam is Tenmarache, containing five
chorees and the vUkgoik thereto bekmging:-*

Ist, ^^mrcMMU^ 409 scholars, 800 auditors ; Chmtrngsixsiy, l,000aeholan»
2,580 auditors) OatAay, 550 soholars, 14200 auditors t Hsrmm, 800
scholars, 2^560 auditors ; IlhM Matud, 660 scholars, 1,200 auditors.

The third Province is called Waddemarache, having three churches :*-

556 sTATiSTictiwsDtWAm>n,-'OHetteHB«;'«HjiMU,-aAOLs, Sec

Cd.' Colebrookets report ^die nLfaibevs'e^tofei(l'-<fcaT«"ba6n

AifoHowa:— , „ . . , -. n, ^i iii-(]i...,'iii \

PlWtestBntt ■ '-■ ' 89,766 ' '■ftWrtuhidiM " - '■^4,8»r'i"<-'>-'
RomM Olth*HB(i'88i)fi6 ' BtodUlts"' a MmSt&jMX •:/

■ Total ■.■ i2i,^tt/ " ' •;^"':"f^ta'"j'-^ 93.'j^ii *'''^'"'

TheexpaBditKre,aia«vintti,tOAb«ut<8i/60Q{itp«ihmil*m; and
it is to be liopeci it irill be< x te nd e J to tbe M^nbsr and^Can*
dyan dratrp:ts. _ Tbe schooltdastwi receive a small stipend of
6f. €f . per' annum, and Cbey derive furth^j pii^lument^,!^^
fees received for leguteiing na^Te marriages, a duty which
the Govemmeift are ^ry-prsperly^carefiil in attendiag to.

The following return for 1831 ^ves the stafislics oF'the
state of education, of the churohefl, chapt^s, ' au^ ^ala in
Ceylon. '.- '*T-^\\ ,

BDUCATtON.

' CRcntcHis w» omanA.

K»W

«.

•,>d„.

wu..

.->.

«^

.M.

,«

>&:

**',

■m..

.*;

Tba Ust--'ui) fonbirniMl^ovUee' WlUiAIAtei^nUe Mw>Me
churcb*ft«iM]aamft9y tchoola:— in. < '>, > .' i

l9t, P<v/i^(V,.300Bcliolara, 600,auilit(^r«; J/«<ii^iyyibj,,^^^bfit>nv
600 auditors: Jiimiamnie, fiOQ 'acholars, 900, aiiditors ;' JWa/uwilrt,' 2J5
Kuolafj, 350 auditora.

Several of theie schook cODtinuCi others hare bean liucodffifijraj'ift- '
haic merged in similar esiablUhinenti fbriued In ttitfi' oeighbonrbood.

/. .<[' /CElY|.W/Mli»$iONAHVANI>Oa>H«R,«(gHOOLS.

567

ifAn9iQS^e^^!iMimf^oimX\(^,Ah^ipr^9^ and {HragreBs

of education is afforded by the following tabula? view of
schools^ 1^31, sep^A^d ioto stations, and eafeWi^wents,
&c. Hbe itumber of miBsknary institutions (among which
those of (the, Ameriqaxji missionaries are highly deserving com-
mendation) will be examined with much gratification.

^' <^ " >Mt<frn'dfltlM'buWibdrof'Sch«olii»'€eylaii%iid9Ii'

tTK

.ipfllV/ /I

Colombo • 4

MtttUA-

CbilAW . • {

Kand
ProTl

acftk. T

n I . . 1 4 ■ • I f ' <

• • I

bivikio&B.'

I il> r <•. . ' • ' '••

I •*

llj

Grayeta of Colombo . .

MUkofrkiil|«-'u...:

Salpitte Korle

HioaKorlo

Hapltlgam Korle

Hewaj^ua Korle

I^udaem Korle

Walala witty Korle

4 GraTOU of Oalle ....
Walalawitty Korle ....
'^boffilAWUlo.*..
Patkoo ..I..;....
eilabodde ^ittoo ^,.„»
4 Gravet» of Mftltura . .

BeUifram Korle

-Biofttwa Kof to

0&«rebod^lS^'. ! ^!

Batticaloa

TYIiMiHwalfte •«••••••••

Jaflha

Va&D9Uu • a •••■•• •*••••••

Cajbentyn

iA*«*#«i»«

toUd.;..

Kandr^.^c....^...,^......

Koruegane, se

^ .>Gnui4.Tota|«^ . .

^4'

V o

.-+ io

6
1
8

7
3
9

4
i
5

7
1

4
5

1
1

" i "r * : i"rf * \ ' » * '

No. of MU RiODarj
* '^he61e. '^

HH'

■I-

»1S

}

' 1

. •

. .

»»

•

■

• •

100

■

• r

• •

80 100 10

JO J

1#0. 14

.s
8

■ I i ti

16 r 410

138

649

■ ■« ■ "

■i

537

970

68
1

d
o

9
I

1
1

9
90

1.089

649

fl.OW

»r

56 j 86 .,

C^xi^q^f])jIiW!?^q?(,— (J^cho, I5jl8, wd occii-

pying four 8tations)^ibii«:.6ohqoI^<di3|tCpBtainiDg 4^^164 bayB,
254o^giiib, o(ki|difi81i>^t]ltb^total ' IgS^ 85^ nadve

teachers and assistants, and has printing and bookbinding
est^tJKdhmeiitis at tTotta and IVellore: the number of boys in
the X^otta Institution is 16, of whom 1 1 are Singalese, and five
TamqlifiQS*

;» I I ' ■■ » ■•

t ,

I ••.♦>'

Iachi(I«d in-ilM Private ScbooU.

55S

SINGALBSE AND TAMULIAN SCHOOLS.

Wesleyan MfssioN, established in 1814^ and* oecupying
seven stations, kas 65 schools in Singalese, oar soathenii and
21 in Tamul, or northern^ districts, thus : —

SIKGALBSE.

Ctdombo ....
Negombo ..*.
Seven Korlet

Caltue^

Gane

Mfttnra

Moiatka.

Told ....

Schools.

•3

10
11'

13
1

Boys.

384

870
16t

800

514

648

6i ttie^

Girls.

111

•5

Total.

41S

IStf

017
6M
683
' 80

980- 3190

TAMULIANS.

, Schools.

Jtdmh,'

Point Pedro..
YfiAcdmalee'
Battlcsloa ,.

I,' -,^

r , t

Total ....

'1- i.. ,i .

t •

Scholsrs.

6 180

938

The return for 1832 shews, in the S. Ceylon district an aggregate of 69
schools, with 2,896 boys, 427 girls, and 104 male and fetnale teachers ; in
addition to which, the Wesleyans employ 15 salaried cateohilts, who assist
in the superintendence of the schools, and conduct public worship on the
sabbath days. The Mission has a printing establishment and two presses
at (Colombo since its formation.

American Mission, has five stations and a high schod, or
college, at Batticaloa, containing 10 students in Christian
theology, and 110 students in English and the elemeots of
sciences; and 22 in Tamul; all on the charily jfowKUuion:
besides six day scholars. A female central school at Oodoo-
ville, with 52 girls on the foundation, and 76 native free
schools with 2,200 boys and 400 girls.

Baptist Mission, instituted in 181S, has two stations and
16 schools, containing about 800 children, instructed in Eng-
lish, Portuguese, Tamul, and Singalese, by 20 teachers : fcuir
are female schools ; the annual expense of this mission (160^
per annum) is almost excluaively borne by the Parent Society
in England*

Roman Catholic Mission, established in 1687, occupies
12 stations, presided over by 12 pastors : of its schools or
progress I could learn no information, either in Ceylon or in
England.

The Press. — ^Little can yet be said on this important sub-
ject ; until lately there waa osly a Government Gaaette io

COMMERCE OF CEYLON*

559

the island; now, however, a Colombo Observer has been
addedj which is, I trusti but the prelude to other journals.

COMMERCE.

The trade, internal and maritime of this rich and beautiful
island, has been materially checked by the pernicious system
of Govemment monopolies, introduced originally by the
Dutch goyemors, to enable th^m to make up the deficient
salaries allotted them by the Home Government ; that system
is now, however, in the course of total abolition ; and Ceylon
will doubtless again resume that position among the commer-
cial emporiums of the East, for which Nature seems so admi-
rably to have fitted her. There are no documents at the
Jjondon Custom House to shew the extent and value of the
trade of this island, as given in my other volumes. The
greater part of the following returns I obtained in manuscript
from the Colonial Office. I proceed, therefore, to shew —
let, the shipping employed in the trade of Ceylon (it has no
tonnage of its own worth mentioning); 2nd, value of the
comsnerce carried on ; and, Srd, the nature and quantity of
the staple exports of the island.

S)upping, Inwards and Oat wards, of Ceylon.

SHIPS INWARDS-^BQM

SHIPS OUTWARDS-TO

►•

Qrcftt

Brldsh

Tdttl

Groat

British

Tonifgu

Total

B^ttalB.

Colofiles.

states.

Inwiurds.

Britain.

Colonies.

Statoa.

Oatwaids.

No.

Tons.

No. Tom.

No.

lV>D8.^NoJ

Tbns.

No.

Tods.

No.' Tons.

No.

Tons.

No.

Tons.

1890

8631

779 9fi8l6

8570

705

31586

3008

1648 54668

9480

1661

60150

4000

llf^ 88765

8588

1864

48808

3585

1006 88189

3176

1158

80883

]tt7

8336

1558, 57487

164

18000

1788

71778

4188

1475 58756

8000

1589

66087

I8S8

8756

1137 41688

154

0631

1314

60060

8551

1048 41800

SWS

1005 48686

inp

485/

088 56886

8880

1157

60018

4860

1008 56036

8564

1147

64860

ItM

SOU

8781 68157

18068

1058

77888

3760

1176 68404

2684

1884

60887

1881

8547

1044 48330

171

13847

1888

63833

8480

1040 58140

9856

1075

57884

183S
18SS
1884

4688

1186

47011

Sit

18614

1411

06006

47O8

I860 66748

1807

1805

78817

1835

560

COMMERCE OF CEYLON.

Imports aod Exports of Ceylon.

IMPORTS FROM

EXPORTS TO

Great
BiiUlA.

British
Colonies.

Foreign
States.

In^oxts.

Oremt
Britain.

Britbh
Colonies.

Foreii^n
States.

Total
BxpoKts.

1886

1890

1897

1898

1880

1831

1889

1833;

1884

1836

93,440
91,909
10,800
80.084
30,200

40.777
88,500

47.70«
00,818

804,400
960,910
900.074
900,518
978,054
874.670
897.160
803,378
990,089

8,308
38.800
80,636
94,431
98,860
84,998
97.978
40,068
80,146

900.301

800.747
843,300
388.083
340,800
840,681
989.088
361,993
390,801

P7.687
177,688
933,469
140,661
100,668

108,670
60.008
08,620
48,408

199,060
70.408
89,010
04,180
88,950
80.076
00,606
64,108
66.100

8.806
0,001
9,996
1,031
1,330
1,630
740
9,680
8,000

994,388
902,029
817.003
216,371
980,144

850,787
169.80S
160,008
189,880

Return of the qoantities of Cocoa-nut Oil, Coffee, and Coir Rope,

exported since 1827.

Yean.

Cinnamon.

Coooa-not
OU.

Coffee.

Coir Rope.

Amck.

Bales.

Gallons.

cirts.

cwts.

Learners. 1

1887

45,380

84,688

10,008

0,776

3,188

1898

48,018

178,490

7,079

10,004

4,900

1820

85,031

190,401

90,033

0,108

4,428

1880

15,701

118,611

10,000

14,680

4,001

1831

80,800

08,803

93,063

7,804

1889

89,000

137,781

88,197

18,006

1883

77.630

118,071

4,098

3,950

1884

1886

Return of the Quantity of Grain, and estimated Value of Cloth, imported
since 1825, distioguishiog the Cloth from the Coast and from Orest
Britain.

Grain in Quantities.

aotb in Value.

Yean.

Rice.

Faddy.

Wheat.

Gram, and

sundiT
drj Grains

Droin the
Coast.

Flrans
Great

Britain.

Parrahs.

Parrabs.

Parrahs.

jff

1826

632,491

7^^^

13,080

11,881

76,063

4,097

1890

609,944

000,100

80,080

0.006

100,103

8,987

1837

703,170

703,240

13.631

13,088

104,406

802

1888

409,719

636,844

10,410

10,146

143,000

4,060

1890

60!,016

073,303

35,203

10,608

133,983

6,400

1880

007,906

040,404

96,498

10,688

117,0"

8,948

1831

790,400

786,078

97,810

13,838

' 00,080

6,990

1889

803,707

068,819

33,966

8,800

Q7»066

18,898

1883

778,603

488,017

34,870

10^108

09,010

18.676

1884

1836

WBIOHT8, MBASUR'EB^ AN1> MONEYS OF CEYLON. 561

Weights and Msasurbs* — ^The Sisigale$e^ or dry measure
is 4 cut chundroons = 1 cut measure or seer; y = 1 coornie;
2^ =: I marcal ; ^ =: 1 parrah ; 8 = 1 amUconam, 9| = 1
last.

The internal measure of a standard parrah is a perfect
cube of 11.57.100 inches: the seer is a perfect cylinder —
deplb 4.35 inches, diameter 4.35 inches ; the weight of the
parrah jneasttre, according to the custom-house account is,
fot coffee, from 50 to 35 lbs. ; pepper, 27 to 30 lbs. ; salt
52 to 55 lbs. ; Paddy (unhusked rice) 30 to 33 lbs. ; rice 42 to
46 lbs. ; the Candy or Bahar = 500 lbs. avoidupois, or 461 lbs*
Dutch troy weight.

Kandyan Measure of Surface. — 8 lahas = 1 coornie
(lOff 9 ^ sijnare perches) 10 i^ 1 peyla (2 square roods, 29 f
square perches) 4 = 1 ammonam (2 acres, 2 square roods,
87-|> square perches). But although the average extent of
one ammonam is found to be 2 acres, 2 roods, and 2 perches ;
the measurement q{ land is not calculated from the specific
area, but from the quantity of seed required to be sown on it>
and consequently according to its fertility.

Weights of ozs. lbs. &c. are used also throughout the
island, British standard. The bale of cinnamon consists of
nearly 92^ lbs.

LiacFis Mkasure. — Gallons and their multiples and sub^
multiples: 150 gallon =s 1 leaguer or legger,.

Monetary System* — The circulation of late is £. s, and d^
as ,in England, and accoimts are becoming more generally
kept in the same: the rixdollar is equal to Is. 6c/. — it is divi-'
ded into 12 fanams (a thick copper coin) and each fanam into
4 pice. There is a government bank at Colombo, but I can
obtain no returns of its circulation or deposits; notes are
issued by government, but no annual returns are published of
the amount, nor is there any information within the reach of
the Colonial Office in Downing Street, as to the real state of
the paper and metallic circulation in the island. It is pro-^
posed to establish n, private bank at Colombo^ of which in<»

VOL I. o o

563 INJUSTICE OF ENGLAND TOWARDS CETLON.

deed the island stands much in need ; saving banks is now in
full operation.

It may readily be imagined how valuable the trade of this
island may become under a freedom from restriction within,
and justice in England on its products.* At present, its
most valuable articles, sugar, coffee, tobacco, pepper, &c
labour under the same disadvantages in the English markets
as those of India. The Cingalese might make cotton cloth
enough for their own consumption, but the present legislature
compels them to receive the steam wrought manufactures of
Manchester and Glasgow at five per cent, ad valorem duty.
While we put a duty on their sugar, when imported into
England of one hundred and fifty per cent. On their coffee,
three hundred per cent. On their pepper, four hundred per
cent. On their arrack one thousand (}) and so on* Mr.
Poulet Thompson's Custom Bill, in which the duty on several
tropical articles have been materially reduced, is I trust the
prelude to a sounder colonial commercial system.

GENERAL VIEW OF CEYLON.

The magnificent island inadequately described in the fore-
going pages, and which language indeed would fail to do
justice to, may not inaptly be termed the Malta of the Indian
Ocean ; its commercial Capital Colombo, is situate on the
S« W. coast, lat 6.57* N. long. 80.0. E. defended by a strong
fort (built on a peninsula projecting into the ocean) measuring
one mile and a quarter in circumference, having seven prin-
cipal bastions of different sizes, connected by intervening
curtains, and defended by three hundred pieces of cannon.
The fortress is nearly insulated, two thirds of the work being
almost laved by the sea, and with the exception of two very
narrow and strongly guarded causeways, the remainder pro-
tected by a fresh water lake and a broad and deep ditch with

* Mr. Staart has exerted himself much in England to obtain justice for
Ceylon, and, as re^^rds the cinnamon, he has been successfol.

SAILING DIRECTIONS FOR THE PORT OF COLOMBO. SS^

an extensive glacis. Four strong bastions are seaward, and
three face the lake and command the narrow approach from
the Pettah, or native town, outside the walls. The sea itself
is additional strength for the fortress, for on the extensive
southern side the surf runs so high on a rocky shore that
any attempt at landing troops would be attended with certain
destruction, and on .the W. side where the sea is smoother
the approach is completely commanded by the batteries ; and
a projecting rock on which two compact batteries are placed^
entirely protect the roadstead :* in fact the fortress of Co-

* As it is my desire to render the ' Hiitcry of the British C&lome^ iue«
fal to every navigator, I beg to subjoin the following sailing directions and
remarks on the Port of Colombo, as drawn up by the present master hU
tendant, J. Stuart, Esq.

Coi&m6o, lat. 5.57 N., long. 80. E. is low near the sea, with some hills to
the eastward, at a distance in the country. The high mountain having on
it a sharp cone, called Adam's Peak, bears from Colombo £. 7^ S. distance
twelve and a half leagues ; its height above the level of the sea is estimated
at about 7>000 feet. When the atmosphere is clear it may be seen at 30
leagues. During the prevalence of the N. E. monsoon, Adam's Peak is
generally visible in the morning, and frequently the whole of the day, but
it is rarely seen in the S. W. monsoon, dense vapours generally prevailing
over the island at this season. Ships approaching Colombo in the night
have a brilliant light to direct them, which is exhibited every night
from a lighthouse in the fort ; the height of the light above the level of
the sea is 97 feet, and may be seen in clear weather as far as the light
appears above the horizon. A steep bank of coral about half a mile
broad, with fifteen fathoms water on it, lies seven miles W. from Colombo,
eitending northwards towards Ne-gombo, (when its surface is sand), and
a few miles to the southward of Colombo ; outside the bank the water
deepens at once to 23 fathoms, and in two milea to 28 fathoms, greenish
sand, which is not far from the edge of soundings. Within the bank
there are 25 fathoms gradually shoaling towards the shore. The coast
between Colombo and Ncgombo affords good anchorage, but the shore
should not be approached under 8 fathoms ; as within that depth the
ground is in places foul i a bed of sunken rocks, called the Drunken
Sailor, lies S. W\ by W. 4 W. from Colombo lighthouse, distance 1,000
yards, the length of the ledge may be estimated at 100 yards, and the
breadth 20 yards ; on its north end, a small spot about the size of the hull
of a 20 ton boat, is said to have only 3 feet water on it at low water, but
during several recent visits, when some of the coral from its surface was

£64 PORT OF COLOMBO.

lombo properly defended may be deemed impregnable against
any force likely to be brought against it.

brought up, there did not appear to be lets than 7 feet 6 inches water on
the shallowest part^ on the other parts of the ledge there is 4, 5, and 6
fathoms. The sea breaks on the shallow part of these rocks almost con-
stantly duriog the S. W. monsoon, but this is very seldom the case doriDjr
the N.E. monsoon. There appears to be no doubt that the Drunken Sailor
is granite, or stone of the same description as the rocks on the shore, with
its Bur^e incmstated with coral ; if there ever was so little water as diree
feet on it, it may be supposed to be sinking. The Drunken Sailor should
not be approached under nine fathoms during the night, as there are eight
fathoms very near to it ; and in its stream to the southward, in the N.E.
monsoon of 1826, the Hon. Company's brig of war, neiis. Captain Jerrel,
touched on the Drunken Sulor, having stood too close to the land in best-
ing up to the anchorage to the southward ; but, with common attention to
the depth of water approaching the rock, it may be easily avoided. The
passage within the Drunken Sailor is clear, and some ships have sailed
through ; but no advantage can be gsdned by approaching the shore so
very near at this point. The Drunken Sailor lies so very near the land,
and so far to the southward of the anchorage on Colombo Road, as scarcely
to form any impediment to ships bound to or from Colombo. The cosst
between Mount Lavihia and Colombo is bounded by a reef, Ijring off the
mount about one»third of a mile, indining to the shore as it approaches
within a mile S. of Colombo fort. As there are six fathoms close to this
reef, shipping should not approach this part of the coast in the night under
nine fathoms, and may safely anchor when necessary.

