.1" ■■ >. -. DS 6/5- GOiENELL' IJNIVERSIT> LIBRARIES riilACA, N. Y. 1483 ■ M. Echols cm Soutbeast. Asia M. OLIN LIBRARY CORNELL UNIVERSITY LlflfiAfiY 3 1924 062 748 995 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924062748995 I.D. 1209 A MANUAL OF NETHERLANDS INDIA (DUTCH EAST INDIES) Compiled by the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty LONDON : - PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses: Imperial House, Kinqswat, London, W.C. 2, and ,28 Abingdon Street, London, S.W.I; 37 Peter Street, Manchester; 1 St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff; 23 Forth Street, Edinburgh; or from E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116 Grafton Street, Dublin. Price 10s. net Printed under the authority of His Majesty's Stationery Office By Frederick Hall at the University Press, Oxford. ill ^ CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. Introduction and General Survey . . 9 The Malay Archipelago and the Dutch possessions — Area — Physical geography of the archipelago — Frontiers and adjacent territories — Lines of international communication — Dutch progress in Netherlands India (Relative importance of Java — Summary of economic development — Administrative and economic problems — Comments on Dutch administration). II. Physical Geography and Geology . . .21 Jaya — Islands adjacent to Java — Sumatra^^Islands adja- cent to Sumatra — Borneo — ^Islands adjacent to Borneo — CeLel3^ — Islands adjacent to Celebes — ^The Mpluoeas — ^Dutoh_ QQ New Guinea — ^Islands adjacent to New Guinea — Leaser Sunda Islands. i—l III. Climate 85 >< Genera) conditions — Pressure — Winds — ; Temperature — ^ Humidity — Rainfall — Mist and fog — Cloud — Sunshine — _ Thunderstorms — Wind storms — ^Tables. ^. IV. Vegetation and Animals .... 109 V. Inhabitants : General Considerations . . 124 Population : Numbers — Native races — Europeans — Half-castes — Relations between Dutch and natives — Orien- tal foreigners (Chinese — Japanese — ^Arabs — Hindus) — Lan guages — Religions (Mohammedanism — Christianity — Confu- cianism) — Education — The Press — Health. VI. The Inhabitants of Java .... 148 Numbers — Density of population — Urban and rural popula- tion — Migration and increase — Native peoples — ^Javanese (Physical characters — Culture — Religion — Pastimes — Position of Avomen — Occupations — Villages and houses — Clothing) — Sundanese — ^Madurese — Tenggerese — Baduj — Kalangs. VII. The Inhabitants of the Outer Possessions . 163 Sumatra ( Achinese — Gajos — Alas — Bataks — Malays — Menangkabau Malays — Lebongs — Rejangs — Lampongs — Primitive tribes) — Islands adjacent to Sumatra — Orang Laut — Borneo (Dayaks) — Karimata Islanda — Celebes (Toraja tribes 6 CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE — Buginese and Makassars — Minahasese — Gorontalese) — Sangi Islands — Banggai Islands — Moluccas — New Guinea — Papua Islands — ^Tenimber Islands — South-western Islands — Lesser Sunda Islands. VIII. Government and Administration . . 245 Home government (States-General — The Sovereign) — Colonial central government (The Governor- General — Council of India — -Volksraad — General Secretariat — ^The Departments) — Local government (Territories under direct rule — Kative self-government — Native principalities of Java — Direct admi- nistration — Administrative divisions — The Desa — Beforms of local government) — Justice (Government justice — The Courts) — Police — Defence (Army — Navy) — ^Finance (Revenue — Taxation — ^Monopolies — Government cultures and services — The budget) — ^Foreign consular services. IX. General Economic Considerations. . . 278 Summary of economic products (Plant products — Live- stock — Minerals) — Manufacture — ^Agrarian and industrial con- ditions — Land tenure — Agricultural education — ^Labour and wages — Banking and credit — Currency— Weights and measures — Commerce — ^Mining regulations. X. Economic Products of Java . . . 303 Agriculture (Agricultural methods — Bice — Secondary crops — Sugar — Coffee — Tea — Cocoa — Tobacco — Indigo — Coca — Fibres — Vegetable oils — Spices) — Forestry, forest products, &c. (Forestry administration — ^Teak — Coconut palms -^Fruit culture — Bubber — Cinchona — Battan) — Live-stock — Petroleum and other mineral products. XI. Economic Products of the Outer Possessions 339 Sumatra and adjacent islands — Borneo — Celebes — ^Moluccas and New Guinea — Lesser Sunda Islands. XII. Communications. I.— Shipping and Ports . 375 External communications — ^Inter-insular and coastwise com- munications — Conditions during the war — Ports^ — Shipping statistics — Biver transport. XIII. Communications. II. — Roads, Railways, Posts, &c 404 Java : Boads — Motor transport — BaUways — ^Tramways. Outer Possessions : Roads (Sumatra — Borneo — Celebes — Other islands) — Bail ways and tramways (Sumatra — Banka and Billiton). Cables — ^Telegraphs — Wireless telegraphy- Telephones — Postal arrangements. CONTENTS 7 OHAP. PAGE XIV. History.- I. — From Early Times to the Dutch Restoration, 1814-18 .... 429 Hindus in Java — Rise of Mohammedanism — Europeans in the archipelago — Dutch and English East India Companies — Political situation, end of sixteenth century — Dutch monopo- listic policy — ^The Dutch East India Company, to 1798 — The Commission of 1803 — Daendels' Governor- Generalship — ^Ad- ministrative reforms of Daendels — British conquest of Java, 1811 — British occupation : Thomas Stamford Raffles — ^Native princes under the British occupation — Raffles' regime outside Java — British reform of administration in Java — ^Restoration of the Dutch colonies. XV. History. II. — From the Dutch Restoration to the Present Time .... 477 Introduction — Java (The Java Rebellion — ^Territorial settle- ment — Native jurisdictions — Culture system — Greneral finance — ^Indian constitution — Law) — Sumatra (Aohin) — ^Borneo (Sambas — ^Pontianak — Landak — Sukadana, &o. — Banjermasin — Kutei — ^The Kongsis) — Celebes (Gowa — ^Boni — Wajo — Luwa — Buton) — ^The Moluccas and New Guinea — Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali — ^Lombok — Sumbawa — ^Elores and Solor — Timor — Sumba) — Diplomatic history (Great Britain : trea,ty of 1824, &c. — Great Britain and Germany in New Guinea — Portugal) — Present situation. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 533 LIST OF MAPS 535 INDEX 536 CONTENTS MAPS IN TEXT FIG. ^AGE 1. Example of recent changes of coast-line, north coast of Java .....••• 29 315 431 433 443 2. Distribution of certain economic plants in Java 3. Java in the Hindu era ..... 4. Java from the first preachiag of Islam to 1686 . 5. Java in the time of the Company General map of Netherlands IncMa . . end of volume NOTE ON THE SPELLING OP PLACE-NAMES In transliterating Malay names from Dutch it is only neces- sary to notice that Dutch aa = English a ; aoe or auw = au ; dj = j -^ j = y ; oe = u. Tj should strictly be transliterated ty, and sometimes is so in this volume, but the sound closely approaches the English ch, and this, in the English translitera- tion of many names (e.g. Chilachap,. not Tyilatyap), has become conventional. Dutch w generally = English w, but sometimes apparently v. CHAPTER I INTEODUCTION AND GENERAL SURVEY The Malay Archipelago and the Dutch possessions — ^Aiea — Physical geography of the archipelago — Frontiers and adjacent territories — ^Lines of international communication — ^Dutch progress in Netherlands India (Relative importance of Java — Summary of economic development — Administrative and economic problems — Comments on Dutch administration). The Malay Archipelago and the Dutch Possessions Netheblands India, the Netherlands Indies, and the Dutch East Indies are names alternatively applied to the Dutch possessions in the Malay Archipelago, which the Dutch call Nederlandsch- Indie or Nederlandsch-Oost-Indie. The Malay Archipelago, variously known as Malaysia', the East Indies, Indonesia, &c., is the vast congeries of islands which lie between south-eastern Asia and northern Australia. This archipelago is usually taken to include : 1. The Great Sunda Islands — Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, with islands adjacent to them or Ijdng between them. 2. The Philippine Islands. 3. The Moluccas. This name, in its wider application, in- cludes all the islands between Celebes on the west. New Guinea on the east, and Timor on the south. These islands (apart from those which lie close to Celebes and are considered in Chapter II as geographically connected with it) fall into the following principal groups : (a) the Moluccas proper, or Ternate group, including Halmaheira ; (b) the Bachian, Sula, and Ombi or Obi groups ; (c) the Amboina groups, of which Ceram and Buru are the largest islands ; (d) the Banda Islands ; (e) the South- eastern Islands (Tenimber Islands), of which Timor Laut is the largest ; (/) the Kei and Aru Islands, of which the former are sometimes attached to the south-eastern group ; (g) the South- western Islands, or the Babar, Sermata, Letti, Damar, Roma, and Wetar groups. ■i. New Guinea and adjacent islands. 10 GENERAL SURVEY 5. The Lesser (or Little) Sunda Islands, which form a chain between the South-western Islands and Java, and include Timor, Flores, Sumba, Sumbawa, Lombok, and Bali, and islands between and adjacent to them. Of the above, all are Dutch possessions except the northern part of Borneo (British), the Philippines (belonging to the United States of America), the eastern and northern parts of Timor (Portuguese), and the eastern part of New Guinea (British and formerly German). Inasmuch as Java, though by no means the largest, contains Batavia, the capital, and is the administrative centre of Nether- lands India, as well as economically the most important and by far the most populous island in the archipelago, the Dutch make a broad division of their territories into (a) Java (with the contiguous island of Madura), and (6) the Outer Possessions or Outposts (Buitenbezittingen). This division wiU be followed throughout this book. In those sections where separate treat- ment of the principal islands or groups is necessary an order will be followed, unless there is reason to the contrary, beginning with Java, following a geographical sequence westward to Sumatra, eastward through Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas to New Guinea, and finally completing the circuit westward through the Lesser ^unda chain. Area The total land-area of Netherlands India is variously esti- mated, sometimes as low as 698,000 square miles, but 736,850 square miles seems to be a more probable approximate figure. According to this version the areas of the principal islands in square miles are as follows : Java, with Madura, 50,777 ; Sumatra, 167,954 ; the Dutch portion of Borneo, 222,850 ; Celebes, 71,400 ; the Dutch portion of New Guinea, 151,789. These figures leave a balance of 72,080 square miles for all the remaining islands. The Dutch possessions lie on both sides of the Equator, principally south of it,' for it passes through the centre of Sumatra and Borneo, the northern peninsula of Celebes, and the south of Halmaheira. Approximately the limits are from 6° N. off Sumatra to 11° 30' S. off Timor, and from 95° E. in Sumatra to 140° E. in New Guinea. GENERAL SURVEY 11 Physical Geography of the Archipelago In its physical aspect, which is reflected in its biological aspect also, the archipelago may be divided into three parts. 