The currents off Colombo are subject to considerable variations ; but
they are never so strong as to cause inconvenience to ships which may bare
to communicate with the shore in either monsoon, without coming to
anchor. Colombo road affords good anchorage, free from foul ground,
and is frequented at all seasons of the year. The best anchorage during
the prevalence of the S.W. winds from April to October, is in from seTcn
to eight fathoms with the lighthouse, bearing S. by E. 4 E., and the Dutch
church £. by S. In the east monsoon, from November to April, it is
more convenient to anchor in six and a half fathoms, irith the lighthouse
bearing S. half £., and the Dutch church E. S. E. Ships requiring pilots
to conduct them to the anchorage, should make the usual signal : the
charge for pilotage is fifteen shillings. The bar is a bank with seven feet
of water on its shaUow^t part, the northern extremity being about 400
yards N.W. of the Custom House point ; small vessels that draw less than
10 feet water ride within the bar protected from the S W. wind and sea.
When the sea is high, it breaks with great force on the bar^ and renders

TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR, &C. 565

TaiNCQMAtiEB* — The maritime capital of the Islands (Co-
lombo is the seat o£ Govermnent) is^ in a political point of
¥iew, of the most importance, not merely as regards Ceylon,
but from being, as Nelson justly described it from personal
knowledge, ' the finest harbour in the world.* It is situate
on the E. shore, lat 8J^2. N. long, 81. 17^ E. 150 N. E, from
Colombo, (to which a fine road has just been opened) 1S8
miles, travelling distance from Kandy, and within two days
safl of Madras*^

Its physical aspect may be described as a narrow neck of

the passage from the shipping to the outer road dangerous for small boats.
The native boats generally pass out to the southward of the bar, dose to
the breakers on the rocky point of the Custom House ; but as the passage
is narrow, it should not be attempted by strangers when the sea breaks
on the bar : it is better to proceed round to the northward of the bar,
which may be easily distinguished by the tireakers. What is strictly un-
derstood by a gale of wind, is a rare occurrence at Colombo ; this may be
owing to the vicinity of the equator, the strong gales which blow on the
Malabar coast are felt in smart squalls, and a high sea, but there is scarcely
wind to endanger vessels properly found in ground tackling ; it is true,
ships have sometimes required the aid of a second anchor, but in most
cases, the cause has been attributable to some defect in the first anchor or
cable, a light anchor, an anchor breaking, a short chain, or the chain
coming unshackled. An instance occurred in Colombo road of two ships
rfoeiring cargo during the S.W. monsoon, 'whose chain cables came mxr
shackled twice j twice did it occur to each ship.

On the 2d of June, 1831, the Hector drove in a squall, having about 80
fathoms of chain a head : they let go the second anchor ; but finding the
ship did not immediately bring up, they made sail and slipped their cables.
This ship stood out of the anchorage under double-reefed fore and mizen
top sails, and from its size, a single-reefed main top sail, fore sail, fore and
main try sails, and driver, and returned to the anchorage on the 4th. In-
stances of ships putting to sea are rare ; and it is considered, that although
the sea is high the wind is not violent^ and at these times, the rain having
fallen in the interior, strong freshes escape to the S.W. from the Kalany
Ganga, it is by no means surprising that Colombo road proves a safe
anchorage.

• Trincomalee is the port of refuge to ships obliged to pat to sea when
the stormy monsoon commences on the Coromandel coast and western
side of the bay of Bengal ; the port can be made in any season.

566 FOBT FREDERICK.

land or isthmus^ connecting the peninsula on which the fort
of Trincomalee ief builti (which juts out a considerable distance
into the sea), to the main land ; towards the W. this istfainuB
gradually expands itself into a plain of considerable extent,
which is bounded on the S. E. by a ridge of loft;^ mountains,
on the N. W. by low wooded hills,, and on the W. at. the
distance of about a mile from the fort, by the inner harbour.
As far as the eye can reach from the fort, excepting in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the bazaar, the country is cohered
with wood.

The scenery of the spot has been compared to Loch
Katrine on a gigantic scale, (the vast harbour appearing
land-locked) the grandeur of which cannot be surpassed ;' die
fortifications sweep along the rocky coast upwards of a mile in
length, encompassing the base of a steep hill on the sides
connected with the adjacent land: the town and fort are
placed at the bottom of a rock, and joined to a narrow neck
of land running out towards the sea and separating the inner
harbours from two outside bays, which lie on either shore of
a three sided or cornered promontory.

' Dutch' and 'Back' bays are entirely commanded by
the artillery on the south and north side of the fortified
rock, and the mouth of the harbour is protected by Fort
Ostenburg, situate on a mount three miles west of Trin-
comalee. No communication can take place with the pro-
montory (the part that projects into the sea being protected
by steep rocky clifi*s) except through the well-covered gates
of the fortress, and the best engineers have pronounced their
opinion of its impregnability if the place be well garrisoned.

Fort Frederick, where the European troops (consisting
generally of four companies of a European regiment, a com-
pany of royal engineers and artillery, and detachments of the
Ceylon rifles) are stationed, is a fortified neck of land projecting
into the sea, separating Back Bay from Dutch Bay. The
ground rises gradually from the glacis to the flagnstaff, a
height of about 900 feet, and then slopes towards the sea, till
abruptly terminated by a perpendicular clifiT, from which a

. . F0RT-.08TENBSR0. 5C7

plummet may be dropped to the water, a distance of 240 feet.
The depth at the base is so great, that a line-of-battle ship
may pass close to it. . None but military reside within the
works. The prospect from the barracks towards the sea is
only bounded by the horizon, whilst towards the land, the
eye ranges over the splendid scenery of the inner harbouri
fort Ostenberg, and a long extent of wooded country.

Fort Ostenberg is near three miles from Fort Frederick,
and is built on the termination of a ridge of hills that partly
form the boundary of the inner harbour. The fort com-
9>ands the entrance, and its base is washed by the sea on
three sides ; it also protects the dock-yard, which is immedi-
ately below it. A^ detachment of Royal Artillery are quar«
tered there, and a company of Europeans.

The vicinity of Trincomalee is a wild imcultivated country,
abounding with ^ame of all kinds, from a snipe to an elephant*
Quail, jungle fowl, moose-deer, and monkeys, are found on
the Fort Ostenberg xidge. The M ahavilla Ganga, which
runs past Kandy, empties itself into the sea not far from
Trincomalee. It has lately been surveyed by Mr. Brooks,
the master attendant, wh6 reports favourably of its capabili-
ties. It is navigable for some distance, and he is of opinion,
that with a little expense it might be made so to within 40
miles of Kandy, and thereby open a water-communication
by which the coffee, timber, and other produce of the interior
could be brought to the sea-coast.

The harbour, beautifully diversified with islands covered
with a lux^uriant vegetation, is spacious enough for holding
all the ships in the world, accessible at all seasons, and the
depth of water within the bay of Trincomalee ia so great,
that in many places, not far from the shore, it is imfathom-*
able, and vessels may He close alongside the rocks in perfect
safety.*

• The rise and fall of tide is not sufficient for wet docks i mariners
prefer Back Bay to Dutch Bay, and from its being easier ofegnsB for on»
half the year. The rates of pilotage payable by all square rigged vessels.
sloops and schooners, is—

568 POINT P£ OALLE — ^PIIiOT CHAROBS AT EACH PORT.

Point de Galls is another strong fortress and exodlent
harbour, situate at the very southern extremity of the island,
in Lat. 6.1 N. Long* 80.10 E. distant seventy^ight nules
along the sea shore, S. S. £• from Colombo ; the road, shaded
the whole way by magnificent groups of eocoa nut trees, form-
ing a belt from the water's edge to some distance inland. The
fort is a mile and a quarter in circumference, on a low rocky
promontory, commanding the narrow and intricate ^itranoe
leading to the inner harbour; the extensive and substantial
works are like those of Colombo, surrounded for the greater
part by the ocean, and there is every conyenienee of water,
&c« capable of enabling the fortress to stand an extended
siege. The outer and inner harbours are iipacious,* and the
inner secure at all seasons of the year.f

But if the sea-coast be well defended, not less so is the
interior, every hill is a redoubt, and the passes in the moun-
tains might be defended by a resolute enemy, by rotting the
atones Qf£ the summits of the heights. Kandy Qn 7.18 N.

Tons.

Back Bay.

Inner Baibov.

600

. jf 4

400, and under 600

1 10 .

200, ditto 400

Ill .

. 2 2

100, ditto 200

10 6

1 1

Under 100 .

6 .

These rates of pilotage to all vessels goiof^ into the inmer hubanr, whe-
ther they make a signal for a pilot or not ; but the pilotage charge for
jPack Bay, as in the same manner for Colombo, will only be made if the
vessel make a signal and the pilot actually repair on board.

* The pilotage charges for Point De Galle Harbour to any ressel enter-
ing, whether making a signal for a pilot or otherwise, are —
600 tons . ^£3 . 400 and under 600 £2 b

200, and under 400 1 10 . 100, and under 200 1 2 6

Under l€|p tons . . 16«. sterling.

The fees or port clearances payable at Galle, as also at the other harboars
of the island, are, for ships, sloops, or schooners i —
600 tons, and upwards j£8 400, and under 600 <€6 10
200 ditto, and under 400 4 100, ditto 200 2 16 Q

Under 100 tons . . . jgl 10

f Both Monsoons here influence the winds and rains.

ROADS^ BRIDGES, &C. IN CEYLON. 569

Lat. 80*47 E. Long.*) the capital of the interior (eighty-five
11^68 from^ and 1,600 feet above Colombo) is situate at the
head of an extensive valley, in an amphitheatre commanded
by forts on the surrounding hills ; the vale has but two ac^
cessiUe entrances well guarded, and the city within four miles
is nearly surrounded by a broad and rapid river, (the Maha-*
Villa Gunga) filled with alligators.

The roads in the maritime country are through groves of
cocoaf^nut trees along the sea coast ; carriage roads extend
firom Colombo as far as Chilaw to the northward, and from
Colombo through Gallee as far as Matura to the southward.
The main road from Colombo to Kandy (the Simplon of the
East on which there is now a * mail coach and /our') is a
work of stupendous magnitude, hills have been cut away,
vallies filled up, and (near Kandy) a tunnel Jive hundred feet
long cut through the mountain, while rapid and unfordable
torrents and rivers have had elegant iron and wooden bridgesf

* Latitude and Longitude of the principal Places :— Basses (Great) lat.
6.13.0$ long. 81.46.0. Ditto, (Little) lat. SM^i long. 81.55.0. Bat-
ticoloa Road, lat. 7.44.0 ; long. 81.52.0. BeUigam Bay, lat. 5.57.30; long.
80.33J30. Calamatta Bay, lat. 6.47 i long. 81 .2.58. Colombo, lat. 6,57.0
long. 86.0.0. Dodandow^ Bay, lat. 6.6.47; long. 80.14.24. Dondra
Head, lat. 5.56.15 ; long. 80.42.50. Foul Point, lat. 8.30.27 ; long. 81.30.12
Oalle, lat. 6.1.46; long. 80.20.0. Gandore, lat. 5.55.42; long. 80.44.30.
HambaatoUe, lat. 6.6.58; long. 81.14.44. Kandy, lat. 7. 18.0; long.
80.49.0. Thahawelle Bay, lat. 5,59.30; long. 80.52.15. Thattura, lat.
^.56J26 ; long. 80 40.7. NUlewelle Bay, lat. 5.7.37 ; long. 80.50.21. Point
FMro, lat. 9.49.30; long. 80.24.0. Jangalle, lat. 6.1.16; long 80.54.48.
Trincomaiee, lat. 8.33.0; long. 81.24.0. Yendelo's Inlet, lat. 75.70;
long. 81.44.0.

t Faradeinia bridge, which, during the past year has been thrown over
the rapid and unfordable river Maha-Villa Qunga, consists of a single arch
with a span of 205 feet, principally composed of satin wood ; its height
above the river at low water marie is 67 feet, and the roadway is 22 feet
wide. The arch is composed of 4 treble ribs, transversely distant from
eadi other five feet from centre to centre; the sum of the depth of these
ribs is 4 feet, which, with two intervab of two feet each, makes the whole
depth of the arch 8 feet ; the arch beams, with the exception of those
next the abutments, are 16 to 17 feet long and 12 inches thick, abutting

570 . ADVANTAGES AND PROSPECTS

thrown across them, a capital road has been opened between
Trincomalee and. Colombo, and before a few more years have
elapsed, every town in the island will be connected by roada
passable at all seasons.

' In fine, this rich and beautiful isle of spices — so thinly po-
pulated yet so capable of supporting twenty times its present
population, — ^so impoverished yet so bountifully blessed by
nature with every thing which can conduce to the happiness
of man, — so admirably situate at the extremity of the Asiatic
Peninsula, from which it .is separated yet connected,— and so
well adapted as an entrepot for Eastern commerce, requires
only to be seen to be appreciated. I have visited every quarter
of the globe — ^but have seen no place so lovely — ^romantic — so
admirably situate — whether as regards the poet, the painter,
the merchant or the statesman as Ceylon ; — that its intrinsic
worth may be appreciated in England is the Author's fondest
wish, not less on account of the fascinating spot to which these
remarks have reference, than for the sake of England herself.
A time will come (may the day be distant) when Grreat Britain
will cease to hold her empire on the continent of India,* and
when the nations of Europe will contend for maritime supe-
riority in the East ; — ^we have before us the examples of the
Portuguese and Dutch, — they neglected Ceylon; the one
made it the cradle of idolatrous superstitions, the other die
temple of trading cupidity. We are now in the fair course

against each otheri/nth an unbroken section, secured at the jdnts by the
notched pieces which support the road-way, the latter being held in their
position by means of cross ties below and above the arch, and immediately
under the road-way: these cross ties, with the md of diagonal braces,
which are also locked into them, serve to give stability and firmness to the
whole structure, which has no other material but timber in its constmc-
tion.

* It is on this* account that I deem the imular possessions of Britain
of such great importance ; for instance, an extensive revolt throughout
India, or its successful invasion by Russia, might annihilate our domtaion
on the Continent,. while our possession of Ceylon would remain unahskco,
and thus enable us to preserve, at least, a portion of commerce. {See mp
Colonial PoUq/.)

OF CEYLON. 571

to shun both extremes ; — our missionaries (the pioneers of
civilization) are extending the beatitude of the gospel among
the darky benighted heathen, — our merchants freeing them-
selves from the pernicious shackles of monopolies^ are making
peaceful commerce, as she ought to be, the companion of
religion ; under both these influences Ceylon bids fair to be
one of the most important colonies of the British empire.
That to England may belong the glory of re-peopling, civiliz*
ing and Christianizing this romantic isle, is earnestly hoped
by one whose earhest days were spent in exploring paths
where no white man's foot before trod — and where the un-
tutored savage and the beast of the forest now dispute for
pre-eminence.

572

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573

CHAPTER IX.

STEAM NAVIGATION WITH INDIA ; PROPOSED PLAN OF POST OFFICE STEAM
PACKETS VIA MADEIRA, ST. HELEN A, CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, ISLE OF
PRANCE, CEYLON, &C. ; ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE RED
SEA AND CAPE OF GOOD HOPE ROUTE BALANCED; COMPUTATION OF
THE EXPENSE OF TWELVE STEAM PACKETS, &C.

The facilitating and accelerating of the communication be-
tween Europe and Asia will be equivalent to the annihilation
of space, or the application of a lever which would have the
power of bringing into closer approximation two distant con-
tinents. The public mind in both hemispheres is now being
directed to so highly important an object, and private muni-
ficence and Hberality appealed to for the accomplishing a
national good : this is obviously improper, for the Govern-
ments both in India and in England have made the post-office
department a monopoly in the hands of the executive autho-
rities ; with those should the opening of a post-office system
originate, and by those only indeed can it be efficiently exe-
cuted. That the Governments of India and of England may
not only without pecuniary loss, but with considerable profit,
open a steam-packet post-office communication with India, is
demonstrated by the Table on the opposite page, in which I
have taken the lowest calculation for letters, newspapers,
parcels, passengers, &c. passing between both countries,
without allowing for the impulse which rapidity of communi-
cation gives to commerce and social intercourse, or to the re-
cent changes in the respective relations of the Eastern and
Western hemisphere. My reasons for advocating the Cape
of Good Hope route in preference to that vid the Red Sea,
or the Euphrates,are — Ist That we would bring into closer
and speedier communication the whole of our Asiatic and
African colonies, whereas by the Red Sea route, even if cer-

574 REASONS FOR PREFERRING THE CAFE OF GOOD HOPE ROUTE

tain difficulties (to be hereafter noticed) could be overcome,
only a part of our Eastern possessions would be bene-
fitted :—

Snd. That therefore the prospect of remuneration for the
large expenditure requisite is more secure by the Cape than
by the Red Sea or Euphrates route.

3rd. That the commercial^ political^ and social advantages
to England and her colonies would be infinitely superior.

4th. That whereas we are mistress of the ocean and have
our route by the Cape open so long as the British trident
rules ; but we are not masters of Egypt or Persia ; on the
contrary we are not only at the mercy of Mehemet Ali's suc-
cessors^ but subject to the caprice of the French and Russian
Governments in their intrigues with the Porte or the Pacha.
[This paragraph stands as it was printed in the first edition —
my anticipations have been verified for intelligence has this
moment reached me from Constantinople, under date 13th
May 4 1835, that Mehmed Ali Pacha, influenced by Russia,
has forcibly prevented the landing and passage through Syria
of the Euphrates expedition, fitted out by Col. Chesney, under
the authority of Government : this fact is strikingly corrobo-
rative of the fact that the Cape of Good Hope route is the
practicable plan.]

5th. In the event of war the Red and Mediterranean Seas*
narrow route would be (particularly in Europe) very hazard-
ous both for letters and passengers, and much less secure
than on the highway of the ocean, independent of the liability
to complete interruption for years, and the consequent loss of
the capital embarked in the undertaking.

6th. That although the travelling distance is greater by
the Cape than by Egypt, yet, owing to quarantines and nu-
merous impediments, it is in reality shorter, and would be
practically found so by comparing twelve voyages by either
route, even under the now most favourable prospect which
Egypt or Persia presents, but which would be entirely re-
versed on the breaking out of hostilities.

TO INDIA, RATHER THAN THAT vio THE RED SEA. 575

7th. That the delay* (if it be admitted for argument sake)
of a few days by the Cape route as compared with the Red
Sea, or Euphrates, is far more than counterbalanced by the
numerous British possessions it brings into close contact, and
by the route being much healthier for Indians or Europeans
over the health invigorating ocean, than over the burning
sands of Egypt, and plague infested delta of the Nile.
[Plague is now (June 1835) raging furiously at Alexandria.]

8th. That depots of coal can be more expeditiously, and
cheaply provided from England, from Calcutta, and New
South Wales, where coal mines are now in full work,
and from Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope, where they
exist, but have not yet been worked, than by the tedious
shipments of fuel from England to Alexandria, and from
Calcutta to Bombay and the isthmus of Suez.f

* Mr. Perkins proposed to build a steam ship of 1,000 tons, carrying
800 tons of coal, to make no stop between London and Calcutta, and to
perform the yoyai^e (13,700 miles) in 60 days ! The following was the
run of the Enterprize under the various disadvantaii^es attendant on a first
experiment, with the very limited powers of an 120 horse en((ine, and
with only one depHi of coal at the Cape of Good Hope. She left the land
on the 16th of Aup^ust, 1825 ; reached Calcutta on the 7th of Deceml>er,
1825; that was 113 days (of which she was 103 actually under weigh)
from the land to Diamond Harbour. She used both siul and steam. The
greatest run by sul in 24 hours was 21 1 miles $ the least, 39 : the greatest
by steam assisted by sail, 225 •» the least, 80 : the greatest heat in the
engine-room during the voyage was 105 degrees, the air at the same time
being 84 degrees and a half. The total distance was 13,700 miles ; and
the consumption 580 chaldrons of coal, being nine chaldrons per day for
64 days ; the rest being under sail. The speed of the engine in calm
weather was eight knots an hour, the log giving nine, from the wash of
the paddles.

t Mr. T. L. Peacock states that coals burnt in the Red Sea cost £7- per
ton. Lieutenant Johnson states that there should be dep6ts of coal at
Lisbon, at Madeira, at one of the Canary Islands, at Cape Verd, Cape
Palmas, Ascension, St. Helena, the island of St. Thomas, at St. Philip de
Benquil, at the Cape of Good Hope, in Algoa Bay, Port Dauphin, Isle of
France, at Diego Garcia, Pono Molubque, if anchorage for a hulk can be
found at that place. Point de Galle, at Trincomalee, at one of the Andaman
or Ntcobar Islands, at Madras, and at (Jalcutta ; and, in the passage to

576 MODE OF CARRYING THE PLAN INTO EXECUTION,

9th. The voyage may be as safely perfiirmed Hk Ae Cape
(if not more so than against the monsoon in the Red Sea) as
by the Mediterranean and Red Sea, as demonstrated by
Captain Johnson, in the Enterprize Steamer, while the im*-
provements which have taken place in steam navigation since
18S6, and the experience derived Ifrom the voyage, demon-
strate the certainty and despatch with which the Cape route
may now be effected.*

I now come to consider the mode in which the project may
be efficiently put into execution. It would be necessary that
a packet start on the 1st and 15th of every month, from Fal-
mouth, or Port Yalentia, on the West Coast of Ireland,f and

Bombay, it would be necessary to have one at Delagoa Bay, at Joaaaa, aft
the SeycheUes, C!ochiD, and at Bombay. By this means, says Lieut. J.,
the average voyage to India would be 80 days, while the fair average for
sailing vessels is 120 or 130 days. Another plan proposed for speedy com-
munication with India vid the Cape of Good Hope, is to fit a steam engine
of 30 horse power into a fast vessel of 600 tons, to use it only as an auxi-
liary, to move the vessel through eahns, &c. Vess^ thus oonttractod
would be applicable to commercial purposes, the sai^fice required would
not exceed from 100 to 130 tons, and the average voyi^^ to GateutCa
would be from 85 to 95 days.