1. Southward from Burma and the Malay Peninsula a shallow submarine platform, over which the sea seldom exceeds a depth of 50 fathoms, extends south and south-east, and upon it stand Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and intervening islands. This platform is covered, in th§ north-western part, by the South China Sea, which communicates with the Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal) by Singapore and other straits leading to Malacca Strait, between the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. South- eastward the South China Sea communicates with Java Sea, between Java and Borneo, by Banka, Gaspar, and Karimata Straits ; and Java Sea communicates with the Indian Ocean through Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, Bali Strait between Java and Bali, and Lombok and Alas Straits farther east. South of Java, and west of Sumatra and the outer chain of islands which fringes part of its coast, the floor of the Indian Ocean sinks immediately to great depths. 2. Eastward of Java Sea and Borneo the waters within the archipelago have a greater general depth, and profound basins lie between the larger island-groups. Java Sea is connected north-eastward with Celebes Sea by Makassar Strait, between Borneo and Celebes, which has a greatest known depth of 1,389 fathoms. Celebes Sea, a circular basin enclosed by Celebes, Borneo, the Sulu Islands, Mindanao (of the Philippines) and the Talaut and Sangir Islands, has a depth of 2,795 fathoms about the centre. It is entered by BasUan and other straits from the Sulu Sea to the north (outside the Dutch area), and communicates south-eastward with Molucca Passage by various channels, of which Banka Passage is most important. By way of Molucca Passage southward, access is obtained to Banda Sea, which opens eastward of Flores Sea. This is the deepest basin in the archipelago, having a depth of 3,657 fathoms in the eastern part, under the chain of islets between Ceram and Timor Laut. Various smaller basins between the islands are distinguished by other names which need not be specified here. As off Sumatra and Java, so off the southern shores of the Lesser Sundas, great depths are quickly reached in the Indian Ocean. 12 GENERAL SURVEY 3. The Arafura Sea, which lies south-eastward of Banda Sea, and, with Torres Strait, separates New Guinea from Australia, is over 100 fathoms deep only in its extreme western part, and its shallowness indicates that New Guinea rises from the same submarine platform as Australia. From these indications, therefore, it appears that (1) the Great Sunda Islands, excepting Celebes, are physically attached , to Asia, rising from its continental shelf ; that (3) New Guinea is similarly attached to Australia ; and that between them lies (2) a fractured zone in which steep ridges, the highest parts of which form islands, alternate with deep depressions. All the islands, excepting a few of the smallest, are mountain- ous or hilly, and much of the region is strongly volcanic. A chain of volcanoes, both extinct and active, extends along the curved axis of the southern island-chain from Sumatra through Java and as far as Timor, and thence bends northward through the Moluccas. Some of the islands have not been free of disastrous eruptions in modern times : both Java and Sumatra have been so affected, and the most notable eruptions were those of Krakatoa, in Sunda Strait, in 1883. The geological structure of the islands appears to be in the main uniform in its broad outlines, though Borneo, from the relative paucity of volcanic rocks and absence of volcanic activity, is to be regarded as a stable area in comparison with Java and Sumatra. Ancient rocks occur more or less widely in Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and Timor : most of the others, so far as known, are composed largely of Tertiary strata, but over many of them volcanic ejecta lie to a great depth, and form the bulk of the highest altitudes in the archipelago. Widely spread by the action of rain and rivers, this volcanic material is of the highest importance in the formation of the most fertile soils of the archipelago. The boundary between the Asiatic continental shelf and the deeper seas to the east, which is marked along Makassar Strait, the eastern edge of Java Sea, and Lombok Strait between the islands of Bali and Lombok (in which there are depths exceed- ing' 600 fathoms), is known as Wallace's Line, after Alfred Russell Wallace, who pointed out its significance. The islands west of it, including Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, show forms of animal life and vegetation more or less closely related to those of Asia. The islands which rise from the deeper seas to GENERAL SURVEY 13 the east, on the contrary, show relations with Australia. On this view, therefore, the line is taken to represent the coast- line of the Asiatic continent down to a recent geological epoch, and it is held that Java, Sumatra, and Borneo formed part of the continent in Tertiary times, Java being separated first, and from Borneo sooner than from Sumatra. The line, in its bio- logical significance, must not be traced too strictly ; to some forms of life (spiders, for example) it does not apply at all, and some authorities have proposed an alternative zoological divi- sion between the Oriental and Australian zoological regions, passing through the deeper seas east of Timor, and leaving the Sula Islands to the west, and Buru, Ombi, and Halmaheira to the east. This has been called Weber's Line. In either case, Celebes is established as a transitional area between the two regions named above. Its faunal affinities are in great part Asiatic, but the fauna is more highly speciaUzed than any other in the archipelago, and an earlier separation from Asia is indi- cated. The eastern islands, rising out of deep water — the result of a subsidence continued over a longer period than that which isolated the western islands — have at various epochs been united to the Australian continent (see further Chap. V, Animals). Frontiers and Adjacent Territories The Dutch possessions have land frontiers with the possessions of other Powers in only three places — (1) in northern Borneo, where Dutch territory is separated from the British protected territories of North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak ; (2) in Timor, parts of which belong to Portugal ; (3) in New Guinea. The diplomatic history relating to these divisions will be out- lined in .the later sections of Chapter XV. The frontiers in Borneo and New Guinea pass through territory which is little known, but does not appear to offer any serious occasion for future dispute. The position in Timor is different : the division of that island between the Netherlands and Portugal must be regarded as a rather unhappy legacy from the early colonial period (see Chaps. XIV, XV). The Portuguese posses- sions include the eastern half of the island, an enclave in the north-west, and the small island of Kambing. Netherlands India is bordered across intervening seas by 14 GENERAL. SURVEY British possessions in Australia and the Malay Peninsula, by an American possession in the Philippine Islands, by Siam, and (less directly) by French Indo-China. Lines of International Commitnication From the point of view of international communications, some of the sea-ways through the archipelago are of capital importance. It is unnecessary here to discuss in detail the sailing tracks through the various seas and straits, which, at any rate for sailing and low-powered steam-vessels, vary materially between the seasons of the two monsoons (for which see Chap. III). But the main sea-ways through the Dutch portion of the archipelago may be summarized as follows : 1. Malacca Strait. — ^Upon this passage converge all the routes from Indian ports, Colombo, &c., to Singapore and the East. The strait passes between Dutch territory on the one hand and British (and in the extreme north, Siamese) territory in the Malay Peninsula on the other. The strait is about 570 miles (statute) in length. At its southern end, Dutch territory in the Riouw Islands faces British territory across Singapore Strait at a distance of little more than 10 miles, and the straits leading to Singapore from the southward — Riouw or Rhio and Durian — pass wholly between Dutch islands. It may therefore be said that the Netherlands possess an important measure of territorial control over the much-frequented com- mercial routes upon which Singapore is a port of call. More- over, Singapore is of prime importance as an entrepot for the trade of Netherlands India (see further Chap. XII). 2. Sunda Strait. — Through this strait passes a large portion of the trade with China, Batavia, Singapore, and other ports in the Malay and China Seas ; routes from Colombo, from all parts of East Africa from the Red Sea to the Cape of Good Hope, and from western and southern Australia, naturally converge upon it. Separating Java from Sumatra, it is wholly under Dutch control. Its narrowest part, 14 miles across, is divided by Thwart way or Dwars in den Weg Island into two channels, each about 4 miles wide. 3. The straits east of Sunda (Bali, and those between the Lesser Sunda Islands) are of much less importance to communi- cations generally than Sunda itself. Bali, Lombok, and Alas GENERAL SURVEY 15 Straits, however, are used by vessels dependent upon wind conditions in the, season December-February, bound between Aden, Cape Town, &c., and China direct, when they pass eastward of Bprneo through Makassar Strait. Either Lombok or Alas Strait, also, is commonly used during the north-west monsoon by vessels between Batavia, &c., and northern Australia and Torres Strait, when they pass by one of these two straits to the south of the Lesser Sunda chain and Timor into the Arafura Sea. The steamship route, however, in the south-east monsoon (and sometimes also in the north-west) lies north of the Lesser Sunda. Islands, through Wetar Passage, and south of the South-western Islands. 4. The most important routes lying through the eastern part of Netherlands India are those between Hong-Kong, &c., and Darwin (Northern Australia) and Torres Strait (Thursday Island), for eastern Australian ports, &c. The route southward from Hong-Kong, Manila, &c., enters Celebes Sea through the important channel of Basilan Strait, which, however, is outside the Dutch area, being bounded on both sides by American islands, belonging to the Philippines. Crossing Celebes Sea, the route makes use of Banka Passage, close off the north-eastern promontory of Celebes, whence it enters Molucca Passage, leads between the Sula and Ombi groups, follows Manipa Strait between Buru and Ceram, and passes the Dutch port of Am- boina. From here the course to Darwin lies across the middle of Banda Sea, and reaches Arafura Sea through the South- western Archipelago. The usual route to Torres Strait passes between the Kei and Aru Islands to the north-east, and Timor Laut to the south-west. Both these routes, between Banka Passage and Australia, thus lie through seas commanded by Dutch territory. Apart from its importance in connexion with traffic to and from eastern Australia, New Zealand, &c., the Torres Strait route is sometimes used by vessels between southern China and the Philippines, and Valparaiso and other South American ports. The importance of the route between Hong-Kong and Chinese ports and Darwin may be enhanced if, or when, Darwin becomes the northern terminus of an Australian trans-continental railway (to Adelaide, &c.) : it has long been urged, for example, that the shortest mail and passen- ger route between Great Britain and Australia (assuming normal and favourable conditions throughout) would lie, in that case. 16 GENERAL SURVEY by the Trans-Siberian Railway, one of the Asiatic ports with which it is connected, and Darwin. Any of the routes con- verging upon Darwin from any direction between north and west lie through or very near some part of the archipelago of Netherlands India. It may be remarked that Makassar Strait, between Borneo and Celebes, does not possess equal importance with other passages discussed above, apart from the position of the port of Makassar as an entrepot : the relative importance of the principal ports, however, will be discussed in Chap. XII. Dtitch Progress in Netherlands India Relative Importance of Java In respect of economic development, and of the extension of their rule over the archipelago, the record of the Dutch is one of slow methodical progress from Java as a centre. It has been stated above that Java is not the largest, but is the most popu- lous and economically the most important island. The contrast between it and the Outer Possessions is remarkable. The Outer Possessions altogether are over thirteen times larger than Java in area, but the population of Java is at least three times larger than the estimated population of the Outer Posses- sions. It might be expected that some outstanding factor in the natural conditions or the history of the archipelago would be found to account for this phenomenon, but this is not so, and the reasons for it are not easy to discover. It is said that the population of Java has increased about eight-fold^ during the century since the restoration of the Dutch rule (see Chap. XV) ; so that the estabhshment of settled govern- ment and peaceful conditions, and the large extension of agriculture in a country of extreme natural fertility, may be taken to account at once for the large increase of population and for the pre-eminent position of Java. But this position was established long before Europeans entered the archipelago. An additional, and perhaps the leading, reason for it was the 1 For comparison it may be observed that the area of Java is not qmte as large as that of England ; but the average density of population is about 709 persons per square-mile, against 668 in England by the census of 1911. The population of England and Wales increased not quite four-fold in the nineteenth century. .GENERAL SURVEY 17 relative ease of access to Java from the sea, and of penetration inland. Behind the coastline facing the interior seas, Java has not so wide a tract of heavily forested, marshy lowland as either Sumatra or Borneo ; nor, on the other hand, does it oppose to penetration almost continuously broken country from the coast inward, as Celebes does. The mere bigness of Sumatra and Borneo, as contrasted with Java, makes them less easy of control by an invader, and offers more refuge for primitive peoples. It does not appear to be just to regard Java (as it sometimes is regarded) as owing its importance simply to a degree of fertihty largely in excess of the other islands. Its natural fertility is no greater, for example, than that of the most fertile parts of Sumatra. Summary of Economic Development In view of the relative importance of Java it is necessary to deal with that island in greater detail than the rest. At the same time it must be borne in mind that Java does not epito- mize the whole of the problems which confront the Dutch in the administration and economic development of their Indonesian empire : some writers on Netherlands India have certainly concentrated attention too nearly exclusively on Java. In the chapters on the inhabitants of Netherlands India (V, VI, and VII) it will be shown that the Dutch have to deal with native peoples in almost every stage of development, from the highly-organized agricultural society in Java and the active trading communities in the coast-lands of nearly all the islands, to the uncivilized and largely uncontrolled inhabitants of the interior, who have practically disappeared in Java, but are found in all the other larger and a majority of the smaller islands. The comparative political and economic importance of the islands, and their widely divergent potentialities, may be best understood from a consideration of the varying condi- tions of native society ; for that reason the individual native peoples of the archipelago wiU be described in some detail in Chapters VI and VII. In Chapter XI the economic position of the several parts of the Outer Possessions will be indicated by considering firstly native production, and secondly European commercial enterprise. From the latter point of view the condition of the islands may be summarized as follows. (1) Java (see Chap. X) is in full industrial development : its NETHERLANDS INDIA B 18 GENERAL SURVEY industry rests primarily on the basis of agricultural and forest resources, for the island has no great mineral wealth. While it affords opportunity for the use of European capital on a large scale, it cannot attract in large numbers the individual Euro- pean colonist of limited means, for it does not offer him the prospect of rapidly acquiring wealth. (2) Sumatra and some of its neighbouring islands are in process of development in respect of both agricultural and mineral resources ; this process, while far from the stage reached in Java, is much further advanced than in the other islands. (3) In Borneo, so far as development has proceeded, the main iaterests are rather in mineral than in agricultural production, but on the whole the island stands at a lower stage than Su- . matra, and probably than Celebes. (4) The development of Celebes progresses chiefly in the direction of agricultural and forest resources. (5) Of the Moluccas, the northern groups have small prospects of development at present ; in the southern groups, which are more fertile and populous, agricultural and forest production is further advanced. (6) New Guinea is undeveloped, and (7) the Lesser Sunda Islands, as a whole, show no great economic possibilities. Administrative and Economic Problems In Chapter VIII the methods of Dutch administration will be discussed, and a distinction will appear between territories which are ruled directly by the Dutch and those in which government is carried on by natives under Dutch guidance, with a further distinction between those territories in which native rulers administer either Dutch law or their own. Finally, there are the territories, gradually decreasing in area, over which Dutch sovereignty is merely nominal. In the course of administration and economic development the Dutch have to deal (1), as already seen, with native peoples at all stages of civilization ; (2) with a varied immigrant popu- lation of Arabs, Chinese, Japanese, and Indians, to whom are occasionally added a few negroes from Africa and America, Koreans, Pacific Islanders, &c. ; (3) with a large half-caste element ; (4) with European settlers other than Dutch. The positions and characteristics of these various elements will be GENERAL SURVEY 19 dealt witji in Chapter V and elsewhere, and it will be endea- voured to indicate the social, political, and economic problems associated with them. For summary purposes, it is probably true to state that of these problems the niost serious (if not necessarily always the most prominent) are those concerned with education, labour, and the relation between Mohamme- danism and the State. (1) In regard to education of natives of the higher orders of intelligence, it is held that this should be directed towards improving their aptitude for agricultural and industrial pursuits, rather than towards qualifying them for clerical or administrative positions, or instructing them in European social and political ideas. This view meets with opposition from some of the natives themselves : the Javanese aristo- cracy, for example, inclines rather towards the latter than towards the former objects of education indicated above. (2) The labour problem (see Chap. IX) is manifold : in agri- culture it is connected mainly with the education of the native in an occupation with which he is already acquainted, and in which he prefers his own primitive methods, and adopts im- provement unreadily. In the mining industries this particular disability is absent, but the usual problems connected with the importation of coohe labour arise. . In Java there is plenty of native labour on the spot ; in the Outer Possessions this is not the case as a rule. (3) Each immigrant Oriental race brings its own problems — the Japanese, with their peculiar legal position as equal to Europeans, in distinction from all other Orientals in the archipelago , and their rapidly growing commercial and other interests there; the Chinese with their social influence upon the natives and their position of rivalry with Europeans in various departments of trade ; and lastly, the Arabs, with the command- ing influence of their religion. The position and wide extension of Mohammedanism will be discussed in Chapter V. The power which might be used under its influence against the established regime of the Dutch (which does not in theory include the moral support of any one religion against others) would probably be exercised not by immigrant Arabs so much as by the native Mohammedans. The development and possible outbreak of Pan-Islamic tendencies have given ground for apprehension, and it is asserted, on strong evidence, that of recent years Germans B 2 20 GENERAL SURVEY have been endeavouring to extend their influence over the Mohammedans in the archipelago and to foment the extremists among them, a process kindred with attempts to create dis- affection in the army of Netherlands India, and to use that territory as a starting-point for intrigues in British India. Comments on Dutch Administration ' Wise, paternal, methodical,' are epithets applied to the Dutch administration by its admirers ; it has been said that the Dutch in Netherlands India have afforded ' a rare example of a political intelligence which is equally tenacious and sagacious ', and that ' their system of administration is full of valuable lessons for the other colonial Powers of Europe '. Their critics have charged them with administering their colony for the benefit of the State at the expense of the individual, with an attitude of needless austerity towards the native population, and with failure as colonists, successful though they may be in extorting quick returns for the investment of their capital. The Dutch colonial official, who appears as a rule to reach a high standard of efficiency, has been commonly blamed, on the one hand, by the more advanced natives for encroaching upon their rights and refusing to encourage their natural inclinations in education and towards nationalism ; on the other hand, by the unofficial European colonist or resident, who claims that his dealings with the native are too closely and suspiciously supervised, and that he himself is practically denied any element of citizenship in the colqny. Such criticisms suggest, in effect, an honest endeavour on the part of the administration to hold a true balance between irreconcilable interests, seeking favour from neither