* I have doubled the Cape of Good Hope 15 times, have crossed die
Irish Channel as often, but the weather and daager of the former wis
nothing almost compared with that of the ktter. It is now well known
that a steamer is more buoyant and better adapted to rido out a gde than
a mere sailing ship.

t A grand national undertaking,*- viz. the eonnectfaig Dublin and
Vfllenda harbour by a rail-road, and making the latter the starting stathm
for the American, West India, Mediterraneati, and Portugal padteta M
now in contemplation by Pierce Mahony, Esq., whose public spifited
» efforts have already conferred so much good on Ireland. Port Yaloilia is
the most western port in Europe, and vmels sidling thence are not meiUy
ftee from the dangerous and often tedious navigation of the ehanael^ but
they are so far to the westward as to be belter situate for beating to wind*
ward against the prevalent westerly gales. The project would be of the
utmost benefit in a political point of view, by enabKng Government, at a
^ven moment, to despatch troops or shipa of war to any point ; in a eotn»
mercial light, it would fEusilltate trade by a speedier, cheapo, and mott
certain packet interoourse with all our colonies; and with the United

AND TOTAL EXPENSE OF THE SAME. 577

from Calcutta, for the maintaining of which oommunication,
twelve steam and sailing boats of 300 tons each (including the
branch packets) would be necessary ; the packets to be of a
stable and buoyant nature, with Gurney's improved engines ;
tanks*, to. hold the coals, in order that they may be filled with
water, to serve as ballast, according as the fuel is consumed
(the water to be shipped and emptied by means of the lately
invented pumps.) The vessels to be schooner rigged, and
the masts, chimnies and paddles to strike or ship as occasion
demands (in the trade winds and monsoons, the packets would
sail when not opposing those periodical breezes, consequently
the steam engines would be at rest, and the consumption of
fuel saved)f and a tube to be attached to the engine for the
conversion of steam into fresh water. The packets to carry
each four 181b. carronades of a side, with two long nine
pounders; to be commanded by an officer of the British
Navy (salary 500/.) with a First Lieutenant (300/.) ; two mid-
States and foreiflfn countries it would also make the Britiah isles the high-
way for travellers between the Old aud New World — ^between the eastern
and western hemispheres; above all, it would secure to England her
maritime supremacy* by affording a constant oceanic ingress and egress,
which she was too often denied during the war, by her fleets being wind-
bound in the Channel, and even at the Gove of Cork, for three months.
There are many other important considerations which ought to stimulate
Qovemment to give every possible aid towards the completion of such a
national undertaking.

* Lieutenant Johnson says, the Enterprize was capable of stowing 35
days' consumption of coal ; for 11 days after leaving England he steamed
without intermission, and then found himself to the S. of the Canary
Islands. Lieutenant J. states that he experienced some very rough weather
off Cape Palmas ; that the steame** behaved very well, and that while a
steam vessel's engines remain in-order she is less exposed to danger than a
sailing vessel. On opening the Mozambique channel, the Enterprize ex-
perienced a heavy gale; the fines were then put out, the wheels discon-
nected from the engine, and the ship scudded under her main-top and
foresails 10 knots per hour. ' She steered admirably, answered her helm
as well as a ship could possibly do, and behaved in every way like an ad*
mirable sea-boat.' — (Eridence before Parliament.)

t There was no depdt for coal but the Cape of Good Hope,

VOL. I. P P

578 EXPENSES OF STEAM VESSELS.

•hipmen or mates {lOOl. each); a paner^ {8001.) ; a surgeon,
(8001.) ; two engineers, (250/. each) ; an assistant ditto (lOOf.);
one gunner and armourer (100/.) ; one carpenter (100/.) and
mate (60/. each) ; eight stokes, (60/. each) ; four fire men,
(50/. each) ; twelve able seamen, (50/. each) ; and four boys
as apprentices (80/. each), making a complement of forty
hands, and an expenditure in wages and provisioning under
4»000/. sterling, which for twelve packets would give the
cost of wages and provisions at 60,000/. a year, and this sum
deducted from the Post Office's lowest computed receipts,
would leave nearly £400,000. sterling, to provide vessels,
engine and fuel. Let us now examine the expense fcnr fiiel,
and as I have on the one hand estimated the income at the
lowest, so on the other, I would desire to compute the ex-
penditure at the highest. The twelve packets would on an
average be employed each, two hundred days during the year
in steaming (thus scarcely allowing any thing for performing
half the voyages to and from India by means of the monsoons,
trade, and other favourable winds) making in all two thousanil,
four hundred days, which at ten tons of coal per day ntfbfitf
shillings per ton (on an average, allowing for freight to some
depots) would cost £ 48,000. ; thus we see the expense of
wages f provisions and fuel, would on an extreme calculadoQ,
be scarcely more than £100,000. a year, not one fourth irf'.tke
Post Office income ; but there is another item to be {nrovided
for, and that is the wear and tear of the vessels, and the
interest of money on their first cost. Twelve steam vessels
of 300 tons each, with engines of 160 horse power, may be
constructed in England, and amply provided with ey^ry is*
^uisite store at £SOfiO0. eadi = ££40,000. ; aUowing 10
per cent, interest, and insurance on the capital thus emiiluyd ,
the annual cost would be £ 24,000. to which lidd £1M,0QO. "a
year for wear and tear, and we have a further chsS^ffe of
^ 50,000« .making a grand totg^l of £ 150,000. per ani|im^|ks
4iie amount of the whole Post Office establishmrat* Ift4l6v
which there is an afanost certain ificome of fnlL £ 4fi Q^0flft»»
year, thu? yielding at the very outset, a revenue of itpw a td n
of a quarter of a million to the state. The facts here brought

EUPHRATES^ INDIAN ROUTE, AND RUSSIAN PLANS. 579

fbrwBotdf are submitted to the examiiiatioii of the Oovem-
jnenjf, in the firm belief that on mature reflection it will be
found deserving of adoption^ not less for the sal^e of India
and the colonies, than for the welfare of England, for what-
ever promotes the prosperity of the one enhances in a corres-
ponding ratio the weal of the other. If the regular- trails-
mission even of letters to India, vil Egypt be adopted, I shall
hail it with much satisfaction, as the prelude to a far more
important and beneficial undertaking, — ^namely, the annihi-
lating of at least 5,000 out of the 13,000 miles between India
and England, and removing our numerous and valuable
Bitstem Colonies by several thousand miles neacer to the
parent state, thuii connecting and corisoMdating our marilune
empire.*

* Several persoiM, namely, Capt Chesney, Mr. Bowater, &c. are sanfj^uiae
as to the facilities and speed with which the passage to India can be made, vU
tbe EnpbniPtes and Persian Onif ; and Mr. Peacock tfaniks that, by makii^
the best possible use of every circumstance, the passajBfe to Bombay from
mtk Eaf^h port may foe made in Jhe weeks. The cowse would be^icrofls
Fnmot to Marseiliet or Trieste, theaoe by sieam to Latichea, thence by
Jamd to BdeSy thence by sitmn down the Euphrates to Bussorah, thence by
ugam to Bombay. A great deal of trade is, at present, carried on
Bagdad to Damascus, by a line which crosses the Euphrates at Hillah,
and from Hillah to Bussorah on the Enphmtes, and from Bussorah Ho
Bagdad on the Tigris. 0?er-land despatches from Bombay principally —
1st, Bussorah, Great Desert, Aleppo, Constantinople, Venice, London,
4,804 miles ; 2nd, Bussorah, Bagdad, Mosul, Diarbekir, Constantinople,
London, 6,116 miles; Srd, Red Sea, Suez, Alexandria, Venice, London,
5,492 miles. The distance from Bombay to Bussorah is 1,600 miles^ and
thence to Aleppo 718 miles by land ; from Bombay to Suez 3,000 miles ;
from Suez to Cairo 70 miles ; from Cairo to Alexandria by land 140 miles
by the river. Russia, in fiict, is at present planning her route to India, and
ling the facilities to this purpose. It is a doubtful point whether by
a line of communication with India vid the Euphrates or Red
Sea, we would not be smoothing the road for the Autocrat's troops. It b
in evidence before parliament, that the Russians have been recently sur-
veying the river Oxus and all the country to India, with great care ; they
firefer this route to India rather than Alexander's through Persia, aa in the
latter, a large army would suffer by want of water. The projected Russian
route to India is by the Wolga into the Caspian Sea (on which, as well as

580 LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK AND STEAM COMMUNICATION.

on the Wolga, they have steam navif^tion) across the Caspian to the Gulf
of Mertvoy. Tlien there are 100 miles of land to the sea of Aral, where
there is abundance of coal ; then there is the navigation of the Oxus, on
which there is now a great deal of traffic, by Khiva, where a Russian mili-
tary colony is now beiDg established. Or the Russians may come down the
Euphrates or the Tigris on rafts, which could be put together with great
rapidity to any extent : then might they so establish themselves at Biib-
sorah, that it would not be easy to dislodge them, and they could build
sufficient shipping at Bussorah with timber floated down from Armenia.
Is it then wise or prudent of England, on the one hand, to facilitate the
progress of Russia to lodia vid the Euphrates; or of the French vid
Egypt ? These considerations in a political point of view, ought to prompt
the British Government to give every facility to the route to India vid the
Cape of Good Hope ; and as to cutting a ship canal from Cairo to Suei
(the difference in the height of the Mediterranean and Red Sea (10 feet)
being remedied by locks), at an expense of 700,000/., the result would be
to throw the eastern commerce of the British possessions into the hands
of the French and other foreign ports in the Mediterranean. In a politicil
and commercial point of view, the establishment of steam nav^tion with
India vid the Gape of Good Hope is of the utmost value without any of die
drawbacks as detailed above. ,

It is a tribute to justice that I should here state the efforts made by
Lord William Bentinck, while Governor-General of India, for the promo-
tion of a regular line of steam packet communication between Europe and
Asia ; — ^his JiOrdship has in this, as in numerous .other instanoea, evinced
the workings of a comprehensive mind whose great object has ever been
the welfore of his fellow-creatures.

581

CHAPTER X.

PKNANG, MALACCA) AND BINOAPORB, THX^R LOCAUTT, AREA, PBT810AX*
ASPECT, HISTORY, POPULATION, RKYENUK AND EXPENDITURE, GOVERN-
MENT, COMMERCE, SOCIAL CONDITION AND POLITICAL AND GENERAL
ADVANTAGES, &C. ; BRIEF l^IEW OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE, ITS AREA,
PHYSICAL ASPECT, POPULATION, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE, MER-
CANTILE REGULATIONS,' WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEYS, WITH A
CONCISE EXPOSITION OP THE TEA TRApB, &C.

The possessions now about to be described, though small in
comparison with those delineated in the preceding pages, are
of considerable importance, whether viewed in connection with
the Anglo-^eastem empire, or separately as commercial sta-
* tions or political ' maritime positions. Being under one go-
vernment, their history is given in a single chapter, but their
distinct features geographically and roercantilely demand a
separate consideration for each ; — to begin with the seat of
government .

PENANG* OR PRINCE OF WALES' ISLAND.

Locality and area. — This picturesque island (so well
adapted for a commercial entrepot), is situate on the W. coast
of the Malayan peninsula, in lat. from 5.15. to 5.29. N. and
long. 100. £. ; its greatest length is 16 statute miles from N.
to S., and its greatest breadth 12 miles at the north^ and de-
creasing to eight miles at the south, thus forming an irijggu-
lar four sided shape, with a range of lofty hills in the ceintre,
the whole computed to contain 160 square miles.

Physical aspect. — ^The valley of Penang, about three miles
in breadth, is the level part of the island on its eastern side,

* The Malay term for the areca or betel nnt, which the Mala3r8 think
the isle bears some resemblance to in shape.

582 PHYSICAL ASPECT OF PSKANG ;' ITS

extending from the hills to the sea, of a triangular shape, the
ranges of mountains forming the hase and the apex, called
Tanjong^ jutting into the harbour, and having George Town
(the capital) and the Fort of Penang huiit on it, on which, for
three miles in every direction from the point, private houses
extend. Almost the whole of the northern shore is moun-
tainous, and through the centre of the island runs a range of
hills, decreasing in height and magnitude as they reach to-
wards the south. On the west and south of the mountains
there is a considerable quantity of level ground of good quar
lity for every species of cultivatioA as is now demoiistnted
by the general culture thereof. Indeed two-thirds of Penaag
is of level or gentle inclination. The east owing to its m<H8t-
ness is covered with rice fields. The south and west vallies
though partly cultivated for the same purpose, are chiefly laid
out in pepper gardens and spice- plantations. Everywheie
dose to the coast, as in Ceylon, runs an extendlve bdt of
cocoa nut trees, and scattered over the island in various
groups, appear groves of the graceful areca palm (or Penang)
from which the isle takes its Malay name. The hills and low
grounds, where not cultivated, are thickly covered with wood.
.Vegetation is splendidly luxuriant and for miles and miles the
eye rests on one dense masd of mountain forest. Besides
George town (the capital) above alluded to, there is only one
large collection of houses entitled James town, situated on the
sea shore, four miles to the south of the capital, amidst a grove
of the lovely palm tribe. Numerous small villages and Malay
topes are scattered over the island (especially on the south
side,) often beautifully and romantically situated on the coast
or amidst spice groves in the vales.

The hill called the ' Highlands of Scotland; U U2S feet
above the sea, (and like the other stations) the situation and
climate of which are delightful. The whole of the valley is
of alluvial formation, and it would appear, that the sea once
washed the base of the mountains ; for on the opposite shore
of Quedah, successive deposits of alluvial matter hsire been
traced for several miles inland, indicating the gradual retire-

ChSVtKh^ HARBOUR^ HISTORY^ &C. fiSS

lAsnt of the ocean» by ridges being seen running parallel with
the present line of coast.*

A recent visitor thus describes his ideas on approaching
Penang. * The island, with the exception of two jdains of
iDOOiisiderable extent on the eastern and western shores>con-
skta of one range of lofty hUls, with towering peaks. The
entsrance to the harbour leading between die island and the
Quedah coast, on which side th^ view is arrested by a noble
chain of mountains, whose lofty sununits terminate in a miyesr
lac outline, is picturesque and beautiful ; the neat bungalows
ranged round the bay, close to the water's edge, the fort pro*
jecting into the sea, the town lining the beach, and the dis*-
tant islands shutting the passage to the south, form a puio-
ramic view of great interest.'

The harbour of George Town, the capital, is capacious
.with good anchorage and well defended ; it is formed by a
strait about two miles wide, that separates Penang froqi the
•opposite Quedah coast on the Malayan peninsula. The sea
is placid throughout the year, and the periodical effects of
Ifae monsoons little felt, the winds partaking more of the
character of land and sea breezes^

When storms rage at sea the tides are affected by being
irregular in their flow through the islands, sometimes running
in one direction for several days with great rapidity, and then
changing to another. The town is one of the neatest in
India, — ^the streets wide, straight and at right angles ; — ^the
buildings are respectable, and the Chinese shopkeepers (who
are the principal tradesmen) lay out their ' gddowns' taste-
fully. The roads are among the finest in India, their beauty
being enhanced by the strength and luxuriance of the vege-
tation which continues the whole year round.

History. — ^When first known to Europeans the island ap-
peared quite untenanted, covered with forests and considered
as a part of the possessions of the King of Quedah on the

* Many interesting details of this picturesque island hare been printed
by Dr. Ward, of the Madras sendee, in the l^ng«j»f€ Cknmieie of Jnly,
1833.

584 CUMATE AND OEOLQOT:

Mntiguouft coast In 1785 Capt* Light, the commander of a
* country ship* in India, having married the King of Quedab's
daughteri received a gift of the island as a marrsige portion:
Capt* Light transferred itto the E. L Company, who having
entered into a treaty with his Quedah majesty (which was 40
last as long as the sun and moan gave light !) agreed to pay
6^000 dollars anxiually to the King, which in 1800 waa rais^
to lOyOOO^ in consideration of the C!orapany receiving the
Wellesley provmce on the main land opposite Penang^ a ter-
ritory extending 35 miles along the coasti four miles inland
from the S. banjk of the Quaila.Mudda to the N. bank of d)e
Krian river, lat. 5^. N. .

- Clui ATS.— January and February arp the dry and >bat
IBonths, and November and December' the rainy ones ; faut
excepting the two former the idand is seldom « week witboot
refreshing showers. The thermometc^r on Flag-staff ' hilL
(^048 feet high) never rises beyond 78^ ¥. (seldom to 74*} and
falls to 66* ; on the plain it ranges frrai 76* to 90*. The
island is considered remarkably healthy. The climate of the
high land of Penang resembles that of Funchal at JMadeira^
possessing the advantage of a very limited range of thermo-
meter, the greatest range in 24* hours being. 11 *» and generally
only three or four. The lightness and purity of the atmos-
phere elevate the spirits and render the step, free and buoy-
ant, while the splendid and varied scenery, the island itself
with its hills and dales, the calm ocean around studded with
verdant isles, and the opposite coast of Quedah with chains
of mountains towering chain over chain, conibined with the
health inspiring breezes, render a residence among the gar*
dens of Penang of much value to the invaUd.

Geology. — The mountains are entirely composed of fine
grey granite, and the smaller hills are of the same material»
excepting some hills near the coast formed of lateriie^ as is
also Saddle Island on the S. W. angle of Penang. A tin mine
was worked some years ago in the hills, and doubtless many
valuable minerals exist in the mountains, which &i^ probably
equal in quality to those of the contiguous Malayan peninsula.

VEGETABLE KINGDOM^ ZOOLOlTY, AND POPULATION. 585

* The soil is generally a light black mould mixed with gravel
and elay, and in some parts there is a rich vegetable ground,
formed by the decayed leaves of the forests, with which the
ifilknd had for ages been covered, the coast soil is sandy but
fertile.

Vegetable Kingdom. — The botany of the island is rich
and varied : on the mountains grow the poon, bitanger, ran-
gas, red' poon, dammerlaut, wood oil tree, the cypress and
some superb species of arborescent ferns. The caoutchouc
or elastic gum winds round all the trees in a spiral form. All
the Malacca fruits, with the exception of the dukuy grow in
great abundance, the sugar cane and pepper vine are exten-
sively cultivated (the quantity of pepper annually produced
itverages lbs. S,QSS,000 avoirdupois) ; cloves and nutmegs
thrive well, (the former cover the tops of the cleared summits,
ifhe latter are found in every part of the valley, one plantation
aSone occupying a space of several square miles) coffee yields
abundantly, extensive fields of pine apples of delicious goilt
are found at the foot of the mountains ; the tea plant grows
wild ; ginger, cinnamon, cotton, tobacco, and in fact every in-
tertropical production is capable of being brought to the
highest state of perfection.

Zoology, &c. — ^The Malayan elk (cervus equinus) is found
in the deep forests ; the mouse and spotted deer are both very
abundant. Monkeys, the lemur volans, the wild cat, otter
and bat form the only indigenous animals ; and the snakes,
as in all tropical isles, are numerous ; a species of boa (the
python of Cuvier) 18 to 20 feet long, is found in the hills.
Beef, mutton and pork are of excellent flavour ; and a great
variety of fish furnish the bazaar.

Population. — When the Company's Establishment was
formed at Penang in 1786, the only inhabitants were a few
miserable fishermen on the sea coast. In consequence of the
disturbances in the Malayan principalities, and the encou-
ragement given to settlers by the E. I. Company, a native po-
pulation^ of various descriptions arose. The population of

586 POPULATION orCENANO CLMBMftKD.

the SettletneDt according to alt the returns before me . ^u

beeo MB follows during the yean

1821 nnraber 38,057. 1^2 Btunber 61,20?. l^M onmbcr 63^669.
1826 - fi6,i 16. 1S27 - £7,966. 1828 - 60,651,
The following Offidat Return* ahevB the motley (x^nib'

t«»of P«naiig!~

iim-"

mil

■~^

"SSSS ' • •

MRail

Ij.-,,,.

, -•MtXId

imBBnuv

-•q«V

5^-ir-. , , ,

3
!

,-,.,

p<n

SJCS-.,.

!'"■

■nntfoaa

S3=-'"

H"'

■«m"o

|5N»=-.

SR3.&

•amapQ

si.par.

HS'S

■«««

|Rsssa'-i

,5 = M

■„„^

SSX^SXi 1

..,,.

^^^

||ia|E=»

Ml!!-

llil

•lonnd

-si

If
P

• lUi Tabli, u >lMi msDr oUien la Ihi Vidnma low pnttstad, lun wm b
printFil, elttier bT Ibc E, I. Compur « by PulUmtnti nod 1 un isdebUd for Ih
mil kBOwn urbanity of Hk Cout g( DtrKtan of the K. 1. Oaarnr-

IMPORTS AMD EXPORTS OF PENANG. AB7

Between October 1828^ and DeceAiber 18S9, the popula-
tion had increased 3000. The number of mouths m»f now
be calculated at upwards of 60,000*

Commerce. — ^The trade of Penang is carried on with Cal-
cutta, Madras, Bombay, England, China, Jara, Ceylon, Siam,
Tenasserim Coast, Acheen, Delhi, Quedah, and a few petty
native ports. In Mr. FuUarton's elaborate paper on the trade
of our eastern islands, printed in the East India papers in
1833, (II. Trade, part 2, Commercial, page 878) it appears
that the total value of imports into Penang were —

In 1828.29— S. Rupees .... 52,23,872
Exports from ditto 36,00,900

Excess— S,R. 16,22,97^

The imports and exports of specie for the same year were

Imports— S. R 8,32,232

Exports 7,19,876

Excess . 1,12,356

The value of imports in S. Rupees from Calcutta was
10,94,986 ; from Madras, 16,95,850 ; Bombay, 2,65,290 ;
England, 1,67,670; China, 2,18,440; Siam, 1,77,610; Tenas-
serim, 1,77,010 ; Acheen, 8,08,513 ; Delhi (a petty state on
the Sumatra shore) 2,04,905; and Quedah, 2,21,200; the
exports value to the same places in succession were 3,57,126 ;
2,38,765; 2,30,146; 50,668; 9,65,834; 96,093; 1,55,152;
10,75,842; 1,58,930; and to Quedah, 1,35,930.
. Of the imports, opium alone consists of upwards of seven
lac of rupees : the other items are comprized of the various
produce of the Straits, or of India and British goods, the
trade being one of transit. Birds' nests for Chinese soups
is one of the most important articles.