side. The development of the colony, judged merely by its enormous area, has been slow and proceeds slowly, but the resources of the mother country are limited, and there is no evidence of either neglect or shortness of sight. The administration of the Dutch is accompanied by serious study of the lands and peoples within their dominion, which, as exemplified in the publications quoted in the bibliography attached to this volume, is worthy of all possible praise. CHAPTER II PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOpY Java — ^Islands adjacent to Java — Sumatra — Islands adjacent to Sumatra — Borneo — Islands adjacent to Borneo — Celebes — Islands adjacent to Celebes —The Moluccas — Dutch New Guinea — Islands adjacent to New Guinea — Lesser Sunda Islands. Java Physical Divisions and Relief Java, situated between Sumatra to the west and the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands to the east, extends from 114:° 31' E. and 8° 47' S. in the promontory of Balambangan, to 105° 12' E. in Java Head, and 5° 47' S. in St. Nicholas Point (at opposite ends of Sunda Strait). The island may be described in the simplest terms as consisting of a central mountain chain extending longitudinally from east to west, and flanked by lowlands, almost continuously on the north, but intermittently on the south. But the customary physical division of Java is into (a) East, (6) Middle, and (c) West, the middle part representing the isthmus which connects the wider and more massive eastern and western parts : each of these divisions has certain structural characteristics of its own. {a) East Java consists (1) of a peninsula extending from Bali Strait westward to a hne drawn approximately south from Pasuruan, (2) of a wider portion, the main mass of East Java, westward of that line as far as the longitude of Surakarta. In this division lowlands and highlands are less sharply divided than in the others, and the volcanic eminences, instead of rising in groups or masses like those farther west, stand isolated. The eastern peninsula throws off a large limestone promon- tory or sub-peninsula south-eastward, called Balambangan, which, though of considerable elevation itself, is attached to the mainland by a very low and partly marshy tract. For the rest the peninsula is dominated by three isolated volcanic masses, which may be distinguished (from east to west) as the 22 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Ijen, lyang, and Tengger highlands, in which the highest summits are respectively Merapi, 9, 1 8 6 ft ., and Raung, 1 0, 9 32 ft . , Argapura, 10,102 ft., and Mahameru, 12,718 ft. Many short streams drain radially from these isolated highlands. The watershed which divides those flowing to the north and south ' coasts respectively lies north of the axis of the peninsula, and the widest extent of lowland is on the south coast, where the Bandayuda is the principal river, and the low island of Nusa Barung lies off its mouth. This lowland is bounded' both east and west by spurs from the central mountains, which reach the coast. There are well-marked passes northward from this lowland between the volcanic masses to the coastal plains of the north, which are narrow, the northern lowland being in great part drowned beneath the Strait of Madura, and are also interrupted by the bold eminence of Ringgit (4,100 ft.) and by spurs of the central volcanic mass. In the main portion of East Java (westward, that is, of the peninsula just described) the volcanic highlands again stand isolated : thus, westward of the Tengger we have another group in which Arjuna reaches 10,968 ft. and Butak 9,420 ft. ; next, the Willis group, of less elevation ; then Lawu, 10,777 ft., and lastly, south of Semarang on the border of Central Java, the group in which Merbabu rises to 10,318 ft. It is a distinguishing feature of this part of East Java that the main watershed lies far towards the south of the island, turning sharply in that direction from the summits of the Tengger highland. At one point, above the head of Gemah Bay, it approaches within two miles of the south coast. There is thus practically no south coastal lowland, while the lowlands which drain northward separate the volcanic masses described above, and, beyond them, are broken by a succession of lower elevations — ^mainly limestone — which rise in detached masses or short ranges with- a general east-and-west direction, as far as the north coast itself. The major proportion of the lowlands in this division belong to the strangely-shaped basins of the Brantas and the Solo, two of the principal rivers of Java (p. 26), which in their upper parts provide north-and-south lines of communication between the volcanic highlands, and in their lower parts east-and-west lines between the lower ranges mentioned above. Leaving the volcanic area northward, the Brantas is diverted by the central JAVA 23 limestone range eastward to the coast in Surabaya ; the Solo breaks through this range, but is diverted by another which flanks the north coast and is continued in the island of Madura. The plains of the north coasts in Japara, Pasuruan, and Besuki are to be distinguished from the plains between the limestone hills and volcanoes. The Japara plain is composed of mud from Serang and Juwana and volcanic matter from the isolated peak of Muria. The Juwana p^ain is formed of marine sand and clay, and the plains of Rembang and Surabaya are of similar composition. On the south coast the low-lying land consists largely of marsh and sand-hills. The plains of the interior are different. The Solo plaiji, extending north and south' between the volcanic peaks of Merapi and Lawu, contains volcanic matter brought down by the Solo river. There are plains similarly situated farther east in Madiun and Kediri. The Malang plain in Pasuruan, sloping gently from north to south (from over 1,000 ft. to 1,600 ft.) is of volcanic material, in which the Brantas has worn a bed over 300 ft. deep. The Lamongan plain in ProboUnggo, consisting of volcanic sand, hes at an altitude of about 180 ft., and descends slightly towards the south, where it becomes alluvial. (6) Middle Java. — In this relatively narrow division the mountains assume a chain formation with fewer volcanoes, and these more widely separated. This system is marked off from the mass of Merbabu and Merapi (above) by the Kedu valley, through which the River Praga flows. West of this, the mountains extend along a line from south-east to north-west as far as the Dieng plateau, after which the line runs from east-north-east to west-south-west, and includes the summit of Slamat, over 11,000 ft., and other heights ranging from 4,000 to more than 8,000 ft. The direction of the line then changes to west-north-west, and so continues as far as Cherimaj (10,098 ft.) south-westward of Cheribon. The main watershed lies approximately midway between the north and south coasts, and there are plains along both. The Kedu valley is shut in on the south by a limestone ridge which is independent of the main volcanic range, and runs transversely south of the valley of the Serayu. The only important outlet from the plain to the south is through the opening made by the Praga. Between the main range and the limestone hills is the considerable plain of Banyumas, and 24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY south of them are the extensive lowlands of the south coast. In the north the coastal plain is interrupted by the hUly region to the north of the Dieng plateau. (c)| West Java. — In West Java the mountains are massed in the south ; the main watershed lies well on that side of the island ; except in the extreme west there is little low-lying land along the south coast, while on the other hand the northern lowlands attain their widest extent. The bulk of the mountain system is comprised in the Preanger Mountains. The Halimon Mountains at the junction of Preanger, Batavia, and Bantam constitute a westerly extension of the main group, while across the Manuk valley to the north-east are the mountains of north- eastern Preanger and Cheribon. In an isolated position weU to the north-west are the highlands of Bantam, and in the extreme south-west corner of the island are the thickly- wooded hiUs of South Bantam. While elevations exceeding 6,600 ft. occur in all these groups, the highest point (Chikuraj, 8,596ft., in eastern Preanger) by no means approaches the principal summits of the middle and east divisions. The northern plain of the division of West Java extends from Cheribon to Bantam. The strip along the coast, formed by the action of the sea or rivers, is to be distinguished from the low ground inland. The first is a later formation and is not more than 50 ft. high, while the earlier formation behind some- times rises to a height of more than 300 ft. The two surfaces are sometimes separated by a sill or terrace, two or three feet high. The coastal strip varies in width from three miles to twenty-five, being greatest at the river deltas. Both in this and in the middle division the larger streams have built out a succession of alluvial promontories at their mouths, as in the case of the Badri, Tyomal (Chomal), and Pemali in Middle Java, and the Manuk, Tyupunagara; Tarum, and Pontang-Ujung in West Java. In Krawang and Cheribon there are marshes along the river courses and at the sea coast. Volcanoes. — In Java there are about 125 volcanic centres, of which 13, Gedeh, Tangkuban Prahu, Gutar, Papandayan, Galunggung, Slamat, Sendor, Merapi, Kelut, Bromo, Semeru, Lamongan, and Raung, are active. The activity of most of these is trifling, although where the cones remain unbroken, serious eruption is always a possibility. The volcanic moun- tains are of typical form, rising from a broad rounded base with JAVA 25 regular sweeping lines to the conical top. Some, however, end abruptly half way up the upper cone in a broken line where the whole surface of the broad summit is a confusion of cliffs, mounds, and fragments, with steam roaring from numerous vents. There are examples of this in the twin mountains of Gredeh and Pangerango, which are separated by a saddle. ■ The whole top of Gedeh has been blown away or fallen in, and is constantly steaming, while alpine plants grow upon the quiescent summit of Pangerango. Another example is the summit of Papandayan, where mounds and columns of pure sulphur cover the whole area. There are also pools of boiling water domed over by a thin crust of sulphurous calcareous rock dangerous to cross. Runnels of very hot water and of cold surface-water flow near each other over the rough bare broken surface of the crater f eld. The mountain has a truncated profile similar to that of Gedeh. The famous Bromo ' sand-sea ' is the broken-down floor of an enormous crater which once towered above its neighbours. Rivers Java is abundantly watered. As a consequence of the trend of the central mountain range from east to west, the rivers flow generally north or south. As the longer slope of the island is for the most part from south to north, it is in this direction that the longest rivers flow. To this rule there are local modi- fications, particularly in the broad part of East Java, where the Solo and the Brantas, as has been seen, are diverted to the east by limestone ridges. The drainage areas of the rivers entering the sea on the north coast constitute 63 per cent., and that of the south-coast rivers 32 per cent, of the whole area of