Revenue an1> Expenditure.— The Appendix to the Select
Report of the House of Lords, gives the following table of
revenue and expenditure (exclusive of commercial charges)
for nineteen years ; it will be observed that Sincapore and

588 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF PENANG, ^f^CCA^ &C.

Malacca are included in the two last years ; tji^e reductions
ordered in the Court of Directors' Despatch, 7th April, }89^
will ere long enable Penang to meet its expenditure with,ita
own revenues.

Y«Kfe«

■ I * " ■ *■

t81D-1i
1811-1^
1§19-1S
1813-14
1814-^15
1815-16

1817-18

1819-SO
MMMl
1881-23

CHARGES.

99^49*
88,209
78.974
83,680
9J«091
94,563

91,399
80,819
72,582
66.923
66»632

7l»667

68,934

72.a6(V
81.761

98»287
113.682
121,168

1»*896
16.274
18,328
16.945
16.190
16.861

19,<»8
13.451
12,659

u,m

7»79B
8,236
12,754
18*389
14,478
11,885
14,543
^••08

Total
Chargefl.

Interest

on
Debts.

181,817
133,020
10UU7
113,315

115,75;>

117,711

119,684

109,S63

100,277

81,412

76,501

81,412

85,939

98J»7

98.302

118,331

135,894

W9i217

844

253
1,272

Total
Chanes

and
Interest

Revenues „ .
Customs. COMK^

12MW

135,547
I5t|489

1823-24
l8M-a5

1825-26

1826-27

1827-28

1828-29
1829-30
1830-31
1831-32
18391-38
1833-34
1834-35

b The accounts of Sincajmre and Malacca are included in these years ; but for nine months
only in the year 1826-27, tund for the whole year in 1827-28.

The sale of opium is a monopoly in the hands of govern-
ment^ who derive a revenue from it of about 4O9OOO Spanish
ddUars a year ; land^ licenses, and customs, are th« vemainiDg
chief sources of revenue.

70,87*
80,440

6^157

48,891

54.316
53,868
54,801
56,585
57,W7

•49,988
52,822
41,660
44^6
3^.956
38,280
31,422

b 55,744

61.448
42,580
32,568
64,424

63.395

66,660

54,701

43,692.

S4.S85

26^863

t0,990

♦4.279
44,881
62,346

7».ni

104,125
94.745

BxpeBMof

lBclad«dlB

tWCNtW

bmtlalhs

Acc(Mnts«

44^88f

32,822
81,912
32,414

3;
3Sb868

28;g^i

34,382

27,l«t
83,?19

i5,a»4

24,1(4
24J06

38,375

•r4»

ii<

The government of Penang, Malaeca, and Stnonpore,* im
subordinate to the Presidency of Bengal, and the civil ^stab^
IMiment recently fixed as follows v —

' Chief Resident at Singapore, Rupees 36,000 ; First^Awiilttii, "34^^$
Second diUo, 7^200 ^ Deputy Resident at Malaeca^ 24»000; AssiitttI,
7,200 ; Deputy Resident, Prince of Wales's Island, 30,000 ; Assislsnt,
7,200.; Assistant, Province \yel)esley Cexclasive of milU^ P^J)* %W»
one Sur}(eou 9,600, and three Assistant Surgeons at 4,800, 14,400, 24,000;
two Chaplains at 8,500 each, and one Missionary 2,500« 20,000; Qflice
Establishment, 12,000. Total S. Rs. 1,96,200.

OEKfiRAL VIEW OF PENANO ; — MALACCA. 589

As a* cbittmercial and maritime station Penang has many
adrantages ; it serves as an entrepot for the various produce
of China^ the eastern islands and straits^ the native merchants
from which take back ui return British and India goods. It
was at one time contemplated to form an extensive arsenal
and ship-building depot at Penang, and indeed several ^fine
•hips were built there, but the object was ultimately aban-
doned. At present Penang serves as rendezvous for our
naval- squadr^Hi in the Indian seas, for which its position,
iM^thiness, and abundance of provisions admirably quaKQr
it; during the Burmese war Penang was found a most valu-
able station, as it would again be in the event of renewed
hostilities. When, perhaps, the British dominion in Hindos-
tan shall have terminated, or if a violent conviilsion. should
occur to drive us temporarily from its territory, (circumstances
which are not beyond the range of possibilities), the posses-
sioa of such insular stations as Penang, Ceylon, &c. will be
found of incalculable worth. Their value now even is vast,
and it may be expected will be appreciated more and more
every day, as a spirit of enterprize leads our fellow subjects
to a more intimate connexion with the fertile regions of the
eastern hemisphere.

MALACCA.

Locality and Area. — Near the southern extremity of the
long Malayan peninsula* in Lat. 2.14N. Long. 102. IS E.,
18 situated the British settlement of Malacca, extending about
40 miles along shore by SO inland, and containing an area of
800 square miles ; bounded on the N. by Salengore at Cape
Rochado, on the S. Johore, at the river Muar, on the £. by
the Rumbo Country, and on the W. by the straits of Ma-
lacca.

Physical Aspect. — The sea coast is rocky and barren,

* The length of the Peninsula ii 775 miles, with an average breadth of
125 mUes.

590 PHYSICAL A9PB0T AND HISTORY OP MALACCA.

wilh detiushed isleto of caTemoas ro^s^ which the Ghineae
used as places of sepulture. The* interior is iiioiintaiaotis»
(bwig a continuation of the Alpine ehain, wMch runs ftom
the Brahmaputra river in Aisam to the extreniity of die
peninsuhi) ; with several picturesque vallies, the hi gh es t
mountain (named by the natives Lealdang^ by the PortugnoBe
MiWfii OpJtir), has an elevation of 4,000 feet above the seau
Colonel Favqpihar was nearly six hours ascending to the
hightet part of Mount Ophir, the table surface on the Uip
of which does not exceed forty yards square; the whole
n^untain appears to be a solid block of granitei here aoA
there thinly covered with decayed vegetable sofl. Stunted
firs are found near the summit, and the vegetation of the
mountain was quite different from that met with on the plaiaa
and vallies. The principal rivers are the Muar and Liiigtuali,
and die small streams and rivulets from the mountains at^
very numerous. The extreme point of the peninsida is a
cluster of small idands ; the road-stead is safe, and in the
£k W. monsoon vessels not drawing more than 16 feet of wKfifr
are secure in a harbour under the lee of the fert. ColoMl
Farquhar (who has made Malacca his study), Observes, duit
violent tempests never occur at its excellent anchoiteg greulid,
that the Sumatra squalls which are common to the straits
seldom last above an hour or two, and that for upwards of
95 years while the English had possession of the place no
ship had been lost.

History. — The Malayan peninsula, although the great
majority of the inhabitants are Malays (whence it derives its
name), is not the original country of that active, restless, cou-
rageous, vindictive and ferocious people.

The present possessors (or Malayan princes and their sub-
jects) emigrated in the twelfth century, from Palembang in Su-
' Ynatra (the original country of the Malays) about a. d. 1£5S, and
founded the city of Malacca. As they extended their coloni-
zation, die aborigines of the country, who are oriental negroes
wi|th wooUy hair, jet black skin, (the Malays are copper co-
loured) thick lips, and flat nose, like the African, and of

THfi MALATS*-GUMATE OF MALACCA. 591

diminutive stature were driven inknd to the moiintaiiasi where
some of cbrir unfortunate posterity still exist

The Malayan chiefs soon became involved in hostilities with
their neighbours, partlyy perhaps, because their sultan Maho-
med Shahi adopted the Mahommedan religion from the Arabs,
then great traders in the East Although the Malacca people
were able to resist the attacks of the Siamese on their chief
city, they were compelled to yield to the conquering Portu*
guese, who in 1511, compelled Sultan Mohammed Shah the
twdfth of his line, and the seventh of the city of Malacca, to
fly, after an obstinate resistance, to the extremity of the pe-
ninsula, where he founded the principality of Johore, which
still exists. The Portuguese held Malacca until 1640, though
with great difficulty, against the repeated assaults of the Sul-
tans of Adieen, when it was assailed by the Dutch, who cap-
tured it after six months' siege. In 1795 it was seized by the
British, but restored to the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in
1801. On the breaking out of the European war in 1807, it
was again taken by the English, but again restored at the
peace of 1815 ; however, in 1825 it was received by England,
together with the Fort of Chinsurah on t}ie river Hooghly,
SO miles from Calcutta, in exchange for the British settle-
ments on the island of Sumatra.

Climate. — ^The climate b reckoned one of the healthiest in
India, the temperature being uniform, the thermometer rang-
ing from 72 to 85 the whole year round. The mornings and
evenings are cool and refreshing, and the sultry nights of
Hindostan rarely occur. There is no regular monsoon, but
the rainiest months are September, October, and November.
The fluctuation of the barometer throughout the year is
trifling, the range being 30.3 to 29.83, giving an annual varia-
tion of oidy one-fifth of an inch. The average of oaeualties
.in the garrison for seven years was two in 100, a &ct which
attests the salubrity of the climate.

59S

POPULATION OF MALACCA, PAST AND PRESENT.

Population. — The population of the settlemeot of Ma-
lacca,* was in 1750, 1766, 1815, and 1817, thus.

1817. ; 1815,

In the flnt street , 1667

Id the second street { lootf

From TTanqaerah to Condor . . ... 3080

Banda Hlleer to Kaasanff . . .J 6S03

Bingho Rajo to PankaUanv Battoo 0809

19017

1766.

1005

1940
9030
4897
1900

10878

Christians 1008
! Chinese ..1390
j Moors... .1011
, Malays ..8136

7810

1750.

Christians 1330
Chinese ..9lOl
Moors ....ISiO
Malays.... 3013

ffi»

In 183S the population was 22,000, and the following is
the latest return at the India House.

DISTRICTS.

Malacca Town

Trankem Quarter

Bandalier Quarter

Bonffaraya and Boklt China
Klaybang to Bamuan China
Padang Tenimo to Chin Chin
Qaallam Oantee to Semhrang Gajah

Prtngit to Fanchor

Nanning

Total

•

•
^1

TotaL

895

2354

701

151

904

900

4n»

747 506

1050

704

148 19

575

8818

901

134

5,..

771

1M9

130i

003

73t s

17*

1235

4102

149

• •

« . ft m

• •

4951

7908

200

• •

• ■

• •

7537

1705: 313

• •

• «

9I68

1247: ^0

• •

.. '..

• •

1491

4387

.. i..

• •

4a9i

31878

4748

1802

855

490

.I881J18

11817

Itinerants supposed here at this season, about .
Native Militaiy and FoUowers and Convicts, aboot
Europeans and their Descendants, about . .

Total

94610

Abstract of the whole census of Malacca in 18C6.

* The inhabitants of Malacca, in 1830. came to a onanimoua retolotioa
to liberate every sla^e in the settlement Slat December, 1841.

HOVSES AND DIVISION OF POPULATION.

59S

•

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•
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00 to rve«p

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OtoQ ^ « M eo

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So»39

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t-^"^ "O

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^ 2 2 JO O w

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fill

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8

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eo M) lo ei -4

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1

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awwwocfc

<a»«QOH io 'OH

VOL. I.

Natural Productions. —
The staple of the settlement is
tin mines (which are all within
a circuit of S5 miles round
Malacca), which produce, ge-
nerally, 4,000 peculs (a pecul
is 133 pounds avoirdupoise) a
year. In the Tallies vegetation
is extremely luxuriant ; rice
yields from 200 to 300 fold;
the sugar cane is equal to any
produced in any part of the
globe; coffee, cotton, indigo,
chocolate, pepper, and spices,
have all been tried, and thrive
remarkably well. The spon-
taheous productions of the soil
are very numerous, consisting
of an almost endless variety of
the richest and most delicious
fruits and vegetables. The
country is covered with very
fine and durable timber for
ships and house building ; the
Murbon tree, which is nearly
equal to teak, is extremely
abundant. Canes and rattans
form a considerable branch of
the exports ; the forests yield
gums, resins, and oils in great
plenty ; the camphor tree
grows near the S.E. extremity
of the peninsula ; a great va-p
riety of medicinal plants and
drugs are common in the
woods; the nutmeg grows
wild. If the gold and tin

j[94 NATURiVL PRODUCTIONS AND CQMMSaCS OF MALACCA.

mines in the vicinity of Malacca were scientifically worked,
they would prove of great value ; at present, the Malay and
Chinese miners seldom dig b^ow six or ten feet, and, as the
veins become thin, remove from place to place. The gold
from Hoolo Pahang^ 100 miles inland from Malacca, is of the
purest quality ; and there are some small mines of gold at
t)ie foot of Mount Ophir, called Battang Moring, about 36
miles from Malacca.

Birds' nests, wax, cutch, dammeer, fish maws and sharks'
fins (for Chinese soups) rattans, camphor, betelnuts, gold
dust, sago, dragon's blood, iyory, hides, aguilla and sappan
woods, &c. are among the principal piixninctions. Captains
of ships will be glad to heaji; that fruit and vegetables of every
variety are abundant and low. priced, and that poultry, hogs,
buffaloes, and fish are plentiful and cheap. During the pro-
gress of the expedition against Java in 1811, 30,000 troops,
and their followers were abundantly supplied with fresh pro-
visions of every variety daily.

Commerce. — Malacca, being situate between the two great
emporiums of trade in the eastern archipelago, Penang, and
Singapore, the one at the N.W. and the other at the S.E.
of the straits, has necessarily a trade limited to its own con-
sumption and produce. Before the establishment of the two
latter named settlements, and. during the mopopolizing and
sway of the Dutch there, it was a place of considerable
traffic.

Tin forms one of the principal items of export, and as the
free trade captains may perhaps enter into the trade^ it may
be well to caution them of the adulterations practised by the
Chinese and Malay miners. Lead is the metal usually al-
loyed with tin, and in order to detect adulterations, buyers
may readily ascertain (with sufficient approximation to cor-
rectness) the extent of fraud endeavoured to be practised by
melting a standard muster of pure tin in a large sized buUet
mould with a small orifice, and then compare a mould of the
tin under examination, with that of the pure metal, if the
former be heavier, the proportion of adulteration may readily

TXN MIXES OF IMALACCA * ALLOYS OF METALS. S95

he escalated. Antimony has the eflSsct of hardening the ad-
inixtace with lead, thereby increasing the difficulty of detec-
tion, as regards eietemal appearances'.

The tin mines are thus described in the Singapore Chro-
nicle.

The whole Dumber of ChiDamen connected with the mines at Sani^ie
HujoD^ is probably 600, divided into 10 Kang Se's or companies. They*
appeared more respectable, and have a greater command of capital, than
those at Lookut. There they are much fettered by the rajah, and are not
allowed to sell an ounce of tin themselves ; but here there is no such re-
striction. The mode of working the mines is much alike in both places*
except at Sungie Hujong they have the advantage of the Chinese chain-
pnmp, which is used for raising the water out of the mine pit. The ap-
paratus is simple, consisting of a common water-wheel, a circular wooded
chain about 40 feet in circumference, and a long square box or trough,
through which it runs in ascending. The wheel and chain, I think, revolve
on a common axis, so that the motion of the former necessarily puts the
latter into action. The chain consists of square wooden floats, a foot dis-
tant from each other, and strung as it were upon a continuous flexible axis,
hating a moveable joint between each pair. As the float-boards of the
chain successively enter the lower part of the box or trough (immersed in
water), a portion of water is consiandy forced up by each^ and discharged
at the top. At one of the mines we were much struck with the simple but
efficient mode of its application. There were three distinct planes, or ter-
races, rising above each other. On the middle one was the wheel ; the
lower was the pit of the mine : from the higher a stream of water fell and
turned tie wheel, which, puttmg-the whole machine into motion, brought
up another stream from the pit i these two streams, from above and
below, uniting on the middle plane, run off in a sluice, by which the ore
was washed.

The total value of imports iti ia38-29> was S. R. 10,81, 78S,
of exportlB, S.. R. 6, 73, 21 1. The imports of specie amounted
to S. R. 4,ld,717 ; and the exports amounted to S. R. 2,^,
289. The ralue of impcMts from Calcutta is S. R. 1,1S,565 ;
from Madras 2,48,178; from England 1,01,664; and from
small native ports 2,98,l»91.

The accounts, however, of this government, ^s stated hy
Mr. FuUerton are extremely defective.

Weights and Mbasures. — ^Throughout the Straits of Ma-
lacca the common weights are the pecul, catty ^ and tael. The.

596 WEIGHTS, MEASURES^ MONEYS^ REVENUE AND EDUCATION.

Malay pecul three of which make a bahar is heavier than the
common or Chinese pecul, which is = 1334- lbs. Rice and salt
are usually sold by the coyan of forty peculs nearly, and gold
dust by the bunkal zz 832 grs. troy. The gantang (by which
grain, fruit, and liquids are sold) = IJ Eng. gallon is divided
into two bamboos. Twenty gantanes of rice make a bag, and
forty bags a coyan. Cloth is measured by the astah or covidot
6ighteen inches nearly. Land, by the orlong of twenty jumbas
2= 1 J acre.

Currency. — ^The currency of the straits is Spanish dollars
divided into 100 cents. The Dutch rix dollar and guilder
(divided into fanams and doits) are also used, chiefly at Ma-
lacca. One guilder = 12 fanams = 120 doits. The rix doUar
is a nominal coin of about 20 fanams, 31 or 32 of which make
a Spanish dollar. The silver coins comprise dollars of all
descriptions, guilders and half guilders. The copper^ the
cent, half and quarter cent ; there are also doits, stivers,
and wangs, including a great variety of copper coins, of dif-
ferent countries.

Revenue. — When acquired by the British government,
the whole revenue of the settlement was but 20,000 dollars ;
its revenue accounts are now incorporated with those of
the other settlement (Vide Penang).

Education. — One of the most valuable British institutions
in the east, is the Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca, estab-
lished in 1818, by the joint efforts of the late Rev. Drs. Mor-
rison and Milne. The object in view is the reciprocal culti-
vation of Chinese and European literature, and the instruction
of native youths in the principles of Christianity. The native
Chinese students in the college, generally average from 25 to
30, all of whom are on the foundation of the college, receiv-
ing each a monthly allowance. Several valuable and interesting
translations have been made from Chinese books, and English
standard works have been translated into Chinese : a foundry
for types has been established, paper manufactured, and a
periodical commenced. The college is indebted for existence
to private contribution, and it is to be hoped that so useful

GENERAL VIEW OF MALACCA* — SINGAPORE. 597

9n institution will not be allowed to languish for want of sup-
port Attached to the college at Malacca are several schools
jthe whole of which are supported by the London Missionary
Society ; the Chinese schools alone contain nearly 300 boys,
and the Tcunul schools are increasing. The female schools at
Malacca are doing well, and three schools have been esta^
blished by the Malays for the instruction of their countrymen
in the English language. Schools are also established at
Tavoy, Moulmein, and Rangoon. At the latter place, the head
iQaster is a Chinaman, who has been brought up in the
Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca.

General View. — The important geographical position of
the settlement as commanding the straits which form the di-
rect passage from India to China, &c ; its healthiness, and
cheapness render it a fitting place for the establishment of a
seat of government, for th^ eastern settlements ; the advanr
tage of which would be more and more appreciated in our
new commercial arrangements with China. Both Singapore
and Malacca are too distant to be kept as mere Residences
of Bengal i and the Governor General has quite enough to do
already, without attending to those places, although therefore
a general control might be kept up from the supreme Govern-
ment, it would be better to make Malacca head quarters for
our stations in the eastern archipelago.

SINGAPORE (SINGHAPURA.)

Locality and area. — ^This rapidly rising emporium of
trade, is situate on the southern eitremity of the peninsula
of Malaccajust described, in lat. 1.17.2^. N. long. 103.51.45.
E.* of an elliptical form, about from 25 to 27 miles in its
greatest length fr,om E.toW. ; to 15 miles in its greatest
breadth from N. to S. ; and containing an estimated area of
SnO square miles, with about 50 small desert isles within 10
miles around it, in the adjacent straits whose area is about

• This is the position of the town.

5B8 SlNOAPORfi — ITS AREA, PHYSICAL ASPECT, &C.

60 milesi the whole settlement embracing a maritime and
insular dominion of about 100 miles in circumference.

Physical aspect. — ^The island is on the N., separated
from the main land of the Malayan peninsula, by a very
small strait, which in its narrowest part is not more than one
quarter of a mUe wide. On the front, and distant about
nine miles, is an extensive chain of almost desert isles, llie
channel between which and Singapore is the grand route
of commerce between E. and W. Asia. The aspect is knr
and level, with an extensive chain of saline and fresh water
marshes, in several parts covered with lofty timber and hixup-
riant vegetation, — here and there, low rounded sand InDs
interspersed with spots of level ground, formed of a ferm^
ginous clay with a sandy substratum.