the island. In Middle Java, where the central range approaches the north coast, there is a group of rivers of considerable length floviang southward to the Indian Ocean. The volume of the rivers varies considerably, according to the season. During the north-west monsoon, roughly from October to May, the rainfall is heavy, and, in the west, violent. At this time, therefore, the rate of discharge is high, and floods often ensue, and may cause damage to bridges and property. In the period of the south-east monsoon, from May to Septem- ber, when rainfall — especially in East Java — ^is scanty, the rivers 26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY are naturally low. The great majority of the rivers are short and rapid. In East Java the largest and most useful river is the Solo, which rises in the mountains near the south coast, meanders over 310 miles-of country, with intricate windings in its middle and lower course, and reaches the sea by two mouths opposite Madura. The next largest river is the Brantas, which rises in the plateau of Malang, runs south, turns west under the south- ern limestone range, flows north between the mountains, and then runs east to the gulf of Madura with two widely-separated distributaries — ^the Porong and Mas. The river thus describes • a nearly closed square and is clearly consequent upon the present physical features. In Middle Java there are several large streams in the southern coastal plain. In West Java two rivers only, the Tarum and Manuk, are of importance. They rise in the great volcanic group and flow nearly across the island. They are useful for irrigation but for little else. As already shown, these rivers, like others in Middle and West Java, are building the land out into the sea. The loose volcanic soil is brought down from the mountains in suspension and dropped in the sea water. The land at these delta capes is advancing seaward at a rat^ esti- mated, in the case of the Tarum and the Manuk, at 21 ft. annually. The rivers of Java are navigable only by native craft of small dimensions, and this to a limited extent. In this con- nexion they are dealt with under the heading of Biver Transport in Chap. XII. The rivers of Java are used extensively for irrigating rice and other crops. The rivers best adapted for this purpose are those flowing northward to the Java Sea. In the southern plains the only important irrigated areas are the vaUey of the Upper Serayu and the coast district bounded on the east by the Bogowonto and on the west by the Lukula. Among north-flowing rivers, the waters of the Brantas are used at its source, in northern Kediri, and in the delta formed by its mouths. The Madiun, a tributary of the Solo, serves to supply the plain of Madiun. From Japara along the coastal plain to Indramaya there is an almost unbroken stretch of irrigated land watered by the numerous rivers of Semarang, Pekalongan, Tegal, and Cheribon. Farther west, the Liwung nearly through- JAVA 27 out its length, and the Ujung in Bantam for many miles up from its mouth, are used for irrigation. In the interior valleys the water from the Httle mountain-streams is led here and there by small channels that sometimes run side by side upon the crown of a spur in opposite directions towards rice-fields on either side of the broad ridge. The wide terraced rice-fields ranging all along the lower lands below the mountain shoulders rise tier upon tier towards the higher plantations of tea, coffee, or cinchona below the dense forest. These terraced rice-fields are sometimes shimmering with water which is led by bamboo pipes through the corners of the curving terrace banks, so that from the abundant small mountain streamlets the whole lower land can be flooded, or the supply can be diverted during the ripening of the rice. (See further Chap. X.) Coast North Coasf.— The action of the rivers flowing into the shallow Java Sea have contributed to the formation of a narrow flat tract of shore, which extends with only occasional and insignificant intermission along the whole northern coast of Java. In appearance it varies in different locahties. The north-east coast is generally even and wooded, with banks of mud and sand (except at salient points) which render approach difficult, and dry at low water. Erom Ujong Panka to Tanjong Aur Aur there is a sand beach. The coast is low and flat beyond this as far as Mandalike, after which its character markedly changes, and as far as Teluk Aur it is rocky and irregular, with sharp projecting points and intervening creeks. A section of this coast eastward of Japara is densely forested, uninhabited, and sharply sloping up to mountains immediately behind it. Beyond Teluk Aur westward the low coast is resumed : in the vicinity of Tanjongs Indramayu, Sentigi, and Bobos it affords good landing. The whole stretch west of Cheribon, however, is low, often marshy, and covered with mangrove woods and nipa. The shore of the bay fronting Batavia is, for the most part, a muddy marsh, intersected by shallow streams, some of which have been canalized for boats. Thence to Sunda Strait the coast is low, and, excepting a few flrm patches with villages in cocomit groves, it is swampy and overgrown. Generally along its whole length the coastal strip shelves gradually 28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY out to sea, but at the mouths of rivers the silt has formed banks of sand and mud. Under the influence of rivers and currents the coastline is subject in places to rapid altera- tion, of which an example, showing changes in 37 years, is given in the annexed sketch-map. The coast presents many bays, but none penetrates deeply. The best harbour is Surabaya, which consists mainly of the strait between the mainland and Madura. By artificial means another important harbour has been constructed at Tanjong Priok in the Bay of Batavia. South Coast. — The south coaso differs from the north. The ocean floor sinks to great depths close off shore. Prevailing currents sweep away the alluvial deposits, but in certain regions throwthem back in the shape of sand ridges. From the mouth of the Serayu to the Upak (along the coast of Banyumas, Bagelen, and Jokyakarta) there are three ridges of sand about 50 ft. high, and varying in width from 100 yds. to 600 yds. These dunes are liable to shift, and during the south-east monsoon they tend to block the mouths of the rivers, diverting their courses to the west. Less extensive sand ridges are found in south-east Probolinggo, in south-west Besuki, in the plains of Lumajang and Pugar, in parts of Preanger south coast, in the peninsula in the extreme west, and in the Blambangan penin- sula in the extreme east of the island. The sand dunes often enclose lagoons and marshes. East of the Upak are steep cliffs about 150 ft. high, which follow the line of the limestone hiUs of South Java and for some distance present no inlet. Beyond Sempu Island, in South Pasuruan, and again in South Besuki, the spurs extend to the shore, where they project as headlands, and sometimes form inlets flanked by cliffs. Huge rocks broken off from the cliffs rise out of the sea to a height of over 1,600 ft., and the coast in these parts is generally irregulav. This coast is little frequented by ocean-going ships, ha\ang only two safe harbours — Chilachap and Segoro Wedi Bay. The approach to Chilachap is difficult, but Segoro Wedi is one of the finest bays in Java, and the anchorages on the eastern side are good and safe, except when a heavy swell enters. This swell breaks unceasingly on all exposed parts of the south coast of Java. 30 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Geology The percentages of surface rocks in Java are given thus : pre-Miocene (Cretaceous and Eocene), 1 ; Miocene and Pliocene, 38 ; volcanic, 28 ; post-Tertiary and recent, 33. A transverse section of the island shows that it may be divided geologically into longitudinal strips corresponding approximately to the northern lowlands, the central volcanic highlands, and the broken highlands and lowlands of the south. The northern strip, a stable denuded plateau with a massive downthrow, is divided by faulting from the central strip, upon which the volcanic cones are piled, and this again is divided by a second fault line from the southern strip, which sank lower in late Tertiary times. Allowing for the irregularity of denudation, the geological map shows the sjonmetry of this longitudinal arrangement throughout the island. This longitudinal strip arrangement is modified by cross-fractures, and the volcanic development is interrupted in the western part of the middle- third of the island (Tegal and Banjnimas) where the broad central band of Miocene is flanked by quaternary on either side. The presence of the dividing faults furnishes an explanation of the concurrence of earthquakes with the greater volcanic eruptions. The volcanoes of the central strip have piled mountainous masses of ejectamenta upon the land. Jn the eastern division of the island the volcanoes are arranged upon two long ea st- and-west lines. These are interrupted by the extension of sedimentary rocks right across the island southward from Semarang. Westward from Cheribon, however, the massed volcanoes are arranged upon a number of cross-fracture lines, so that a large part of the western division of the island is covered by volcanic products resting upon the Tertiaries. There is also in this division a great display of intrusive rock, andesite and basalt, detached from the volcanoes and scattered over the Tertiary deposits through which they have intruded. The platform upon which the volcanic mountains rest is a denuded plateau of highly-folded rocks, for the most part Tertiary, with indications of Cretaceous sandstones and of Palaeozoic schists underlying these. The structure of the northern lowlands varies little throughout, but the projecting massif of Muria, north-eastward of Semarang, is mainly formed JAVA 31 by a detached volcanic mass, older than the central volcanic chain, and of different character, containing leucite and phono- lite rocks which occur elsewhere only in the Ringgit volcano on the north coast and at Besuki. The island of Madura and the smaller islands surrounding it are mainly of limestone, and entirely non-volcanic. For the rest, northward of the central mountains there is a steeply tilted boss of limestones, with eruptive particles of hornblende, augite, andesite, &c., and some admixture of conglomerates, marls, and shales. Against this boss, to the north, rests a crumpled series of antichnes and synclines, all denuded, and upon the eroded edges of these are horizontal Quaternary formations, overlaid towards the north coast by recent alluvial deposits. South of the central mountains a strong anticlinal fold is displayed, with highly inclined middle Tertiary strata dipping towards the south, and the upper limestones resting uncon- formably and nearly horizontally upon the lower sandstones, marls, shales, slates, conglomerates, and breccia. The ' old slate ' rocks of Sumatra, Borneo, &c., do not appear in Java. Granite is occasionally found in the western volcanic breccias. The oldest rocks are some serpentine schists and mica schists. The sedimentary series upwards to the Jurassic are not represented ; the Cretaceous only in one small inlier strongly upfolded near the centre of the island east of Banyumas. The great thickness of the Miocene is, in comparison with the