The town stands on the S. coast, on a point of land near
the W. end of a bay where there is a salt creek or river navi-
gable for lighters nearly a mile from the sea ; on the E. side
of the town is a deep inlet for the shelter of native boats. The
town consists generally of stone houses of two story high, but
in the suburbs called Campong-glam, Cdmpong^Malacea,
and Campong'-Chinaf bamboo huts are erected on posts, most
of them standing in the stagnant water. On the E. side of
the harbour enterprising British merchants are erecting sub-
stantial and ornamental houses fronting the sea, present-
ing a strange contrast to the wretched tenements of the
Malays. The ground is generally raised three feet, and the
mansions have a superb entrance by an ascent of granite
stairs, then an elegant portico supported by magnificent 6re*
cian columns of every order of architecture : the rooms are
lofty with Venetian windows down to the floors and furnished
in a luxurious manner ; each tenement provided ifith its baths,
billiard tables, &c. while the grounds are tastily laid out with
shrubs of beautiful foIiage» the tot$i ensemble affording aoiost
picturesque prospect from the shipping in th<e rof^dstead.

GsoLOGYi — ^The principal rock is red sand-stone) whiob
changes in some parts to a breccia or conglomerate, contain*^
ing large fragment and crystals of quartz. The whole conti-

CLIMATE AND HISTORY OF SINOAPOEE.

8d»

guous group of isles, about 80 in number, as well ais Sifiga-
pore, ar^ apparently of a submarine origin, and their evulsioft
prdbably of n6 very distant date.

'Climate. — ^Notwithstanding its lowiiess, marehixieGis, kiter^
tropical position and consequent high tempefati!ire, with k
rapid and constant evaporation by a nearly vertical sun,
finom a rank and luxuriant vegetation, and a profusion of
animal and vegetable matter in every stage of putre£icti6n,
Singapore has hitherto prdved exdeiediogly healthy, owfftg
perhaps to its maritime position. Being so near the equator
there is df course little vtoiety of seascms^ nei&er suntmet nor
winter; Fahrenheit ranges from 7V to 89^: die periodical
rains are brief, indistinctly marked, and extending over about
150 days of the year.

Climate of Sioji^pore.

Feb.

March

ApiH

Mar

June

Aaffost

Sept.

0«C6b«r

VOY,

l>ee.

ADDoal
Artngt

BAROMETER.

Greatest Raope.

•

Noon.

M.OS
S0.09

S.97
.99

S9.94
99.96

^.96
.94

30.00
S0.0«
S9.99
1 39.99
99.99
S9.97
99.96
^.99
aO.OS

^.97
99.99
90.M

99.97

99.99

Least Range.

•

Noon. <^
8

THERMOMETER.

99.99
30.00

99.97
^.90
99.91
99.97
994)9
^.96
99 98
1)19.05
99.93
^9«

99.90
99.88
99-83

99.39
99.83
99.8O

39^83

89.60
99.te

^.90

i9.91
99.85

99.87
39.84
99.80
89 63
319.68

99.te
99.8B

99.87
99.87
99.83
99.89

39.89
99.89
99.83
99.84
89.83
89.80
99.8O
89.89

99.95 99.84 99.86

99.88

Gt«ate8tR4

inge.

•

Least Range.

1 •

Noon.

•
0*

•
•<

Noon. 'Ok

76 79

80 79

80
86

76
78

88
79

85
66

74
75

86
65

71
73

79
75

80.9

85.6

73.6

Tl.6

77.6

History. — ^The Malay annals relate that in 125S, A. D. Sri
Iscandar Shah, the last Malay prince of Singapore, being hard
pressed by the king of Majopahit, in Java, returned to the
main land, where he founded the city of Malacca. That the
Dutch or Portugu^e may hav^ settled on the island is pro-
bable from the remains of religiolis buildings and other

600

POPULATION OF SINOAPORS FOR SBVKM YEARS.

structures, which mdicate its having been once thickly in-
habited. On the design of Sir Stamford Raffles the setde-
m^t of Singapore was first formed in February I8I89 and its
sovereignty in its present extent confirmed to Great Britdn
in 1825, by a convention with the King of Holland and the
Malay Princes of Jehore.*

Population. — ^When taken possession of by our estabBsh-
ment in 1820, it had been inhabited for eight years by about
011^ hundred and fifty Mcdays^ half fishermen and half pirates.
Within the brief space of time from 1830 to 1832, its popula-
tion has thus rapidly progressed, (we have no correct data
previous to the end bf 1823.)

Population of'Singapore from the end of 1823 to

beginniog of 1833.

1823

18S4

1836

1886

1837

1838

1883

AOiopcun • • •

111

108

ISi

lit

Native Chrtotiaas

183

306

188

19s

373

380

Anneolans ...

Arabs ....

17 18

Natives of Coromandel and \
Mnlabar - . ./

890

690

605 777

1,095

1,440

1,819

Natives of Benj^ and other \
parts of Hlndofltan - < /

366

SS6

384 ' 344

994

456

400

Indo-Britons ...

.—

Boris* Balinese, &c. -
Bfslays ....

1,851

1,704

1,443

1,343

1.383

1,300

1.716

4,580

5,130

6,697

4.790

5,386

6.760

7,131

Javanese ....

—

146

967

355

634

696

Chinese . . . «

3.317

3,838

4.379

6.088

6,310

7,676

8,517

—

^^^

Total -

10,683

11,851

13.905

13,736

14.886

17,664

30,917

The following Census of the Population (with its divisions)
of the settlement has been furnished me from the India House,
and as it has not before been published, its printing may now
be usefuL

* There is, I believe, a pension of 24>000. Spanish doUarB a year paid by
the E. I. Company to this Rijah, as an equivalent for the cesMon.

DIVISIONS OF SINGAPORE SETTLEMENT,

601

LiBt of the Population «t Singapore on the 1st of January, 1829.

SINGAFORS TOWN.

BtmypMiis
Native Christiaiis

Mfttays

Cblnese

Nattvea of Bengal
Do. of the Coast of \

Arab!

Javaaeie

'n>ui

GAMPONG GLAM.

Europeans
NatWe Clirlatians

Malayi

Cblaese

Natives of Bengal
Do. of the Coaat of 1
Coromandel /
Boggiet, Balaneae, &c.
Javanese ..

Total

ISLANDS.

Xnropeans
Native Christiana
Malays ..
Chinese .*
Natives of Bengal
Boggles, Balanese, te

Toty

9i
104

7
7

001

073

B17

S16
93

1.983

740

7.
304
8
3

1
9

835

10
10

797
99

€7
84

1,010

509

590

—

197

—

000

109
197

8
10

1,010

29
1.470

839
45

104

179

2,992

590

1,083

195

1,390

CAMPONO CHINA.

Barrlleans
Armenians
Native Chrlttlaos

Malays

Chinese

Natives of Bengal
Do. of the Coast of >

Coromandel / *
Boggles, Balanese, &c.

Javanese

Arabs

Total

COUNTRY AND
PLANTATIONS.

Eoropeans
Native Christians

Malays

Chinese

Natives of Bengal
Do. of the Coast of '^

Coromandel / '
Buggies, Balanese, ftc.
Javanese

Total

SUMMARY.

Singapore . .

Campong China
CampongGlam ..
Country and Plantations
Islands

Grand Total

39
18
80
382
4,195
60

1,150

9
83
99

5,950

997

9,089

179

104

440
970

4,073

081

5,950

1.989

4.073

740

13.439

71
458
341

09
55

1,021

3
15

779
39
47

80S
25

1.37»

335
1,031
1,010

1,370
590

151

834

4,400

1,154

137

0,971

1.704

9.191

390

109

811

301

8,349

4,939

1,01
0,971
9,993
5,849
1,330

17,004

Census of Singapore, Ist January, 1833, shewing the proportion of

Maleo to Females.

Europeans
Indo Britons
Native Christians
Armenians

Natives of Coromandel i
andMalahar /

Do. of Bengal and other \
parts .. /

91
50

107
97
90

1,703
889

38 119

40 90

133 300

8 35

I 90

57 1,819

Classes.

Jews

Siamese

Buggies, Ballnese, Oce.

MsSys ..

Javanese ..

Chinese

CaAes

400

794

3,708

301

7,050

8
I

939
3,308

984

807
14

7
1.790
7,181

595

8,517

15,181

Females

8,797

Total

30,978

609 NATURAL PRODUCTIONS*

To the the foregoing mast be added 558 convictoi and

military and their foUowers 600, making a grand total of
SS^OOO mouthsi where a few short years ago there was not
109 ! The leading merchants, agents, shopkeepers, and auc-
tioneers are Englishmen. There are aeveral wealthy CluDeae
merchants, and the balk of the shopkeepers and most valttable
part of the citizens are Chinese, nearly 5,000 of whom arrive
annually from China by the yearly trading junks, about 1,000
of whom remain at Singapore, and the remainder disperse
themselves over the neighbouring islands. The Malays are
chiefly fishermen, and the natives of the Coromandel coast
boat-men.

Society is divided as at Presidencies, into four distinct
castes*-- 1 St. The civilians of the Company. Sd. The military.
3d. First class merchants. 4th* Second class merchants,
shopkeepers, &c. ; and, as in all small communiliea, diey are
exclusive in their eotmes.

There are an American Missionary and two Roman Catho-
lics, but as yet no house of worship. A Romish chapel is in
progress, and near its completion ; and some who would not
give a farthing for their own religion, are liberal enough to
contribute handsomely in aid of a church for others. The
humbler dasses are uneducated, but honest and faithful to
their employers.

Natural Productions. — From the foregoing description it
will be seen that the island can as yet have few indigenous pro-
ductions; it is in fiict a commercial emporium, and probably
will never be much more. Its chief staple is the agaragar of the
Malays, (fucus saccharinus)^ a plant like fern, which abounds
on the coral shoals around Singapore, and j>roduce8 in China
from six to eight dollars per pecul, in its dry bulky state. By
die Chinese it is converted into glue, paint, &c. &c., for glas^
ing their cottons, and sacrifice paper ; the finest portion is
made into a rich jelly, which makes a delicious sweetmeat
when preserved in syrup. The harvest of this sea-weed is
from 6,000 to 12,000 peculs annually.

There are about 10 si^o manufactories at Singapore, giving

COJIllfiROE or -SIKaAPORE.

eos

employment to 200 Chinese manufiMStwen ; the quantity of
pearl sago exported from the island duris^g 18M was — U^
England, peculs 17,030; Calcutta^ 1,700; Bombay, 970;
Chuia, SOO; Cape, 150; Hamburgh, 1,870; America, 300;
Madras, &c. 780; — total, 23,100 peculs. The sago is not

grown in the island, but brought in its rough state from
omeo, &c.

Commerce. — ^No accounts of the trade of the island were
kept prior to 1824, since then the value of the imports and
exports have been as follows : —

Yemr.

Imports.

Both.

Year.

Imports.

Exports.

Botb.

1824
1838
1830
1837
1838

1,455,509 £
1,333.917 ..
1,301.978 ..

1.488.599..
1,901,130 ..

1.390.308 £
1,398.730 ..

1.388.300 ..

1.387.301 ..
1,804,000..

2,845.717 £
3.553,708 ..
2.750.284 ..
2,875,800 ..
3,705,780 ..

1829
1880
1831
1833
1833

2,121,559 £
1,875.350..
1,7804)94 ..

1,870,250 £
1,830,034 *.
1,505,157 ..

3.997>809£
8,701.984 ..
3,340,151 ..

The account of its trade with different countries will be
seen l^y the following return of the comparative statement
of the trade of Singapore, (imports and exports), with the di&
ferent countries in 1830-31 and 1831-32, &c.

ComptntiTo Stetanent of the Imports sad Exports of Stac^^ora far 1830-31 simI J881*m.

lasports.

Exp
18«M1

orts.

Oonatiies.

188»-S1

1881-33

1881-43

SngUuid Sp. D.

PovslflM XfBxipe ■■■•.. •>•• >•

1,101,945
74,301
31,508

5,897

1,315,958

48,733

105.035

3,857,505

1,185,096

84.915

300,007

37,717

13,734

187,898

375,595

48«434

334,340

344.170

7»,148
304,153

17.038
110,871

1,514.004

81,303

ObOlO

7.008

1,073.853

141,049

91,575

3,483,959

973.978

93,310

343.980

130,403

7,841

35,390

151,589

330,371

37.904

1734>17

389.087

53.471

40,308

9,055

118,135

3,535,570
99>0»7

18,484
1,001,080
135,714
193,135
899,305
543,869

01,048
149,449

40,778

14,849
725

107,511
410,093

80,588
3584)34
193,339
102.829
104,700

14,084
175,875

3,837,930
38,990

Kent)) AlPforli^^rr

Ilsailtiiis. fte....*

13J001

Cslcattm

879,559

Msdns

148,57a

IIOinlMT m ,, ,-, '1 - ■,

173,501

Chlllft r f

735,413

jATa

359,198

RhiO

75,039

Siam t. .....-T.,

313,180

IVm^iIr f!!hina.

223,405

CstIob. ,

Ackeeo and N. Pepp. Ports. .
nil II win

l0ft,S88

310,145

mx^M

94.044

Cslebes

107,710

£^fiiM> «.■.....

178,0111

Bsllj ,.„,-,.

53,590

■anills

33,338

7*700

'3^"*'^ "hO^ISm JUCaa «•»■«■•«■•■

134.784

Total Sp. D.

8,458.731
7,930.974

7,930.974

8,371,233
0,941,543

0.941,543

Diflbreac*

531,757

1,339,081

firm
Malseea. . Squan Rin«d. V. Sp. D. 88.180

01tto....KatiTsQnft 81,978

Penanf . . Sqaare Rined 318,307

Ditto.... NaUve Craft 35,378

HyiH'lt^f to

SqoanlUned, 104.755
Nattvs Craft. .. . OiJHW
Square Rinircd. . 230,720
NattTe Craft. .. . 70,411

604

SHIPPING AT 8IMGAP0RE.

Shipping at Singapore, 1833-34: —

Statement of the X^umber and Tonnage of square^riggeci Veasek which
have Imported into and Exported from Singapore, during the official
year lS3d-d4, compared with the preceding year.

IMP0BT8.

BXPOBTS.

1883-1833.

1833-1884.

1834-1886.

1839-1838.

1838-1834. 1834-1836.

No.

Tons.

No.

Tons.

NO.

Tons.

No. Tons.

No.

Tons.. No.' Tods.

Oremt Britain .

18 1

OszO

7764

9800

8083

GontlDental Europe % 8

051

lOOl

681

1150

America ,

670

615

231

800

MaarltiM

• •

819

• •

838.

Boarbon

* •

■ •

451 1

43780

103

50043

Cbina

igioo

84743

1740

2379J

MaDllla

09iH

0008

8448

9734:

Calcntto

10517

171&4

8160

4081 i

Madras

3456

8808

18867 80 i

14019

Bombay

88000

33958

300

1848

Arabia

• •

748

609!

lloolmein

• •

• ■

70!

110

308

Ceylon

3dg

889:

108

14480

3507

Malacca

9008

688OI

3601

8018

Penangr

' 54

9573

0«47|

10085

14809

Jara

17033

138841

1496

3605

Sumatra

590

3174

6700

967

Rhio

1547

7881

900

8673

Biam

038

1084

1860

1645'

Cocbln Cbina .

987

770

659

301

N. S. Wales

3000

583S

831

• •

• ■

Ci4>e of Good Hope

805

• •

. •

• •

• ■

Borneo

337

1781

874

1507

Tringianu & other \
native Ports . /

803

743!

• •»

Arracan, RaDg:oon\
and Chlttagonff /

* 9

• •

830

Pega

m •

• •

m •

160

• •

m m

Ball and Eastemi
Islands . . /

4 •

■ •

39s

• •

429

• •

' 437

420

130443

473

137398

119836

474

130349

The number of vessels under each flag is thus shewn : —

Import Tonnage 1833-34, ty tquare-rigged Feuds ; under tehai Flags.—
From Great Britain, 28 vessels under British flag ; Continental Europe, 2
French, 2 Hamburgh, 2 Danish, 1 Portuguese; /r/^^/Vviice, 2 British,
I French ; China, 42 British, 1 Hamburgh, i Danish, 4 Dutch, 9 Portu-
guese; Manila, 15 British, 1 Danish, 4 Spanish; Calcutta, 38 British, 2
Portuguese ; Madras and Coast, 9 British, 1 French ; Bombay and Coast,
41 British, 1 French, 9 Portuguese; Arabia, 2 Arab ; Moulmein, I British;
Ceylon, 4 British ; Malacca, 66 British, 8 Portuguese ; Penat^, 43 Bri-
tish, 1 Danish, 1 Portuguese, 1 Malay ; Java, 3 British, 1 Hamburgh, 67
Dutch, 2 Cochin Chinese ; Sumatra, 8 British, 1 Hamburgh, 1 Danish, 5
Dutch, 2 Malay; Rhio, 4 British, 1 French, 1 Americaa 1 Skm, 5 British;
Borneo, 6 British, 7 Dutch ; Cochin China, 1 French, 2 Cochin Chinese ;
Tringanu, 6 British, 1 Dutch ; N, S. Wales, 15 British ; Bali and Eastern

NATIVE CRAFT.

605

Isiandi, 1 Portuguese ; Bourbon, 2 French ; U. S. Atnerica, 2 American.
Totals — 325 under British flag, 9 French, 5 Hamburgh, 6 Danish, 3 Ame«
rican, 92 Dutch, 23 Portuguese, 4 Spanish, 2 Arab, 4 Cochin Ghinesey 3
Malay. Grand Total — 475 vessels, tonnage, 137.298.

Native craft : —

Statement of the Number and Tonnage of Native Vessels, Prahus, and
Junks, which have Imported into and Exported from Singapore during
the offidal year 1833-34, compared with the preceding year.

IMPORTS

China

Cochinchinft and Cambcda

Stam ....

East aide of the Penlosula

Borneo • .

Celebes

Ball]r ....

Java ....

Somatra . .^

Peoanff

Malacca

West Bide of the Peninsola

Bhlo ....

Ndfhboor latands

1884-1835.

No.

143

618

SSI

185

Ton*
1M7

996
4397
8097
8S91
1818

964
3347
3531

475
S376

474
318S
1633

No.' Tons
S7i 4643
49 3010

138

63
73
514
8
60
46

3793
1689
3«96
1345
1566
2986
3744

430
3608

341

3511 3613
830' 3075

1466 38714 1599 34037

Ko.

TODB

EXPORTS.

1833-1883.

18S3-1834.

1834-1885.

No. Tone

No.

Tons

No. Tons

13 2675

1447

86 3307

87, 1966

3990

17l 8537

111

8557

76, 1565

1704

148 3331

1985

103; 2041

1915

73' 8043

467

44 3120

470

3433

897

3309

725

447

3181

3003

487

36. 350

SOS; 45381 364

3863

187

1 2015

,814

3055

1495 30178 1480 29877

Gold forms one of the most valuable imports of Singapore.
The principal portion is from Pahang on the coast of the pe-
ninsula, and it is considered superior to the metal brought
from other places. The various places whence this import-
ant product is shipped for Singapore will be seen by the re-
turns for 1831*

From Ports on E. Coast of Peninsula :
Pahang — bunkals — 1,285. Calantan— ^itto— 300.

From Borneo :

Lambas— bunkals— 1,608. Pontiana— ditto— 633. Soongai Rayeo— 417
Papes ditto 58. Bintoola— ditto — 20. Banjar, &c. 32

Sumatra — Jambie — bunkals- 104. Campar — ditto — 160.
Celebes u\^A ditto 560. Other islands 31. Total— 8,103.

Or (7««i>#»— 405— bunkals-^.
The greater part of this immense quantity is sent to Calcutta
for opiumi &c.

* A cattle is 1 lb. and l-3rd avoirdupob.

€66 GENERAL VIEW OF SINGAPORE.

General view. — ^As a commercial nmrt, and key to the
Rairigation of the seas, in which it is situate, this settlement is
of incalculable importance ; we have seen by the foregoinjf
accounts, that it has sprung up within the short space of ten
or twelve years from a desert isle to a rich and flourishing
settlement, exporting annually 3,000,000/. worth of ^oods. It
has two periodical journals well conducted ; its inhabitants
are imbued with a manly and independent spirit, and its trade
is as yet but in its infancy. The opening of the Chinese mar-
ket will not diminish its resort, but on the contrary, increase
it ; situate as it is in the centre of myriads of active and in-
dustrious nations, inhabiting rich and fertile lands, abound-
ing in every species of tropical produce, of which Europe,
America, or C!hina has need, ready to receive in return the
manufiustures of Britain to an almost illimitable extent, and
being unmolested in its progress by harbour duties, dues, or
charges of any description, it requires nothing but a witii-
drawal of England from her narrow minded and miserable
commercial policy of excluding eastern produce, to make our
trade with the Asiatic Archipelago (of which Singapore is
now the entrepdt) one of the mmt valuable branches of oar
mercantile connexions.

[In the preceding edition a compiete view was fp:wen ofilie
Chinese Empire, whieh it was neoeesary toionit in the pM*
sent, owing to the lai^ quantity of additional andpidiportant
matter furnished from the India House; and which was' of
course more intrinsioally valuable than that portion rdating
to China.]

607

CHAPTER XL

BRITISH POSSESSIONS IS ASIA, IN A CBRISTIAK, POLITICAL, AND

COM MBRVnkL POINT OP TI8W.