other formations, the characteristic stratigraphical feature of the island. Superficially, therefore, Java — ^as compared with otherjparts of the region such as Borneo and Sumatra — is of remarkable simplicity. It is not a country where abundant mineral wealth is to be expected. Islands adjacent to Java Of islands adjacent to Java (other than those in the main chain to the west and east, which will be dealt with under the headings of Sumatra and the Lesser Sunda Islands) the most important is Madura. This island lies off the north-east coast of Java, of which it is physically a part, being separated from it by a shallow strait less than 1| mile across at its narrowest part, while the north coast continues the Hne of the north coast of Java. Madura is a little over 100 miles long, and 24 miles in 32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY greatest width. The surface is undulating, but nowhere moun- tainous. In the western half no greater elevation than about 700 ft. is attained, and the hills are broken by the valleys of the Balega, Sampang, and other streams. In the east the central spine of hills is more continuous, and an extreme height of 1,565 ft. is found. The north coast is bold, and the lowland fringing it is of no great width ; the south coast is fringed by shoals, islets, and mud-banks. The geological formation reveals the relation of the island to the adjacent part of Java, consisting of similar rocks (hmestones, &c.) of Tertiary age. There are low alluvial tracts at intervals, principally along the south and north-west coasts. A chain of small islands extends eastward from Madura, terminating in the Kangean group, of which Kangean Island is about 25 miles long east and west, and from 3 to 13 miles wide. Its extreme height is something over 1,500 ft. The other principal groups of islands in the Java Sea, which may be mentioned in this section, are the Karimon.Java, Boompyes, and Thousand Islands. Karimon or Krimon Java, north of Madura, is a group of some 25 islands, of which the largest is Karimon, which rises to 1,660 ft., and is level only at its south-west point, where there is a village. With Komodian Island, lower and smaller, but also rocky, it is enclosed in a coral reef. Boompyes is a wooded coral island nearly north of Tanjong Indramayu, with adjacent reefs. The Thousand Islands (actually about 80) and other groups extend northward from the western horn of Batavia Bay ; they are low, tree-covered islets surrounded by steep coral reefs : only a few are inhabited. Off the south coast of Java there is no island of importance. In Sunda Strait the volcanic island of Krakatoa (see p. 12) is conspicuous among others. Sumatra Sumatra lies between 5° 39' N. and 5° 57' S. lat., so that the Equator divides it into two nearly equal parts. Its axis runs from south-east to north-west. It is 1,060 miles in length, and is over four times as long as it is wide at the widest part (248 miles), which falls at the point where the island is inter- SUMATRA 33 seoted by the Equator. On the western side, where a chain of islands lies along the coast, it borders on the Indian Ocean ; it is separated from Java, to the south-east, by Sunda Strait, and from the Malay Peninsula, to the north-east, with which it runs roughly parallel, by Malacca Strait. Surface Sumatra consists of a high mountain chain, running along the whole of the western coast, with a broad belt of flat alluvial country occupjdng the whole length of the island to the east, and forming a homogeneous whole, with no important eleva- tions. To this extent Sumatra resembles Java in structure. The mountain chain is a link between that of Java and the West Burmese chain, with which it is connected through the Andaman and Mcobar Islands, and runs for a distance of more than 1,000 miles, rising to numerous volcanic peaks from 5,000 to over 12,000 ft. high. The mountains lie close to the west coast of Sumatra through the whole distance, with small plains in some parts rising to the foot-hills from the sea, while elsewhere the hills come right down to the coast. The whole system, which is referred to as the Barisan Mountains or Bukit Barisan, consists in general of two or more folded chains, running parallel to each other, with a valley between. This valley is broken up into separate sections by the intrusion of volcanic massifs, and in it lies a row of mountain lakes, chief among them (starting from the south) being Ranau, Korinchi, Singkarah, Maninjau, and Toba. The last is by far the largest, being 45 miles long by 15 in extreme width. There are charac- teristic differences between the mountains of the south of the island and of the north : in the south the range consists chieflj' of parallel chains lying near together, enclosing only a few small plateaux ; to the north of 1 ° N. the mountains broaden out to a wide plateau, falling away steeply to the west, and partly surrounded by mountain peaks. This plateau includes the larger part of north Sumatra, the coastal plain to the east being narrower than in the south, and descends in terraces to the small plains with which it is edged on the western and northern coasts. The whole range is topped with a line of volcanoes, mostly close to the west coast ; several are still active, ash and scoriae being spread over a wide area, though lava streams are seldom emitted. Chief among these volcanic peaks are Kraka- NBTHKRLANDS INDIA Q 34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY toa (2,703 ft.) in Siinda Strait, Dempo (10,236 ft.) in the Pasuma group, Kaba (6,528 ft.) in the Rejang group, Peak of Indrapura (12,484 ft.) in the Korinchi group, Talang or Sulasi (8,339 ft.), Singalang-Tandikat (9,479 ffc.), Merapi (9,484 ft.), and Pasaman-Teleman (9,844 ft.), all in the Padang highlands, Sorik Berapi (5,875 ft.) in the Mandailing group, Pusuh BuMt (6,562 ft.), Dolok Sibayak (7,075 ft.), and Dolok Si Nabun (7,930 ft.), in the Batak country. Mount Kaba (5,400 ft.) recently covered the area surrounding it with volcanic sand, and caused the temporary destruction of plant and animal lift . Merapi has a crater lake of boiling mud. Rivers Owing to the position of the mountains in Sumatra, the rivers on the west coast are all short, running in valleys with a steep slope, and having a very short lower course ; they are unnavigable, except near the mouth in the case of a few, and the largest, the Singkel, is almost useless for shipping owing to the bar at its mouth, though farther up it forms an excellent means of communication in spite of the rapids in its course. In the south the rivers have made small deltas in the sea-diluvium of the coast, and north of Benkulen as far as 2° S. and between Padang and Priaman are marshes which hinder the discharge of the rivers, and are caused by the heavy surf off the coast or by bars of sea-sand preventing the mud in suspension in the rivers from being carried out to sea. On the east coast of Sumatra the rivers running through the alluvial plains have wide drainage areas, and form the most important means of communication, and therefore the chief lines of settlement, the native states which have arisen on their banks being frequently called after the river. The largest rivers on the east coast, beginning at the south, are the Musi, the Jambi, the Indragiri (Kwantan), the Kampar, the Siak, the Rokan, the Panel, and the smaller Asahan, Serdang, and Deh rivers to the north of these. The most important are the Musi and the Jambi. The navigation of the principal rivers is dealt with under the heading of River Transport in Chap. XII. The greatest difficulties in the ^^'ay of navigation on all the rivers on the east coast are the wide mud-banks at their mouths, the changes in the height of the water, due to the irregularity of the supply and the tides running up the mouth. SUMATRA 35 and the frequent rapids in their upper courses. The coast is lined with morasses, the rivers in some cases spreading into enormous intercommunicating deltas. The different drainage systems are not joined by practicable roads near the coast, and there are in the case of most of the rivers no considerable settle- ments at the mouth. In the case of the smaller rivers to the north, conditions are different, since the growth of the tobacco plantations has led to the establishment of communications along the coast. The constant rainfall, however unpleasant for colonists, gives abundance of water, and will provide power for mining ma- chinery and for the removal of waste products when the minerals of the island are further exploited. Coast West Coast. — The west coast of Sumatra is in great part high and rocky, particularly between 2° S. and Padang, where the mountains come right down to the sea in places. Between Mokko Mokko and Cape Vlakke Huk the coast is on the whole bold and difficult of approach, but the mountains lie farther inland and the land near the shore is covered with alluvium and is frequently marshy. North of Padang the coastal- marshes begin again ; between Tiku and Tapanuli Bay the alluvial land is broken by stretches of granite, diabase, &c., on which various settlements have arisen, e. g. Natal and Ayerbangis. In this part of the coast the sea has eaten away the land in a series of semi-circular bays. Tapanuli Bay is surrounded by mountains, chiefly sandstone, and north of it, as far as Trumon, is a wide alluvial plain. From thence to Koningspunt the coast is only marshy in places, as at Melabuh. The sea is from 20 to 50 fathoms deep in most parts of the west coast close offshore, falling to great depths beyond the narrow coastal shelf. A chain of islands (see p. 39), of which the most important are Simalur, Nias, the Batu Islands, the Mentawei Islands, and Engano, extends parallel to the coast at a distance of about 60 miles, between the parallels of 3° N. and 3° 30' S. ; they are for the most part unsurveyed, as is the larger part of the west coast, and uncharted dangers are numerous. The best harbours of Sumatra are in the central part of the west coast, where there are several inlets well protected from the sea by islands, which make good harbours, e. g. Emma- 02 36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY haven, on Koninginne Bay. North of Tapanuli and south of Indrapura none of the indentations in the coast affords complete shelter from the south-west monsoon. Benkulen has a bad roadstead, though it is joined to the east coast by a good road- system ; Ayerbangis is of small use for shipping, since it is open and exposed, and Natal is encumbered with reefs. Tapa- nuli Bay is well sheltered by Morsala Island, and the trade of its port, Sibolga, shows promise of development, though its hinterland is unproductive. Singkel has a good roadstead, but the river is barred with shoals, on which the surf breaks con- tinually. Only the outer route, outside the islands, is free from danger for shipping ; the central route, halfway between the coast and the islands, is wide, and safe night and day in favour- able weather for vessels of light draught, but sailing ships are at the mercy of the currents in light and baflfiing winds : there is no anchorage, and in some parts there are dangerous coral shoals. This route is frequently taken by Dutch war vessels, and by the coastal mail steamers. The inner route has many places which afford a moderate anchorage, but is seldom chosen by sailing ships going north ; there is always considerable risk in using this route at night. The development of the west coast for trade and settlement is much hindered by the difficulty of access from the sea, owing to the coral reefs and the breaking surf, and by the lack of communications inland. East Coast. — The whole of the east coast of Sumatra from Diamond Point to Varkenshuk is formed of morasses and sandbanks, breaking up into innumerable points and islands at the mouths of the rivers, so that it is often difficult to distin- guish land from sea. The coast is constantly advancing, and is made up of the sediment brought down by the rivers, the spread of mangrove vegetation, and the .sand and silt deposited along the shore by the shallow sea. It is largely uninhabited, such population as exists getting a livelihood by fishing. The value of such a coast for trade and settlement is dependent on the character of its rivers (see p. 34). Belawan, at the mouth of the DeH River, is the principal harbour for the tobacco- producing district of Deli, since there is railway communication with the interior, and vessels of 12 ft. draught can enter the river with a pilot. North and South Coasts.—The north coast of Sumatra, between Raja and Diamond Point, is very varied ; in some SUMATRA 37 places cliffs rise precipitously from the sea, and are crowned with dense vegetation ; in other parts there are sandy beaches or cultivated and well -populated plains. The two chief harbours are Oleh-leh and Sabang (on Weh Island) : Oleh-leh is the chief distributing port for the north of Sumatra, but there is liable to be a heavy sea in its roadstead during either monsoon ; Sabang, whose importance lies in its position as a possible port of call at the entrance to Malacca Strait, has a bay which is completely sheltered in all weathers. At the southern extremity of Sumatra there are two deep indentations, Lampong Bay and Keizers or Semangko Bay. The eastern shore of Lampong Bay is mountainous and un- indented, while the western side is much cut up ; Telok Betong, its port, has a good harbour, and deals with almost all the trade of the Lampong districts. Geology The western mountain system is composed for the most part of Archaean rocks, crystalline schists, folded gneiss, and meta- morphic limestones, cross-seamed by igneous intrusions of various ages and containing here and there longitudinal bands of Jurassic and Cretaceous rock (Sarolangun) let down by faulting, which were laid down before the folding and are now preserved in the sjniclinal valleys and faulted areas. The continual erosion of the ranges exposes* their mineral contents when they occur, and carry some of these downwards to form ' placer ' diggings (Menangkabau). The whole ridge is metalliferous, but its riches are imperfectly known. Gold and silver in close association are known to be distributed widely in the residencies of Tapanuli and the west coast around the equator, where there are roads inland, as also in various places further south along the mountain strip. Lead in association with silver, copper, and tin, with the rarer metals antimony, cobalt, &o., may be expected to occur in greater quantities than those known at present. Connected with tliis range is a series of marine schists con- taining fossil fish and plants which yields large quantities of petroleum, of which important supplies have already been found on the eastern borders of the range. Wherever this formation or later coal deposits are idtimately found it is probable that oil will be discovered. 38 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY In the stratified rocks the most important mineral is coal, and the fact that the important coal-fields exist in, and are not buried under, the Tertiaries makes the discovery of fresh coal- fields easier and their contents more accessible. The coal deposits are of great importance and extent. In the Lampong dist ict of iSouth iSumatra there is a coal basin of Eocene age resting directly upon granite which is over 11 square miles in extent. Inland from Padang on the west coast is the Ombilin field, also Eocene, in three divisions, extending over 35 square miles and containing over 300,000,000 tons of coal. Other coal-fields of Miocene age are found in Benkulen, while the later Miocene and Pliocene coals are widely distributed, and these when metaniorphosed by heated rocks are improved in quality. The iron deposits in Sumatra are scarcely exploited. Where iron is only used for making primitive tools and weapons there is no incentive to large production, although the mines are worked in the Lampong district near the southern ports and coast in association with the coal. The igneous rocks may be considered in three aspects — ^in the crystalline plutonic form, in their metamorphic results, and in the volcanic enrichment of the soils when weathered and dis- tributed. The crystalline rocks are the granites, basalts, and their allies. They are of various geological ages, and their values depend upon their locaf textures, hardness, and ease of working. They are exposed by denudation or pushed through by in- trusion. This intrusion in mass, or through fault cracks, causes change in various sedimentary rocks. Sandstone is changed into quartzite ; limestone (coral or otherwise) into varying marbles ; and clay or shale under pressure into roofing and flooring slates. All these are found in various jjlaces where exposed and pre- served along the western ridge, especially in the south. The geological surface formations of the island run along its length in parallel strips. The igneous and metamorphic are along the western mountain ridges, the Tertiaries with coal, &c., upon their flanks eastwards gradually descend to the low- lands and broaden out widely in the south and in the north, but are restricted and buried under volcanic matter around and east of Lake Toba. Overlying this band a broad covering of quaternary and recent alluvium of great richness and ferti- SUMATRA 39 lity runs regularly along the island to the coast, and reaches the much indented coast, which is rapidly advancing seawards, thus tending to fill up the straits and join the island to the Malay Peninsula. This alluvium is the weathered and trans- ported result of the slow destruction of harder rocks, and of the distribution of volcanic ejectamenta. The ejected volcanic products blown over the land by wind or carried down by rivers gradually become a very fertile soil. Connected with volcanic activity is the presence in the neigh- bourhood of all the volcanoes of sulphur, naphtha, alum, and saltpetre. The torrents from every part of the ridge of Sumatra constantly carry down material which is spread over the lower lands to the east. These quaternary soils are derived from every kind of rock and vary accordingly. The mountain slopes, particularly those of late volcanic origin, the diluvial tuff plateaux, and the soil from the weather-beaten slate and Ume- stone are all specially suitable for agricttlture. The diluvial plateaux are the best cultivated and most thickly populated. The hill-country on the eastern side of the mountains, which is thickly wooded and consists largely of laterite and quartz sands, is not considered in general remarkably good agricultural land, though the laterite is often very fertile, and there are many stretches of good soil often lying at the foot of the volcanic peaks. The inland freshwater marsh-country is at present of no account for agricultural purposes ; it is largely uninhabited. The mud-banks at the river mouths would be of more value if reclaimed by drainage. Islands adjacent to Sumatra (a) West Coast A chain of islands, some of considerable size, extends, as already stated, along the west coast of Sumatra, rising from the edge of the submarine platform or continental shelf. The principal members and groups of this chain -will be briefly dealt with from south to north. None is of great importance. Engano, the most southerly group, consists of one large and six small islands, almost entirely surrounded by reefs, which make landing impossible except at one or two jjoints. The islands jaeld good timber and coco-nuts. The Mentawei 40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY group includes the Mentawei Islands proper, the Pageh or Poggi Islands, and others, some seventy in all. They are of volcanic origin and subject to earthquakes. Sunken coral reefs lie off them and render them dangerous to approach ; the shores are mostly flat and often marshy, and the islands are covered with low wooded hiUs and are httle known. The same applies to the Batu Islands, excepting some of the smaller, especially Tello, where a copra trade has been estabMshed, largely by Chinese. Mas is the largest and most thickly popu- lated island in the West Sumatran chain ; its coasts are rocky or sandy, and landing is often dangerous ; the island is hilly and subject to earthquakes. Inferior coal and a little iron and copper are found, and according to Malay traders there is gold on the east coast. The Banyak Islands are a group of 66 small islands north of Mas bearing many coco-nut palms. Simalur, the northernmost of the islands in the West Sumatran chain, is about 54 miles long, and hilly, with rocky, reef-bound coasts. There is coal on the island, but so widely scattered that it has not paid to work. (b) East Coast Banha. — The neighbouring islands of Banka and BiUiton (below) are two of the most important of the smaller islands in Netherlands India, on account of the tin which is worked in them (see pp. 352 seq.). Banka, which has an area of 4,377 square miles, lies off the south-east coast of Sumatra. There are large shallow bays on its east and west coasts, and a deep inlet, Klabat Bay, running 19 moles into the land, on the north. Ships can only anchor off the mouths of a few of the rivers in this bay, since the water is shallow, and it is surrounded by inaccessible cliffs. The number of anchorages is small on the coasts, which are partly steep and rocky, and partly low and marshy or sandj^, and there are in consequence few coastal settlements. There are about 70 islands adjacent to Banka. all very small, except for Lepau (128 square miles) and Pungoh (31 square miles), both off the south-eastern coast, Banka is mostly undulating hiH-country, -with sahent groups of moun- tains, the highest point beingBui (2,300 ft.) in the north of the island. There are many rivers, but they run in deep valleys and ravines in their upper courses, and mostly carry little Avater, particularly in the drier time of the year, so that there is some- BANKA AND BILLITON 41 times a shortage of water in the tin-mines. Most of the rivers form extensive marshes in their lower courses, which stretch for miles on the coast along Banka Strait, and they have often a bar at the mouth. Many of these rivers are nevertheless navigable for a considerable distance (about 18 miles in the case of several), owing to the fact that they flow in what were once inlets of the sea, and the tide is still able to penetrate a considerable distance up them. The most important are the Sungei, Jering, and Banka Kotta on the west coast, the Kurau and Batu Russa on the east coast, and the Layang and Antang in Klabat Bay. The whole of Banka is covered with thick tropical vegetation, and grass plains are rare, but the virgin forest has almost dis- appeared owing to mining and agricultural operations, and its place is taken by young and comparatively worthless timber. Pepper is grown in increasing