Thi} ChrUtian and the mefalist who i» aecustomed to trace in
the records of pa9t ageB the benefioent diapensations of thfr
Snpreme Disposer of eyents^ as regards, man in his eollecdre
as well as individual state, will not fail to perceive, that sinee
the tkne of E^abeth, England has risen from a small insu-
lated kingdom to a vast marUime empire totally difEbrent ia
formation, and in constitution from any dominion that haa*
heretofore been established <m earth, and it will also be seen.
(by the subsequent Tolumes of this- work) that no part of this
unparalleled empire is more deserving of deep consideration,
in a philanthropic, political or commeroial point of view, than:
the British possessions in Asia^ As travellers are wont, when-
ascending a lofty eminence, to pause and contemplate the
scene above and beneath, let me entreat the reader, who has
aocompanted the author through the foregoing. unavoidably
monotonous detail of facts, to reflect on by-gone events. I
will suppose him a Christian (and of course a philanthropist)
intensely solicitous for the dissemination of the pure and mild
precepts* of religion, and desirous of extending the blessings
of education among untaught millions, and of rescuing the
land of the heathen fit>m the dark and degrading idolatry iut
which it was unhappily plunged, amidst a sea of misery and
vice: to such an individual I would say, how rapid, how
strange, how incredible almost has been the rise and progress,
of the British power in the east. We first visited its pic*
turesque and fertile shores as a race of needy adventurers,,
thirsting for gain, and perhaps but little scrupulous as to the
means by which it was to be acquired; in a brief space. of
time we rose from petty traders to be sovereigns over

COS INTERPOSITION OP THE DEITY IN MUNDANE APFAIRS.

lOOyOOO^OOO of intelligent and comparatively civilized human
beings ; in our progress reducing the elements of chaos, of
rapine, and of murder into social order, security and peace.
Will any reflecting person say that all this was tHe work of
blind chance ? Will he have the hardihood to assert, that no
overruling Providence swayed the destiny of Britain, giving
victory to the few, strength to the weak, and power to the
merciful ?

To him who now writes, the finger of the Almighty is over
all his works — ^in the mineral, in the vegetable, in the animal
kingdoms ; on the earth and in the sea, and throughout the
heavens. Conscious of this as of existence, can he deny to
the creator and preserver of the universe a complete govern*
ing control over the actions of His creatures, especially in
those of such momentous importance, as the dynasty of na-
tions, and the temporal as well as spiritual welfare of millions?

Human agency, it is true, has been the only visible means
of accomplishing the formation of the British power in Asia,
but how multitudinous are the occurrences of everyday life,
which teach that the battle is not to the strong, nor the race
to the swift ? Let us search the recesses of our own hearts,
and we will find that in hours of sickness and sorrow, we invo-
luntarily turn our thoughts to the contemplation of a supreme
regulator of our actions ; and shall we in prosperity deride
and deny that unseen, yet omniscient Being, whose favours
we are so ready to solicit in afiliction and in adversity ?

To contend, therefore, against the interposition and aid of
the Deity, in the British acquisition of India, would be as im-
pious as it would be untenable in argument. Why do I ad-
vert to it ? To point out the best course which, as Christians,
we are bound to adopt towards the myriads of fellow-crea-
tures so mysteriously subjected to our sway, being assured,
that unless our conduct be regulated by the precepts of Chris-
tianity, all human power and human efforts will be like unto
tinkling cymbals and sounding brass.

Wh^n the British Government became masters of India,
their first duty was the establishment of general tranquiDity;

FORCIBLE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY DEPRECATED. 609

a lovely and beautiful land, which for ages had been a stranger
to social concord^ now for the first time^ within the memory of
man enjoys the inestimable blessings of peace. What be-
came of the second Christian duty of the government ? The
difiiision of education^ the implanting of light where there
had been heretofore darkness, the inculcation of knowledge
among the ignorant. For a view of the efforts now in pro-
gress to accompUsh this holy object — this stepping stone to
Christianity^ I refer to the preceding pages, and in doing so,
I would call on all who have the worldly means at their dis-
posal, to aid by their contributions those^good and pious men,
who, forsaking the comforts of civilized life, and all the name-
less endearments of home, devote their very existence to pro-
moting the weal of their dark brethren.

Let it not be thought that in a blind and mistaken zeal, the
compukory introduction of Christianity among our eastern
brethren, is advocated : had I not the example of the Portu-
guese Roman Catholic fanaticism and its fatal consequences
before me ; yet would I abstain from inculcating such a course ;
knowing that that which is acquired by violence is transient
as the passing breeze, and that a faith on which the exercise
of reason is denied, can only be maintained by fraud propa*
gated by force.

The British authorities in the east have set a wise example
to rulers. Among their earliest decrees, was the permission
of the free and peaceable observance of all forms of worship^
which were regarded as religious by the worshippers^ and
the recognition of all rights and tl$e protection of all pro^
perty connected with the religion of persons resident within
their jurisdiction : thus securing to their subjects the laws,
religious institutions and distinctions, which the antiquity of
ages had consecrated, yet at the same time, leaving that which
was objectionable in a moral sense, open to the cautious, pro-
gressive, and permanent amelioration which the instruction of
the Hindoos would undoubtedly suggest. Warned by the
fate of their predecessors (the Mahommedans and Portu-
guese) no religion was engrafted on the State, (even the pro*

VOL. I. R R -

610 SEPARAtlON OF CHTTRCH AND STATE IN INDIA.

testant bishops in India have never had a seat at the council
board as is the case in some of our colonies) and every com-
munion was not merely tolerated but protected and auxifi-
arized.* In return for this toleration and protection^ human
sacrifices, infanticide (in 1800), maritime and internal traffic
in slaves, witchcraft (in 1789), cruelties, widow burning
(finally in 1829) &c. were successively prohibited. Mutila-
tions for oflTences, and in a great degree capital punishments
abolished. Equal rights accorded to all firom the nabob to
the peasant, and every possible means taken for making our
government of India one of moral rather than physical force.
That much has been done in India to gladden the christian's
heart is indisputable, all that remains is to follow up with
temperate and steady perseverance the course of instruction
now in progress throughout our Eastern possessions, and the
adjacent territories, whether by government or by Church,
Wesleyan, Baptist, American or Moravian missionaries, for it
is only by such proceedings we can effectually prepare the
natives of British India for the government of their own
country at some future period, and make them, whether po-
litically separated from — or connected with — England, bound
to us in the deepest ties of human affection. We found
100,000,000 Hindoos parcelled out like cattle, beneath the
sway of an hundred despots, exhibiting amidst their myriads
of diversified population, no grandeur of intellect — no capa-
ciousness of soul — all one groveling mass of mortality, re-
duced for the greater part to a state of domestic servitude,
and under the debasing influence of a superstition, for which
nothing was too gross and revolting, while their country was
periodically ravaged by fire, famine, pestilence and the sword ;
it would be a -libel on human nature to say that there was no
gratitude among the Hindoos to England, for rescuing diem
from their past misery ; we have it now in our power to con-
vert that gratitude into a deep — a permanent affection ; away
then with the ignoble, the selfish, the degrading idea, that

* Re«nilatioD6 of the Bengal Government in 1793, to 'protect the na-
tives in the exercise of their reli|pon.'

SEPARATION OF HIND03TAN FROM £NGLAND. 611

by educating the Hindoos^ we shall the sooner enable them
to expel our dominion from Hindostan ; would a parent refuse
to educate his child^ lest the latter should become wise as its
father^ and thus dispute his paternal authority — an authority^
which in a well regulated "mind is based on love ? No ! — I will
not demean my country by supposing that such unworthy
thoughts are to any extent entertained, and let those who fear
for the breaking up of the integrity of the empire, remember
that the Ruler, who in his infinite wisdom, thought fit to sever
the N. American provinces from Britain, and almost immedi-
ately raised up in the East, a dominion greater than that lost
in the West, will find a substitute for the Anglo-Eastern Em-
pire, should He at a future period decree the separation of
Hindostan fr^om England.

Having now demonstrated concisely, but it is to be hoped
satisfactorily, the manifold advantages which have accrued
to a very large portion of the human race on a retrospection
of the British occupation of India, let me next be permitted
to address the statesman with reference to the said occupa-
tion in a —

Political Aspect. Territory (and most especially mart"
time possessions) wisely governed is power. When the na-
tions of Europe, at the commencement of the seventeenth
century, started into active competition for dominion, and
nearly half the globe was divided by treaty between two of
England's most violent religious and political opponents ;* —
England must either have been content to remain as a petty
island, or enter into the strong contest for power which then
arose between Spain, France, Holland, Portugal, &c. Hap-
pily for England, the wise Elizabeth then swayed its desti-
nies, her prophetic mind foresaw the coming, events of ages,.
and with a noble patriotism rarely equalled, seldom or never

♦ The first stipulation of this extravagant agreement was, that all new
found countries to the north of the Canaries should belong to Spain, and
all southward to Portugal. A treaty was subsequently signed and sanc-
tioned by Pope Julius II. by wliich the meridian of demarcation was re-
moved 270 leagues farther west, in favour of Portugal !

G12 BRITISH COLONIES IN ASIA

excelled, the whole energies of this highly gifted woman,
were turned to the acquisition of maritime dominion for
England ; suffice it here to say, that the first East India Com-
pany charter was not merely granted by Elizabeth, but its
success promoted by every means in her power; on the de-*
mise of one of England's greatest sovereigns — her colonial
policy and principles (with few omissions) were continued
down to the present generation, and as Britain's maritime
empire extended, whether in the east, or in the west, in the
north, or in the south, her power and her glory, and I trust
her wisdom became wonderfully enlarged. The opposition of
Portugal, of Spain, of Holland, of France, of indeed all our
enemies successively sunk — diminished — became to us as
nought, as we rose in maritime possessions ; the balance of
power in — as well as the battles of — ^Europe, were regulated,
and fought in our colonies and on the ocean ; and England
after contending against all Europe single handed, not for pre-
eminence, but for her very existence as an independent king-
dom, became the arbitress of the destinies of the world.

Commercial Prospects. — If the two foregoing reasons be
in favour of our occupation of the Eastern Colonies, what
shall we say with reference to them in a mere mercantile
point of view ?* Let the reader place the map of Asia before
him ; at the central extremity of that splendid continent,
most admirably situate for maritime or internal commerce, he
will find the Anglo-Indian Empire, and around it several
million square miles of the richest territory, teeming with up-
wards of FIVE HUNDRED MILLION of iudustrious and compa-
ratively civilized human beings ! What a prospect for Eng-
lish commerce — for British industry and capital — does such a
scene present ; nations of various colours, creeds and lan-
guages, rich to overflowing with every tropical product ; —
for whose advantage earth, air and ocean seem combined to
pour forth their inexhaustible treasures, and who offer in ex-

* The connection of Enfi^land with her transmarine possessions — apoli-
tical, social^ and commercial^ will be amply developed in my * Colonial
Policy.*

IN A POLITICAL POINT OF VIEW, 613

change for the manuractures and productions of our temperate
zone— silk, cotton, sugar, tea, coffee, tohacco, spices, fruits,
timber, corn, oils, colours, drugs, dyes, wool, iron, tin, cop-
per, gold, silver, &c. &c., in boundless profusion — in limitless
quantities !

Heretofore we have almost spurned the bounteous offerings
of an ever-beneficent Providence ; — ^by fiscal laws we have
nearly shut out from England the productions of half the
earth, and thus madly increased domestic poverty ; but it is
to be hoped that a better system is now commencing ; we
have reduced the import duty on some Colonial articles, and
if the principle be just in regard to minors, how much more
so is it in reference to the great articles of traffic which enter
into the consumption of the bulk of the people.

That this great step (the reduction of import duties on Co^
lonial produce) will ere long be accomplished I have every
hope of; I look not despairingly on the present commercial
position of England, on the contrary, I see every thing around
me to cheer and excite the most languid spirit ; I witness a
great and glorious moral revolution in Britain, — I behold the
only security for the maintenance of an Empire — popular re-
presentation, aided by a free press — renovated and extend-
ed ;♦ I view with inexpressible delight the spread of educa-
tion, which, though primarily superficial, will become ulti-
mately profound ; — I exult in the liberal principles which are
being established, in our maritime possessions, the invigorate
ing shout of which is re-echoed across the Atlantic, and I
glory in the prospects of freedom for our colonial commerqe,
so capable of rendering us independent of the whole world, —
of giving profitable employment to our half-starved popula-
tion, thus renovating the social fabric at its base, and making
England more secure in her dominion over the ocean, — ^more

* Let me be understood as hoping, that if on the one hand democratic
principles are beinj;^ extended, so on the other the Kingly office should be
strengthened ; a balance must be maintained between the Crown and the
people, and for the sake of the latter it is absolutely necessary to preserve
the former efficient.

616

APPENDIX A.

No. 2.— List of Zomeendan and their Estates of the Khalsah of Sumbhol-

pore paying Rent to the Rannee.

Names of Zemindars.

Names of Estates.

Abdoot Siof .

Ttdochiin Rae
Bnlbadder Rae
Loba Sing
MedDle Benya
SreeRam
Bhowany Sing
Bemmallie Ohenowta
Byjinnath Do.
Norharrie

Dorravroa Rood .
Arjoon Oharrowtie
Boonath Rae

Nnmber of VUIafl^es
Inhabited held by each.

BIssiKela .

Pahar SirgeiTa .
Lackenpore Banda, &c.
Korml ...

Khemmoonda .

Roosra and Jehi^pore .
Barpallie
Colabera . •
Lera . • . •
Rampore

Borapan ...
Q^har Lohll Sinf
Rooriebagga and Bonea-
pnllie •

71 » Rifht bank of the
Blahanaddie

fl.

Do.

«•

Do.

18,

Do.

40,

Do.

4S, Left bank Do.

la.

Do.

4«.

Do.

11.

Do.

Hie remalninf Vinages of Kalaah are under the Rtaannles Khaas management. *

No. 3. — Zemindars of Oangpoor.

!9nmberof

Amount of

Villages '

Mnlgoozaito

Names of Zemindars.

Names of Estates.

inhabited

Payable to

held by

S3 £

Ganjipore

each.

RaJah.

S R. iA.'P.

Norharrie Gharrowtea .

Snrraf Ghor RiO*b Behal .

10 '.. ..

Anjloo Gnrrowtea .

SorrofGhar

30 '.. |..

Mooroo Manjee

HemJee

SOO

80 ).. <..

Ghassie Ohonowtea

Bansghor .

.. |..

Ghoojaxrie Manjie •

NIJa ....

Joojar Manjie

Snbdva

Bhocfwan Manjie .

Moorkya and TlUea

150

100

Dhnn Sing Manjie •

Moholgaon

360

Hie rest of the Villagea are divided amongst the Rajah*s Relations, and under the Ri^ah*s

Khass Management.

No. 4. — A List of Zemindars of Autmullick.

Names of Zemlndan and MuUlcks.

* Zemindar
Zemindar
Zemindar
Zemindar
Zemindar
Zemindar
Zemindar
Zemindar

Nemdoo Roonnie and MoUick Mudoo .

Sudasoo Ohnrrowtea and Mnllick Dergoo

Kushnoo Deree Mnllick Piodoo

Korrya Pordban M nUlck Soma .

Rattee Deree Mnllick Madon

Sabnath Bnga Molllck Qnndnpoo .

Mnklndee Biswal Molllck Nomloo

Rattle Ball and Kadassie Berwal Molllck Lnchie

NamberoT

Names of

Villages

Inhabited

held by each.

Oorooda

Bamnr .

Mendool

Tamsahi

Dola Singo .

Rannie Band .

Pyre and Cool

APPENDIX A.

No. 5. — Lilt of Ettates aad Zumeed&riea under the Superiotende)
Agent of the S. W. Frontier.

617

le of the

Kui»archlc(i

(omwlT dc.

ptnitnt^lKtbt

I'i

aa"K

Cp-

i^-

Boud, alns-

NemeiDf

bhoom ud

&itete>OT

CHleb* Nuna.

'igte

Coirpm".'

lUneeMobimCoo.

S-Bhh«lpo«

>•

9U0O

erIUJpoolui.

lU]*h Pf1th«

Sobopoor

dcnda of 3um-

Slut tUJpoot.

Ftrainlr d^n.

IM>h Jann

Quipooc

<MW

denclei of Sud.

Deo Bicker

mjpoot.

FonnerlT ie^tu.

BAla 81ns Ron

SulDChoI

7»«»

dcnria o( Bam-

Slug Good.

bholpore.

Rejelijiiderdto

BODie

lt«)*hLDTDldMl

*MKI

Rejepoot.

BiMhepchDidM

u 0*00

Jve Bejepoot,
Tele Konsr Dew

B«taO

It IMO

uee Oandeii.

THakoor AJett

Borpur

Vmm

Sln( Good.

aV*ii Deovrntb

RyeBbur

as i»o«

PlltDB

m'soo*

Deo lUJepoot.

RiOah Rutitot

Kongmr

40)*SM

I^j

bin; Rejpool.

Rijmh Piltlile

Bholcec

lihab Qond.

lUjab Ackbee

Nondiiir

40 MM

Ml* Clrnnde,

SthOodd.

M'jom

dcncT or Bond.

vet lUJepoot.

40OD

...r:.r ;31«gbh«m

1339

«<

—

AJomber Sing 1 Strrlekela

7WW

sssss:"'^'"'

Eoou Heje-

pODt.

Ammile SIde ll«-

*7B

i»a

Jepoot

ODmu SiDg BaMi

Buigoojah

1170

l«8

lUlBIXHt.

1*1. Zanlndar

Run «DS.

Jnibpoor

SON

Pkr* tribute to

smass.

JuibpoocWOS*

nil." ZenlndM'

DeenctBlDf.

Oodeypoof

131

7«

<«

90*0

p«r» tilbaU to

^■iritoo). Rti^

"■■

618

APPENDIX A.

No. 6. — ^Zemindan of Korea.

Names of Zemlodurt.

Names of Zemlnda*
ries and Pergnnnalit.

No.ofVll.

lagea held by

each.

Amoant of Malgoo-

lanec payable to

the Rijab.

S. R.

p«

Ratten Sing Good

Kargaon .

ISO

Dnrgoo Sing ....

Patna

I«l

Beemt .....

Juggnlpoor

Almaah Good ....

Burbespoor

«l

Beer»ah Pap ....

Surrowlie

•

Poblad Pap ....

Harrle Mnttee

Brittlnnee Sing Gond

Marroar .

Ponaud Sing Goad .

Kuchoar .

LallahPap . . . .

Knilane . . .

100

Sonkersah Rajepoot .

Kusgaon .

100

Adject Sinff Dewan

Addadarrie

MohtpotSlngLalloo •

Amrn

RiO^b R*>D ....

Buggowlie

• •

1,0M

i ••

• «

No. 7. — Names of Zemindars, Jagheerdars, and their Estates of Surgoojah
paying Rent and subject to Rajab Oomer Sing.

Namber of

BstimatMl

Amount of

Names of Zemlndaza and

Names of

Inhabited

Armed Foroea

Malgooaarle

Jagheerdan.

Estates.

VUlages

on eacb

paid by eacb to

bold by each.

Batate'

Oamer Sing.

Rampoor •

300

It is not kaowB

of the Rajah.

bow mocb, if
anything, ia paid
by the brother
to the RaJab.
Ra.606

Baee Sing

Ramcola

400

Dripnath Sah, Zemindar • . JellmilUe

400

401

Runnle Kemchnn Koai, Wife of PuharbariUa

7«

300

103

Rajah's Cousin.

Poddennath Sing, relation of

Kondoo

400

401

Rajah.

Prithee Pab Sing, Zemindar .!Foll •

600

876

Dewan Rugoober Sing, ditto .jPalka .

600

ISO

G^)roop Sing, ditto .

Kotesarree

100

Govlndnath Sah, ditto

Loondra

300

401

Beinath Sab, Uncie of ^n^th,

Snrwa, Fatta

800

101

ditto.

Panee.

Bowanr Bnkah, Brother of Ra-
jah, ditto.

Chitgalla.

400

301

Mnngnlpoor

Ram Sing, R^Jab's Unde .

Belnapoor

100

not known.

Chano, &c. .

100

110

Oodenath Sing, relation of Ra.

Mnrwa .

160

Jah.

Ogar Sing, Zemindar •

Rijiketa

ISO

163

1
!

4,071

[I am induced to give these details because they have never before been
printed, and have recently arrived from India ; — and 2ndly, because they
show the exceedingly complicated nature of the British sivay in the East.]

APPENDIX A.

619

No. 8. — List of the Roudwan Estates ander the Agency, specifying the
Names of their Estates and Number of Villages therein.

Names of S^emindan.

KhoUyao Bhooree
Josagaohie M axi^Jee

Not ascertained .
DartaKooar

Chuttoo Derea and
Momgloi MoUick

Thannoo Mnllick
Ramdoo Manjee
Rnttoo Mollif k .

Damodur Kooar .

Ahle Biaojee
Doondee Manjee
Seeroo Pater Mai^ee
Sabboo Manjee .
Dtcksnn Bhovee
Alum BoTee
Ditto .
Aijoon Kooar

Ganga Bhooee
Barkrai Manjee

Bubaoo MalUck
Gndda MoIUck
OobU MuUlck
BugwanSaboo

Names of
Zemindaries.

Number of

VUlages

on eacb

Estate.

Kodoorka .
Toork .

Boorghur .

MolUck Puddu
of Bnlwenada

Armool

Chunmakoor
Sormoonda
Ponckora .

Borrapallee

Kamsurra
Oowka
Toopa
Sooa .
Boorka
Boorboocha
Snder KalUe
Moboora

Purdonnie .
Kutunga

Oordool
Bagbye
SuUi MulUck
Buna MulUck

/
18

8
10
SO

20
li
15
12
15

5
8

10
10

Wbat authority acknowledged
by them.

aonepore Ba)ab.

This man acknowledges no m-
perior, and pays no rent to any
one.
This man obeys Ruttoo MllUck of
Ponehora»biitpaymenttono dne.
Obeys Ruttoo Mullick's ordcis, but
pays nothing, and formerly used
to perfcvm services for Bompore
Ri^Bh.
Obeys Rutto MnIUck» but pays to
none, Armool is in the Boad
Raje, but formerly obeyed the
Sonepore Rajah.
Obeys Ruttoo MuBick, but pays

nothing, Estate in Boad Raje.
Obeys Rutto MulUck, but pays

nothing, Estate in Boad Raje.
The Zemindar was long deprived of
this Estate by Sonepor^ Rajah»
but it has been restored to him »
he engaged to pay tribute to
Booepoor Rajah, but he has a
great dread of him until the fear
is mutual.
Sonepoor Rajah, and under com>
plete controol.
Ditto Ditto.

Under Patna Rajah.
Ditto Ditto.

Ditto Ditto.

This is in Patna, and forms part of
the Appanage of JoognO® Sing*
the Rajah's brother.
Ditto Ditto.

Ditto Ditto.

This man wiU obey no one.
Under the Boad R«Oah.
Ditto Ditto.

Ditto Ditto.

No. 9. — Names of Zemindars of Oodeypoor and their Estates.

Number of

Names of
Zemindailes.

VUlageson
each Estate

Amount of
Mulgoozarie.

— -

Inhabited.

S. R.~

A. V.

AckberSah ....

Chal

ISO

Bhowany Sing

Kundeya

126

Ram Sing

Jumooreya

126

Sobah Sing

Byraghnr

• •

Govlnd Sing

. < Snlga

• •

Domund Raee .

Pattergaun

• •

Jyamungul Sing

Oinda . .

• « 1 • •

Dome Sah

Pohree .

48 < 6 ! ..

Mungal Sah

Gotee

60 '..:..

ChandunSing .

Chundahor .

• •

620

APPENDIX B.

No. 10. — Names of Zemindars of Jushpoor and of their Estates.

Names of ZemiDdan.

Lall Sah Manjee
Keera Sah Naick
Halmnlnath Oanjoo
BrU Rajl Sah
Gutta Patter
Afren Sah . •

Dharnoardem Deree
Ooodoo Danaenna .
Bechoo Sah and Cbonnie
BerryarSin^
Annand Ram Doodhya
Bode Sing Hooar
Memnyar S1d|^ .

Sah.

Names of
Zemindaries.

Number of

Villages

on each

Estate.

Astah

Jukutteah

Dookamra

Pootinga

Persa

Kond Para

Soondro

Sookerra

Kachea .

Keradeehee

Pohree .

Jommadeekee

Koorya .

AmooDt of

Miilgoosarle

payable to

R»i9h Ram Sbig.

1
14

4
SO
73

B. a.

300

IftO

• .

100

1S5

ISO

300

160

460

a« '

1905

■ • I « "

No. 11.— The following are the more savage Class of Hoards.

Number

Names

Aofhority

Nunes of Zemindar*.

Villages

acknowledged

Zemindaries.

in each
District

by them.

ServleMuUlck . . . .

BUDOO .

Boed Rajahs.

To Sooth of Boad.

BiAhenBeesee ....

Bundbar .

100

DiUo.

Ditto.

fiabia Naick

Bolus Koopra

1S5

Ditto.

Mnttra Naick . . . .

0am Sing .

Ditto.

Ghatsie Mallick . . . .

Puttabar

Ditto.

Tb Bast of BoMl.

Govinda Mullick and Puma Mallick

Burgoocba .

Ditto.

Madoo Kooar and Nabg:an Kooar

Axmiegar .

Ditto.

Sulka Mallick and Pundee Kooar .

Kolabagh .

Ditto.

To Sooth of Boad.

Dyotee Naick ....

Doople Soger

aft

Ditto.

APPENDIX B.

LIST OF SIRDARS AND PROPRIETORS IN THE PROTECTED SIKH

STATES WHOSE AGENTS OR VAKEELS RESIDE

PERMANENTLY AT THE AMBALCH OFFICE.

Rijah of Puteala.

Bhaee of Rythut.

Rajah of Nabah.

Rajah of Jhund.

Rajah of Memnee Muzra.

Ri^ah of Sirmoor.

Rajah of Ruhlore.

R^ah of Nallae Gurh.

Sirdar Sheer Sing of Shahabad.

Sirdar Sheer Sing of Sheaibeh.

Raees of Mulair Kotila Ameer All

Khan.
Sirdar Ajeet Sing of Sudwah.
Sirdar Ameer Sing Singpooreah.
Soodies Ran Sing and Runjeet Sing.

Raees of Roongpooreh Naval Golam

Ali Khan.
Sirdar Nihal Sing of Indree.
Furreh Raz Khan of Mullair Rotila.
Duleer Khan of Ditto.
Sadhee Dedar Sing.
Sadhee Dewan Sing.
Gooroo Bishea Sing.
Bahadur Ali Shah Tuskh.
Sirdar Goolah Sing Shahah of Sha-

gadpoor.
Sirdar Sohah Sing Rulsea and Chick-

rowlee.
Sirdar Reure Sing of Bussee.
Sirdar Sahib Sing of Dunawhreh.

APPENDIX B.

621

Sirdar Goodiah Sing Singpooreah.

Malung Khan Kolelawalch.

The Kotch Khanah Singhs.

Rehmut Ali Khan of Mulair Kotila.

Sirdar Futteh Sing Allowaleah.

Sirdars Futteh Sing and Mit Sing of
Mai ode.

The Sings of Dhonsee.

Sirdah Migh Sing of Baoreah.

Sadhee Ootum Sing.

Sirdar Goovidial Sing of Rungpore.

Sirdar Jemyit of Thanesur (his Wi-
dows.)

Bhopai Sing Singpooreah.

Sirdar Mehtaub Sing of Sikree.

Sirdar Ram Sing of Gadowlee.

Sindamee Maun Juanse of Thanesur.

Nawab Golam Mohansun Khan of
Koongporeh.

Nooron Nissa of Raee Kote.

Sindarnee Prunkoner (Widow of Sir-
dar Punjaub Sing of Thanesur.)

Mih Sing and Jait Sing of Choornee.

Meer Akber Alee Khan of Kotakee
and Momee.

Sirdar Dral Sing Singpooreah of Kin-
dawlee.

Maeen Gunran of Mustafahat.

Sirdamee Nund Koner of Pooreah.

Sirdar Bhoop Sing Rooher.

Sirdar Golaub Sing of Bursaul.

Sirdar Khoshal Sing of Bursaul.

Sirdar Hummer Sing of Salpore.

Sirdame Sahib Koner of Nunsin.

Sirdar Purtab Sing of Junpore.

Sirdar Maun Sing of Kheira.

Sirdar Futteh Sing of HuUahir.

Sirdame Latchmem Koner of Feroze-
poor.

Sirdame Ramkoner of Chiioundee.

Mata Rig Kone Sadhum.

Sirdar Dun Sing of Indree.

Sirdar Sohah Sing Nahemy (his Wi.
dow) .

Sirdamee Sookhur of Booreah.

Sirdar Humaum Sing of Buheal.

Sirdar Jut Sing of Sudfa (Lam Sin-
ghea).

Golaub Sing Ingdowle.

Sirdar Uezier Sing of Naglee.

Sirdar Hurdial Sing Singpooreah.

Butwunt Khan of Mulair Kotila.

Hummut Khan of Mulair Kotila.

Muan Davee Sing of Ram Gurh.

Sirdar Nehab Sing of Kumur.

Sultan Alee Khan (his Widow).

Mean Narain Doss of Ram Gurh.

Sirdars Rigah Sing Whoop Sing and
the Sudhuran Sings.

Bhaee Golaub Sing of Arrowlee.

Sirdamee Ruttum Knar of Bbore.
Mehtamb Sing of Laloo Kheree.
Summan Koner Metailvallee.
Sirdar Juggut Sing of Badhour.
Sirdar Ram Sing of Burrass.
Sirdar Futteh Sing of Dhun.
Puttidars of Shahabad.
Sudhee Futteh Sing.
Dya Sing Shurheid of Tunkore.
Tyz Futtey Khan of Koutaub.
Sirdars Bhoop Sing and Ulbail Sing

of Bydwan.
The Putteedars of Belospore.
Sardamees of Khurwan.
Sirdar Nigh Sing of Kokur.
Mohur Sing Mun. Sing and other

Puttedars of Boh.
Nizam Alee Kbam of Khoonpoorah.
Sadhee Fouzdar Sing.
Sirdar Seurin Sing of Malade.
Sadhee Khan Sing.
Sirdar Khan Sing of Choonee Machlie.
Maun Koar of Budhul.
Sirdars Hummur Sing and Futteh

Sing of Jug Dowlee.
Sadhee Burpoor Sing.
The Bur Khan Sing.
Sirdar Sooth Sing Nahung of Poork-

halee.
Sirdar Gongar Sing of Seamdra.
Sholam Numble Khan of Koongpoo-

reah.
Sirdar Futteh Sing of Pubbaut.
Sirdar Bhood Sing of BuUoro (his

Widow) .
The Affghans of Kheserabad.
Bustrah Sing of Tuplep.
Sirdar Lai Sing Suspooreah of Baon-

jee.
The Mahar of Kean Sings.
Bhaee Mihr Sing of Inonseh.
Sirdar Nadh Sing Kahur of Poawut.
Synd Gholam Imaum of Subeh.
Sirdar Tug Sing of Piehouni.
Jewun Sing of Meloheb.
Futteh Sings and other Sings of

Betch.
Sultan Beebee.

Sirdar Deva Sing of Sham Gurh.
Maee Dhurma of Futteh Gurh.
Sirdar Ruttum Sing of Burree.

SobhaSingandSoobhaSingofDheen.
Hummeer Sing Boodh Sing and Sun-

tee.
Sirdar Runjeet Sing of Shahabad.
Purtaub Smg of Buddul.
The Jamehran Singhs.
Sirdame Kurrum Koner of Fundwul.
Sirdame Jeersun of Balehupper.
The Jubbulbeam Singhs.

623

A.PPENDIX C«

The Akul Gurreah Sinshs.
The Sadnpendaun Singhs.
Jooh Singhs Bugwalla.
The Huhutpoor Singhs.
BheeGoormookh Sing Bayree Wallah.
Sirdarnee Siag of Nahawnee.
Kugan Singh of Mahaunee.
Dysoo Sing of Choorealoo.
Sirdar Gopaul Sing Memamee.
Sirdar Rahn Sing of Shahabad.
Sirdar Puhar Sing of Funeel Kote.
Sirdarnee Maun Koner of Hutteereh.
The Chandhurdeh Singhs.

The Sooteera Singha.

The collected Sham Singhuali Singhi.

The Gorun Ghur Singhs.

Mahee Dheurma of Trerul.

Dewun Sing of Meanpoore.

Sholam Russool Khan of Koong-

pooreh.
Muta Ri^ Koner Dewan Sing and

others of Nundpoor Makpoowal.
Solum Mohuddee Khan and Solam

Koder Khan of Kotila.
Futteh Sing and Bhoop Sing of

Keeree.

APPENDIX C.

Pensioner.

Pension.

•

a
v

•a

700,000

• ■

rerowah

The Son of Amrut Rao. T^A* Pension will
cease with the present incumbent.

Nound of BaDda Toolpean

AU . . . .

400,000

• •

Bun da

Hereditary.

Ra)ah Jubbems Geer .

Goorsb

ahee

Do.

•w

Kesho Oeer

7,881

■ •

These Pensions were granted to the Re-

Koomwur R«J Gar

4,844

• •

i presentAtives of Raja Humot Bdiadnr

Koonwar Ganja Bareh

1,582

• •

f Kimwur' Oooorow Sing, and S^Ja DeU-

HmneerpoorM 1

J war Jonga.

Pamchatpooree »

792

a •

■ «

Noneeporee J

Koonwar Jaggut Geer .

7.«60

■ •

a •

Part of ^« Pension of Koonwar KnndMm
Geer, Challah. of Uammnt Bahadur.

Koonwar Mehaudur Geer

3,fl00

• «

■ •

Brother of Joggut Geer.

Maan Koonwar

840

• •

>«

This Pensioner Is the Mother of Jngrnt
Geer, and the Pension will revett to bbn
on her demise.

Koonwar Devijar .

3,900

• •

• m

The heir of Koonwar Kompta Geer.

Loon Koonwar

2,400

« •

• •

Part of Kanchem QeeT's PensionyWIdowof
Ramjeer and Mottier of Mookrend Geer.

Akelah Begnm

3,000

• •

Tills pension will, on the present hoMet*s
demise, revert to Juggnt Geer, ConeBbine
of Kanchum Geer.

DaipatRao

1,800

• •

• «

Performed osefol serrlce to the Agent dn*
ring the Rebellion of Lochmm.

Thakoordos Deo .

600

• •

Singh of Adjei8:nrh.

APPENDIX D.

623

APPENDIX D.

List of Allied and Protected States and Jagheers connnected with the

Political Agency of the N. E. Frontier.

Mannipora

Probable
extent of
Coantry.

Number of
Villages.

Soppposed
Revenue.

0,>OO

400

Under

sqaare

10,000

miles.

rupeees.

SfSOO regii«
lars, capable
of increase
to 10,000.

.9 o

Friendly.

50,000
Sools.

ill

Nothing.

II.

Synteh

11^

3,433
square
miles.

400

Eqnalto
1 lac of
rupees.

«M P u a

■

Abont 800
Infantry.

Friendly.

~8f
*» a 1

270*000 Nothing.
Souls.

No. 3. — ^Tipper AH. — In addition to his Zemindaree, in the Plains of ComiUah,
paying revenue of about 150,000 rupees fixed under the perpetual settlement, the
Riyah of Tipperah possesses an extensive but ill-known tract of hill territory to
the eastward, which may be estimated to contain 600 square miles. The informa-
tion respecting this quarter is, however, much too vague and uncertain to warrant
any calculations as to the population, number of villages, or revenue, arising from
it. From personal observation, however, I can state that the part of Tipperah
claimed as independent is not all hilly, but includes many level well-watered
vallies, admirably suited for agriculture ; but which are, in general, neglected and
wholly unoccupied, owing to the unwillingness of the low lands to subject them-
selves to the rapacity and tyranny of the R^ah and his officers ; a few spots, how-
ever, as at Anger CoUah and Killaisur, are under cultivation, and might, if assessed,
yield a revenue to the state of about 5,000 rupees.

No. 4. — Northern Cachar. — Under this designation I include the mountainous
country recently held by Toolerara, the chieftain whom I have found it necessary
to arrest with a view to bring him to trial for the murder of two of the inhabitants
of the country of Dhunimpore, now held in attachment by a Sazawul deputed for
that purpose by Mr. Scott. This region does not appear of sufficient importance
in any point of view to merit particular notice. Its inhabitants, I understand,
belong chiefly to the Cacharee and Maree tribes, and are not more hostile than,
from their relative position, it is natural to expect. Lieutenant Fisher Is now en-
gaged in forming an arrangement with them for the future government of this
country, and this will, ere long, form the subject of a separate despatch.

624

APPENDIX D.

Next to the states above detailed in the order of geographical progression, fol-
lows the confederation of petty chiefs by whom the Khoseat Mountains have
hitherto been held.

These are said to be 30 in number ; but it is unnecessary, with reference to the
immediate object of this despatch, to enter into detail with regard to any but the
following : —

Amount of

Inclination

Amount of
CoatribQ.

tion to the

Govern.

mcnt.

Chiefs of
Protected

Probable

Number of

Supposed

Military
Force kept

towards the
British Go-

States,
Jaghurdars.

Country.

VUla^es.

Revenue.

Population.

up, or capa-
ble of

verament,
hostile or

collecting.

otherwise.

Sing Mu.

Unascer.

Predse

Unascer-

About 3.000

Friendly,

Nothing.

nick. Chief

tained.

Amount

tained.

armed

of Kyrum.

unascer-
tained.

followers.

6 Bur Munick

Do.

Unasoer-

Do.

400or54W

Hostile.

DO.

Chief of the

tained.

fcdlowers.

reniaininfc

portion of

Kyum.

Soba Sing,
RalBof
Chnrra.

Do.

About 80,000

8.00O fol-
lowers.

Friendly.

Do.

8 Kala Raja,

Do.

About 30

Do.

Unascer-

Unascer.

Dubioos.

Do.

Chief of

tained.

1 Nnspany.

O.OomnrSing,

Do.

Unascer-

Do.

Hostile.

Do.

, Chief of

tained.

Nusting.

10 Oolar Raja

Do.

Dubious.

Do.

of Murriow.

11 Omas Raja

Do.

of Murram.

i
1

Chiefs of

protected

States,

Jagheers.

Probable
extent of
Country.

Number

of
Villages.

Supposed
Revenue.

Supposed

Popnia.

tion.

Amoontof
MUitary

Force kept

up, or ca-
pable of

coUecdnff.

Inclination
towards the

British
Government.

Amount of

Contrilm.

tion to Go.

vernment.

18
13

Singhoo

Chief. Beesa

Gaum.

Kamptee

Chiefs, Sud.

dea Khoal-

jahpaye

Sown Gau
haya Renwa

Gahayh.

Moamarya

Chief Mate.

bur Burse-

naputa.

East Mau.
napooree.
West Do.
North Do.
South, now

Dohingr.

Boundaries,

E. Pusbro.

katan, W.

D. Mun

Debang,

N. Musynu

Hills, 8.

Bnrham-

puter.

E. Chouff-

haree, W.

Booree De-

hing, N. Lu-

tict River.

8. Booree

Dehing.

Unascer.
tained.

Do.
Do.

Unascer-
tained.

Do.
16,000

o,7g«

4,000
06^000

8,534
1,000

94,000

Friendly
Do.

Do.

Soileii.
100 Do.

300 Do.

APPENDIX D.

62S

Chiefs of Pro.

tected States,

Jagbardan.

Baja Whadnth

SlnirDooar

Sookee.

Ri^laRoynasar

Sini: Doonr

BoDgonfT.

Ri^ah BoUat

SiogDooar

Mnrrapoor.

Raja Noijan

SlngDooar

Chugong.

Ri^aBolarom

Sing of

.Rannee.

Ri^a Lnmba.

durNaiaio

Doiflh BaU.

laUah.

Raja Bamsfng

Balah Mybong

RiO^Boodah

of DaiahPaa-

booree.

Deac.Laod
Peons.

Desc. Land
Peons.

Deac. Land
Peons.

Deac. Land
Peona.

Desc. Land
Pooraha.

Deac. Land
Pooraha.

Probable
extent of
Conntry.

Roopnt, 7*701
Pooteet,S4,349

Roopnt, 4,137
Pooteet, tf,66o

Roopot, 893
Pooteet, 1,456

Roopnt, 1,66s
Pooteet, 6,586

Roopot, 5,653
Pooteet, 10,555

Roopnt, 3.493
Pooteet, 13,169

Roopnt, 883
Pooteet, 6,839
Roopnt, 456
Pooteet, 9,345

jO of

90
38
8
34
51
43

4
3

Rnp.
771

4,187
898
1,663
5,053
3,493

883
456

8,000
5,000
1,000
1,500
5,500
3,500

1,000
700

None.
None.
None.
None.
10

None.

None.
None.

ah v^

§«g o .

Hip

Mendly.
Friendly.
Friendly.
Friendly.
Friendly.
Ftlendly.

Friendly.
FMendly.

4^ . a.
4438

3450
5000
1000
3486 8
1694 8

604
363

No. 23. — ^BooTAN. — From Chardour, in Lower Assam, to the country of the
Sikhem Puttee our frontier, for an extent of about 200 miles, touches that of
Bootan. Along the line a tract of the low lands, originally acquired perhaps by
suflferance, has gradually become the unquestioned right of this state ; on it, in-
deed, they appear to be entirely dependent for grain, as the population is described
as being considerable, and far beyond what they could raise food for in the nasrow
rallies of their own hills. This circumstance places it in our power, in case of a
rupture, to reduce Bootan to our terms by merely shutting the doars or passes
during the cold season, and preventing its subjects firom coming to the plains or
receiving any supplies therefrom. Should it prove frirther necessary to retain the
tract of low land in our own possession, the consequent expense might be met by
the establishment of hants or markets, on the principle of those in the Goulparagh
district, which, on the Bootan frontier, would prove a most plentiful source of
revenue.

Of the internal state of Bootan, little more is known now than may be gathered
from Captain Turner's Narrative of his Embassy to Thibet, in 1783. A more re-
cent account of the country may probably have been given to the world by Mr.
Manning, who lived for a long time at Lassa ; but this I have not the means of
ascertaining.

I hope, while in Assam, to be able to collect much more information ; but I can
now add little to what is in print.

The envoys who recently visited me at Cherra were men of low rank and little
intelligenee. From what I could gather from them, it does not appear that the
Chinese exercise a much greater influence than they did in Turner's time, either

TOL I. 8 8

6S6

APPENDIX E«

oTer the undjring superior, the Dhurram Rijah or Sama, or hia mortal Tana], tike
Deb Rigah or immediate ruler of Bootan.

The Booteaa are notoriously an unwarlike race, and, from the little which I have
seen of their demeanour towards us, I am inclined to think that they have leas of
the overweening arrogance of the demi-barbarian than might be expected from their
political and moral situation. A rupture with this state will only be formidable as
indicating that it has the countenance of another and greater power behind it.

18
30

Chleh of Pro*

taCCMl StKvSSB

Ja^heers.

OoochlMuir

RalahHorren-

dranaryan.

Ba|neella}ah
Jadronarwy.

Dobinceree
Hekal Losknr.

Chepauk Jo-
brali Lnahken.

NazEenmah
MefaaL

Juxah.

Oanuah.

Probabla
extent of
Country.

•

N.toS.

45 miles,

E. toW.

4aaillee.

N.toS.

SOmUe%

E. to W.

35 miles.
N. to S., say

!• miles,

E.toW.

II or 14 mUes.

8 miles Arom

N*E. to 8.W.,

and 10 or 19

mileafrom

9«E. to N>W>

SO miles from

N.toS., 15 or

10 B. to W.

N. to S. M or

15 mileSa

B. to W.

15 miles.

N. toB.E.

40 or 45 miles,

E. to W. about

the same.

100

II
40

Un.
aacer-
tained.

700,000

Nuraine

rupees.

1.000
Narya
nipees.

Un-
ascer-
tained.

Ditto.

1000 thus
pntedi Chief
Offlcersft Se-
poys, MO {Bar-

10,000
sools.

5,000

1,000

10,000

4,000

10,

gt?

1000 { Sheka.
ries, Balwans,
andHanarles,

100

000

ISO

1,000

1,600

•8

i3-

Aasicabte.

Ditto.

DonMfU.

Ditto.

lis

Nanny

».5Csin
HoeastD
01^000.

Nottd^
700S.E.
S.B.

S.B-

APPENDIX E.

NABCES OF THE CHIEFS IN THE PROTECTED SIKH STATES.*

Bailehupper. Mace Jawsan Surdarree.
BaUq>. burdarHurdiahSingSingphoi^ah.
BeyreeSaui. Khooshall Sing.
Bhurree. Ruttum Sing.
Bhurreeetgurk. Surdar Ameer Sing.

Boimgur. Surdar Lall Sing Singpooreah. "

Boarva, Surdaree Nund Kooar, Surdar Ooolal Sing, and Mug Sing.
Budhaur. Surdar Kliurreck Sing, Khezan Sing, Nidham §uig, aid
Juggut Sing.

• Extract Bengal Poll. Com. 18th Nov. 1831, part of No. 36.

APPENDIX E. 627

Buaee. Surdar Dewah Sing Kuleea.

Chehwadee, Maee Ram Koonwur Surdarnee.

Chichrouflee. Surdar Sobah Sing Kulsee.

Daatu Goroo Biskeen Sing.

Dheen. Surdar Futtah Sing.

Dheenaura. Surdar Sahil oing.

DpiU Oitrh. Surdarnee Sookha.

Fterosepo&r. Surdarnee Suchmen Khoonwur.

Furreea Koie. Surdar Puhar Sing.

Fittteh Ghur. Maee Dhurmoo, Grandmother of Sirdar Mugh Sing.

Cfoarha. Nehal Sing.

Chunawlee, Sirdar Bhopaub Sing Singhpooriah.

Gudawlee. Surdar Ram Sing.

HUahur. Futteh Sing.

Hwdoor. Rajah Ram Sing, Buhadur.

Indree. Nahal Singh, Soadh Singh, and Jowaher Singh.

Jeendh. Rajah Sunjeet Sing Buhardure.

Judawlee. Goolab Singh, Mohur Sing, Mehy Sing, and Futty Sing Sham

Singheet.
Keythhul, Bhaee Oodah Sinsr Buhardur.

Kharre. Surdar Goolal Singh.

Koofifpoorah. Nawal Gholam Ullec Khan Bahadur, Gholam Mohyood-
deen. Khan, Gholam Russood Khan, and Nizam Ulle Khan. ^

Koita, Nehung Khan, Belwunt Khan, Gholum Mohyooddeen Khan, and
Gholam Quadir Khan.

Kotta Mulliar. Newal Ameer Ulle Khan, Behmut Ullee Khan, Toorre-
hauz Khan, Feyzoolah Khan, Feezoolah Khan, Delaub Khan, Deebee
Sooltan, Hummut Khan, Imam UUee Khan.

Kootffa, Seynd Jaffer Ullee Khan.

Khumdala. Surdar Dyab Sing Smghpooria.

Kkurrur. Surdar Nihal Singh.

Lodooah, Surdar Ujeet Sing.

Ladoo. Surdar Jeel Sing.

Libhoannaghee. Wuzzar Sing, Humer Sing, and Sham Smghees.

Machieware. Sodbee Ootum Singh. , ^, . . j

Majra. Surdarnee Roopa Koour, Wife of Sabala Singh Nehung, deceased.

Mecanpcre, Dewan Sing.

Moulee Sohon. Surdar Bhoop Sing, and Ulbecbee Smg, Badwans.

Moogia/abad, Maee Gaurau.

Mtdodh. Surdars Fetteh Sing, and Mrith Singh.

Muloah. Jewan Singh.

Mttnnee Mqfra. Rajah Goverdhun Sing Buhadur.

Mumrly. Surdar Gopal Singh, Singhpooriah.

Nahai. Rajah Jeswnnt Sing Bahadur.

Nahun (Hifi States of Sirmore) Rajah Fuflfteh purkas Raipoot.

Nundpoar Makhabal. Mata Rajkoorun, Dewan Sing, Dudar Smg, Rum
Singh, Runjeet Sing, Bhurpoor Sing, Ootun Sing, and Jewan Sing

Soodhees. ^ , „ , , , ->-

Putiala. Maharaj Kurrum Sing, Mohundur Buhadar, and Koonwur

Ujeet Sing.
Ramjurh. Means, Dhae Sin^, and NanOimdas.
Ray Kote. Ranee Nooroonnisse.
Raypoor, Roy GoMtial Sing, and Natha Sing.
Ropur. Sundar Bhope Sin^.
Sayailah. Surdar Deurab Singh.
Seekree. Surdar Mefaub.

628

APPENDIX F.

Setearrah, Surdarnee Jussa Kour, Mlfe of Jussa Siui? Birdwan, deceased.
Shahabad, Surdar Shair Sing, Surdar RuDJeet Singli, Surdar Khao Sinj(,

and the Widow of Khumit Sing.
Sham Ghur, Dewah Singh, and Futteh Sing.
Shehadpoor, Surdar Oolab Singh, Sheeheed.
Tingaur. Surdar Dyah Sing, Sheeheed.
Thannetur, Surdareer Jya Roour, and Chund Koour, and Surdar Jamoi-

yeel Sing.
TwmdwaL Surdarnee, Karm Koour, Widow of Metaub Sing, ShuheeL
Teera, Mall Deurmo.
Ulhao Sudar Futteh Sing.
Umanijf, Bhae Goolab Sing, and Siixgeet Sing.
UUagurh. Surdar Goordial Sing.
Zeeampore. Pertaup Sing.

APPENDIX F.

List of undermentioned Protected Hill States under my superintendence with the
estimated extent of Country belonging to each, supposed Revenue, Populstion«
Armed Force, and Amount of Contribution to the Company's T^-easury, agree-
ably to Mr. Secretary Swinton's Letter to the Address of the Agent Goreroor
General at Dehly under date the 23d July, 1832.

Sappoaed

CultlTated.

PopolatiOD.

h<c4 •

u^ .

•

Names.

§1

«|l

It's
P

RiO of Baatalr, Indndingr

Tliackar wis Kemartoe .

15000

10000

# •

140000

« •

* •

• •

• ■

Delartoo Nowmr Doo

■ •

• ■

■ •

« •

• •

150000

16000

« •

Ditto

Deyonthut

10000

88000

■ ■

90000

14000

1500

• •

Ditto

Poondeer .

Ill

1000

3000

• •

8000

SOOO

400

• •

«•

Rain . . .

3000

4000

a •

8000

9000

ISO i ..

Ditto

Kortie

5000

■ •

4000

SOOO

100 t ..

Ditto

Goond . . ,\^E

1000

1500

■ ■

1000

40 ! ..

Ditto

Madham . . . £^
Thenj , J 2

700

8500

1500

1800

800 1 ..

Ditto

ISOO

4000

8500

150 1 ..

Ditto

Joobal . . . .

SOOO

40000

• «

80000

15000

15000 9690

Ditto

Ralflum, Including Baihoolee

8000

10000

6000

5000

500

1800

Ditto

KoomarSaln

10000

3000

19000

1000

1440

Ditto

Budgie

10000

35000

30000

95000

1000

1440

Ditto

Ba)hal . . .

1 0000

6000

50000

40000

8000

Ditto

Tliomyar .

1000

S500

8500

900

180

Ditto

Kotbar

1000

500

7000

4000

400

1080

Ditto

Mahloff
Ootnick

3000

10000

19000

500

1440

Ditto

SOOO

6000

8000

9500

100 988

DiltD

B^gEn . ■ • ,

8000

3000

4000

3000

900 180

DIltD

Baghat

SOOO

7000

5000

6000

400

DiOo

MuDgtml ....

300

1500

1000

50 1 78

Ditto

DboDootee

900

400

900

Ditto

Dbamte ....

500

3000

3500

3000

100

790 Wtto

Bogbat sold to Ra}a of\
Potiilla . . . ./

10000

15000

HOOO

9000

1000

• •

Ditto

10000

17000

91000

ISOOO

1900

• •

Ditto

Reyontbat ditto ditto

8537

5449

858S

900

M9*

Horrowbee Sewa Sabathoa

1194

13398

4776

4487

• •

iioot

Kathai . . , .

403

« •

1049

1999

1048t

Seedock ....

118

547

« ■

• •

.. S

Bimela

•
•

• •

997

464

450

464

Ditto

Total

171

S65800

378643

14179

877095

886901

19800 87815

• Bctained Territory.

t Resamed Territory

•

X Chief be

ring pessionod.

Retain

cd Ten

•itory.

APPESDIX O.

629

APPENDIX G.

Protected States. Jageerdan. and others in BondlecoDd. g:iven witb a view of shewiogr
the intricate Natore of tbe Anglo-Indian OoTemmeot.

•

■

Military

States.

Capital.

I
1

Force.

No.

•

Tearj

Oorcha

Si9o

040

193000

1000000

ISOO

4000

Datteah .

Dotttah .

850

380

ISOOOO

ISOOOOO

1000

4000

Jbansr

Jbansi

S98S

950

S80OOO

ISOOOOO

700

3000

Jaloon

Saloon •

1480

518

180000

1500000

1500

SOOO

Sampthor

Snmpthnr

175

88000

500000

300

SOOO

Ponnah .

088

1000

07500

800000

SOS

700

AdJngnrh

Nyarhalr

840

008

45000

300000

150

500

Jetpoor

Jeetpoor •

1«5

150

10000

80000

300

Chokaree

880

S59

81000

400000

800

1000

B^awnr

B^awor .

9S0

844

90000

400000

SOO

800

4500

50000

150

Boroonda

Pathorkaha

837

S4000

45000

300

Chntterpoor .

Chetterpoor .

1S40

354

ISOOOO

400000

SOO

1000

Bownner .

Kodoora •

1S7

18800

100000

SOO

Jesao

Jesso . .

180

SvOTIV

ISOOO

ISB

Lofasi

Logasi

8500

SOOOO

185

Soron

Jegnee
Rehat

S800
S500

15000
SOOOO

5
5

00
00

Bebtee

Bebree .

8500

80000

-45

Alepoora .

Alipoora .

9000

00000

SOO

GberoQli .

ObiroQlle

5000

85000

100

Nowagonn

Nowagonn •

1800

10000

Gonrear .

7500

70000

100

Khoddee .

Khoddie .

8800

15000

Bajorlgt . ,

800

1000

• •

Poree Fottdipoar

Foree Pntteppoor

0000

60000

350*

Chtigaon

Cbirgaon

3800

85000

400

Begna

Blgna

8800

1500

SOO

Dhonm .

Dboorea .

8000

10000

830

800

Paldeo

3500

1000

100

Nyagaon .

Nyagaoon

5000

1000

100

Feracnn

Feraon

SOOO

5000

Poorwa

1800

5000

Bbynsote

BbTnsote
Mukree

3000

S500

Mnkree .

1000

5000

Choobepore

Chobepoor

Total .

1000

5000

1S918

5755

1378400

8381300

«87

88430

l^ofo.— Hie independent chieftains of Bondlecond have, daring a l<»ig coarse of Tears,
and at the periods when the British Government was eagaged in protracted warfhre with
other states, iavariablv sliewn their attachment to British sopremacy. Daring the M ah.
ratta war of I8I7-I8, the protectloD of the nameroos passes, or Ghaato, into the province,
was entmsted to them. Daring the Barmese war, not merely were Olivers to assist with
their farces sabmltted, hot the commissariat department was materially aided by the vo-
lontary assistance reodved fkom them. During the siege of Bhuitpore. supplies of grain
were forwarded f^om the states nearest the scene of action to the army 1 and when the
Port of Cslpee was attacked by a rebel sal^ect of Salown, the Sumption troops, at the re-
quest of this office, immediately proceeded to the protection of Koonah, whilst the forces of
Oorehah, Thanse and Dnttiah advanced, on the agentfs application, to effect his reduction.
In the fidelitv of the Bondriiah states, implicit oonftdence may be reposed : their attachment
to BiiUsh rule originates in self-interest. Under no prevlooa government did they at any
time enjoy their poesessions tne from all demand, either of service or tribute. Ilieir union
for the attainment of a common object, is a chimera. Between the Boondelahs and M ah^
rattahs a deeply-rooted antipathy has long existed, and time has not diminished it ) JhansI
would fen an easy prey to Oorcha and Dnttiah, and Jalonn could not support its existence
against the aggranons of the Juggut Raj branch of the Chuttersal's fSunUy. Hie several
members agsdnst one of that femfiy, hold each other in mutual distrust and aversion ; and
as the portion of the province held by the Britiirii Government Is not claimed by the Boon-
delahs, as it formed the undisputed part of the ex-pcshwa'a possessions, obtained by the
adoption of his ancestor by ChuttemaU, they would in all probability commit an aggrMsive
act against it, but would torn their arms afrainst each other. If any general ferment should
exist in British India : for each alleges a right to some portion of his neighbour's territory.

iiiiii
iililiii

iiiiiiii

iililiii

lii

liiniiiffiiiui

INDEX.

Agra, general description of, 455. and Delhi colleges, 414.

AUahmbad, physical aspect of, 272.

Anglo Indian, goTemment, 33. Nature of army, 321. ^pense of, 319. English
colleges, origin of, 328.

Area, parallel, and physical aspect, of every province in British India, table of, 66.

Arracan, general description of, 82, dimate of, 125.

Assam, territory, general account of, 82.

Ava, war and treaty with, 33.

Asia, rise and progress of British power in, 1. British possessions and political
aspect, tabular view of, £EUung Introduction.

Bahar, area and position of, 114. physical aspect of, 59. cUmate of, 125. opium
of, 349. geology of, 132.

BangcUore, geographical account of, 87. climate of, 132.

Bengal, area and history of, 4. conquest, presidency and territory of, 66, phy-
sical aspect, 68. climate of, 122. mineral kingdom, 159. weights and mea-
sures, 255. press, state of, 407. government expenditure, 465. first English
factory in, 5. native army, 296. police of, 278. salt revenue, 346. opium re-
venue, 347. established church in, 464. education in, 410. commerce of, 402.
schools in, 416. imports and exports, 376*. population of, 166. shipping, 371.

Bkurtpore, general description of, 26. siege and capitulation of, 22.

Bishop^s College, institution of, 267.

Bombay, physicid aspect of, 189. presidency, 463. history of, 38. population of,
169. weights and measures, 255. marine establishment, 361. church estab-
lishment, 469. native army of, 293. education at, 421. commerce of, 462.
press of, 408. imports and exports, 358. shipping, 371.

British India, financial and monetary system of, 333. general condition of, 493*
revenue and charges of, 332. civil and military administration of, 256. weights
and measures of, 255. population of, 164. climate of, 122. general trade o^
397. education in, 409. staple produce, 379. imports and exports, 403.

Buddhist, or Singalese religion, 534.

Burmese, conquest of, 28.

Candeish, physical aspect of, 92.

Ceylon, general history of, 506. geology, 507. animal kingdom, 519. climate, 509.
vegetable productions of, 514. agricultural produce, 518. mineral kingdom of,
521. inducements for capitalists to emigrate, 522. population of, 52$. com-
plete census of in 1831, 530. variety of caste appertaining to, 553. civil govern^
ment, 538. judicial government, 540. net revenue and expenditure for 14 years,
abstract of, 551. state of education, 555. money, weights, and measures, 561.
press o^ 558. general description of, 563. imports and exports, 560. police,
544. military force of, 545. expenditure, 550. commerce of, 559. shipping, 559.

Chimorerel, lake of, 103.

Climate, of Bengal, 122. Madras, 135. Bombay, 185. Ceplon, 509. Penang, 584.
Malacca, 591. Singapore, 599. Arracan, 125.

Cqfee, East India, imported into the United Kingdom, 388.

Colleges at Accra and Delhi, 414,

Commerce of India, with other countries, table of, 397. table of between Bengal,

. Madras, Bombay, and Eastern Islands, 366. of Malacca, 594. of Cevlon, 559.

Control, Board of, 264. home and foreign Indian government, 329.

Cotton goods exported to India and Chinai, 370.

Court qf Directors of East India Company, governing power of, 263.

Crania, varieties of in different nations, 178.

Crime, state of in India, 477. State of in England compared with India, 489. com-
parative statement of in France, England, and Bengal, 491.

Cuttack, see coast account of, 81.

Dacca muslin, mode of manufacturing, 138.

Delhi, physical aspect of, 71. destruction of, 63.

Eastern Islands, Indian trade with, 134.

Bast India Company, first charter granted, 3. factory established, 8. general
advantages of, 52.

£(iucafton, under the Madras presidency, 419. Ceylon, 555. Bombay, 421. Bengal,
410.

Port WiUiam, general account of, 78.

INDEX.

Oanget river, account of, 94.

Oeo^gy of British India, 116. Ceylon, 507. Penang,584. Malacca, Singapore, 598.

(Sold, abundance of in India, 163.

Himalaya, geology of, 118. peaks of, 110. account of, 95. Dr. Gerard's tour

over, 108. geographical position, 110. soil of, 128.
HituMan, early account of, 2. vegetable kingdom, 134. soO of, 121.
Hindoat, character of, 212. condition of, 213. stature of, 187. literature, 213 to

223. deities, 435. account of flood, 436. chronology of, 440.
Hyder Alt, birth and character of, 23. wars, &c. 34.
Imports and Exports to and from India, table of« 403. of Ceylon, 559. of Penang,

of Malacca, of Singapore, 603.
Languages, diversity of in India, 186. filiation of, 185.
Madras Presidency, history of, 29. capture and restoration of, 30. physical aspect

of, 84. population of, 167. weights and measures, 255. native infantry of,

289. dvil, military, and church establishments, 469. education at, 419. cli-
mate, 135. commerce of, 366. shipping, 401.
Makthar province, general account of, 71.
Malacca, natural productions of, 594. population of, 592. locality and area, 589.

physical aspect, 589. history of, 590. climate, 591. genenl view of, 597.

commerce of, 594. revenue of, 596.
Malwa territory, physical aspect of, 72.
Martaban province, account of, 84.
Military establishments of India, 306.
Mineral kingdom of India, 159.
Monetary system of British India, 333.
Neilgherries, general description of, 131.
Nepaul, geographical notice of, 24.
Nerbudda, river of, 72.

Opium, revenue of in India, 383. smuggling of, 385.
Oude, general description of, 14.
Parsees, history and religion of, 174.
Penang, physical aspect of, 582. climate, 534. area of, 581. vegetable kingdom,

585. revenue and expenditure, 588. general view of, 589.
Population, general view of, 164. Madras, 167. Bengal, 166. Bombay, 169.

Ceylon, 528. Malacca, 592. Penang, 585. Singapore, 600.
Post Office of India, 573.
Rammohun Roy, skull and character of, 179.
Rivers, table of in India, 93.
Roman Catholic Church in India, 451 to 463.
Ryotuxtr Settlement, peculiar principle of, 343.
Singapore locality, area of, 597. physical aspect of, 598. climate and history of,

599. population of, 600. natural productions of, 602. exports and imports of,

605. gold trade of, 605. trade with Siam, China, and general view of, 606.

shipping at, 604.
Sennffapatam, siege and capture of, 32. geographical site of, 36.
Slavery in British India abolished, 476.
Shipping and tonnage of Madras, 40 1 . Bengal, 371. Bombay, 371. Ceylon, 559.

Singapore, 604. Penang and Malacca, 594.
Steam communication with Europe, 580. via the Cape of Good Hope in preference

to the Red Sea route, 579. post-office packets with India, 574. with Ceylon,

672.
Staple commodities of British India, 379.
Sugar, cultivation of and exports in, 137.
Weights and Measures of British India, 255. of Malacca, 595. Bengal, 255. Ha-

dns and Bombay, 255.
WeUesley, Marquis, comprehensive policy of, 10.
Woods, Indian botanical, and general description of, 143 to 154.
Yusu Pass, description of, 106.
Zoology of India, 154. Ceylon, 519. Penang, 585. Malacca, 594.

LOXDON : rBIiraiD BT W. NICOI., SI, PAJ.L MALI*.

%-*