quantities by the Chinese. Billiton. — ^Billiton lies between Banka and Borneo, between 107° 31' and 108° 18' E. long., and 2° 31' and 3° 16' S. lat. It is roughly square in shape, and has an area of 1 , 774 square miles ; there are 135 smaU adjacent islands, with an area of 95 square miles, which are separated by narrow and mostly unnavigable channels. Most of the island lies less than 130 ft. above sea- level, with groups of hUls, of granite or sedimentary formation, rising from the flat or slightly undulating country. The coasts are, on the whole, low and monotonous, with extensive marshes, the north coast being higher and more rocky, the highest peak being Tanjem (1,673 ft.) in the centre of the island. The water-supply is very evenly distributed ; good water is obtain- able from the rivers inland and by sinking shallow wells on the coast. The largest river is the Cheruchup, 1,300 to 1,600 ft. Avide at the mouth, which is barred by a sandbank ; it is tidal for 7 miles, and is navigable as far as Cheruchup village. There is good anchorage during the south-east monsoon, but a heavy sea in the westerly monsoon. Nearly the whole island is covered with young forest' of 20 or 30 years' growth, primaeval forest only being found in isolated spots, but in the centre of the island there are treeless plains covered with alang-alang grass. Riouw-Lingga Archipelago. — The Riouw-Lingga Archipelago consists of five "groups of islands lying off the east coast of Sumatra to the south of Singapore ; the Karimon group, the 42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Batani group, the Bintang group, the Lingga group, and the Singkep group. The axis of most of the islands of the last group runs from north-west to south-east, and they are being gradu- ally joined together in some cases by coral and aUuvial forma- tions. All the islands of this archipelago vary very much both in area and in height above the sea ; whilst the smallest are rocky crags or coral reefs, Bintang, the largest, has an area of about 21 square miles, and rises to a height of 1,235 ft. The islands have been little explored, though the sea-channels are well charted. The sea currents and the growth of coral, however, are constantly changing the shajaes of the land and the condi- tions in the channels. The islands consist mostly of granite, gneiss, slate, &c., and of flat stretches of soft clay or sand, often with fertile soil towards the centre of the island. Lingga is intersected by a chain of mountains, the highest peak being about 4,000 ft. high. Singkep is mountainous in the north-east, whilst the coasts and the rest of the interior is marshy. The Batam islands are hilly, but do not as a rule rise above 200 to 300 ft. The vegetation is rich, the hills being covered with forest. Borneo Borneo, the second in size of the islands of the Malay Archi- pelago, of which over three-quarters of the total area belongs to the Dutch, is intersected by the Equator, and extends from 7° 3' N. lat. to 4° 10' S. lat. In the north the Kapuas mountain range and its continuation north-east provide a natural division between the Dutch possessions and the British protectorates of Sarawak and Brunei and British North Borneo. The general trend is from south-west to north-east, but at the western end the mountain chain makes a wide curve and terminates almost at right angles to its general course in Cape Datu, and at the eastern end there is no very clearly defined frontier : at various times claims by both nations on the eastern coast have con- flicted. The frontier is now fixed at 4° 10' N. lat. Surface It is held that the principal mountain features of Borneo were impressed upon it Avhile it was still part of the mainland. It stands upon its continental shelf enclosed, as in a cup, bv BORNEO 43 the volcanic ridge of the islands which surround it. Borneo itself contains no active volcanoes, but there is evidence of a previously existing group of small volcanoes in the Montrado district, about 40 miles inland from the most westerly point of the island. The backbone of the island is the Kapuas range, from which other mountain ranges radiate, terminating in the chief pro- montories of the island, and separating the river systems of the Kapuas, the Barito, and other rivers which reach the Java Sea, the Kutei, the Bulungan, and the rivers of Sarawak, Of these mountain systems the Kapuas is most definitely a range, though it is broken by intervals of much lower elevation ; the others, so far as exploration has ascertained, are by no means continuous, but are really high elevated masses parted like islands by comparatively low depressions. The nodal point in the centre is Mount Tebang, which reaches a height of 6,000 ft. Borneo may be divided into mountain-land, hill-land, plateau, and marsh. The mountain-land rises to heights between 3,000 and 5,500 ft. as a rule (the highest mountains of Borneo are in British territory). Tongues of hill-land project between the isolated mountains. The hiUs are an aggregate of rounded or extended masses, often with very steep sides, and their average height is from 200 to 300 ft. The hill-land sends spurs into the low-lying plains, which are of great extent, especially in South Borneo. The dry flat land on the borders of the plains gradually passes into the marshy plains of the swamp-land . Deposits of alluvium are brought down by the rivers and extend at times to a depth of 600 ft., while they project into the sea with deltas of great size. The constant equatorial rains cause persistent denudation, which gives the mountain-land its characteristic features. Disconnected jjeaks and table mountains with gigan- tic platforms are dotted about the mountain area either singly or in groups, especially in the Mtiller Mountains which lie south of the Kapuas River, and the Schwaner Mountains still farther south. The Berauw ridge radiates from the centre to Cape Mangkalihat. The Tana Laut ridges, which part the river basins of the Barito and Kutei, terminate in Cape Selatan, and the Schwaner mountains, which throw off parallel ranges separating the basins of those rivers which flow into the Java Sea, after a considerable reduction of height, approach the sea at Cape Sambas in the south-west corner of the island. 44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The bulk of the country is covered with dense forest, through which the rivers are the only means of communication, save in the higher ground, where there are game-tracks.' Rivers The longest of the many rivers in Dutch Borneo take their rise from the region of Mount Tebang in the centre. Nearly aU have the same characteristics ; they have first of all a rapid fall through a mountain region in which waterfalls and rapids are common ; then follows a tortuous course with many meanders across the plain-land, after which the river begins to form a delta, or channels of intersection are made between one river and another. The rivers, as a rule, are tidal and navigable for a considerable distance, but few can be approached from the sea because of the sand-bars or mud-banLs which form at their mouths. Many of the tributaries also are navigable for a long way by praiis and othe:' native craft. Some special features of the rivers of this country are worthy of note. The natives apply the name Icarangan to the accumulations of material deposited by running water in the beds of rivers, and these are constantly found in the rivers of Borneo, whether as promontories or islands ; the end that faces up-stream is always of finer material than the rest, and the higher course of the stream contains rough boulders, while the lower course has pebbles, sand, and mud. The pintas and danau are two constant features of the rivers of .Borneo, especially of the Kapuas and the Kutei (Mahakan). When the river is flooded, it cuts for itseK a new way across the neck of the loops upon its course ; these short ways are called pintas (or pintassans, also antassans). The old course is apt to become a cul-de-sac with one or more lakes in it ; to these, as well as the lakes on its main course, the name of danau is given, and in parts of the course of the Kapuas a chain of these lakes is found parallel to the stream. The equatorial rainfall produces so many floods that the rivers are constantly changing their course, and difficulties are created for navigation, especially as the whole country is so much overgrown by dense forest that it is impossible often to see where the river is flowing, and fallen leaves and debris make frequent obstacles on unfamiliar routes. Canalization is needed along those rivers, like the Kapuas, which are most tortuous. BORNEO 45 The greatest river in the west is the Kapuas (Kapoewas), the basin of which occupies the bulk of West Borneo. Like the other chief rivers, it rises near Mt. Tebang. Its basin is 37,000 square miles in area, about equal to that of the Rhine, and its length has been computed at 810 miles ; it has twenty-two big tributaries, the largest of which is the Melawi, which joins it at Sintang. Above Semitau there is a district of lakes, some of which are of considerable size, but at that point the river flows through a gorge. For a great part of its course the Kapuas is_ flanked by banks 5 to 7 ft. high, behind which there is lower- l3dng ground, often inundated forest-land. In the delta the mouths of its distributaries are 15 miles apart; on the northern- most is Pontianak, the 'capital of West Borneo. Of the other rivers of this coast the Sambas is worthy of mention, because it offers no serious obstacle to navigation (see Chap. XII, under heading River Transport). On the south coast there are many rivers, most of which rise on the eastern side of the Schwaner Mountains, but after flowing east for some time, make a curve and take a southern course to the Java Sea. Of all these the Sampit is the only large river which is not impeded by a mud-bar at its mouth. The other chief rivers of the south coast are navigable for a considerable distance when the difficulties of the mouth have been surmounted. The mouths of the rivers are usually broad, but shallow, and some can only be entered at high water. The principal rivers are the Mendawai, the sinuous Kahayan, and the Barito. The Barito has many important tribu- taries which are themselves navigable, including the Negara and the Martapura, on whose banks is Banjermasin. The Barito is second only to the Kapuas in length. It is liable to very exten- sive inundations ; during the wet season 580 square miles — more than one-third of the entire river basin — are flooded ; in the dry season there is left a black soil traversed by numerous channels. The chief rivers on the east coast are the Kutei (Mahakan), Berau, and Bulungan. The delta of the Kutei projects eastward for 20 miles, and has four large navigable outlets. In its middle course it has a large area of danaus resembling that of the Kapuas. The Berau has a large uninhabited delta with many islands, and two principal mouths that carry vessels of 13 to 15 ft. draught at high water. The River Bulungan, navigable 46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY for a considerable part of its course, is esjiecially noted for its rapids, which are the most formidable in Borneo ; the Bern Brem rapids are more than 11 miles long. Farther north the Sesajap and the Sibuko are the most important streams. The bridges made by the natives are ingenious but unsub- stantial structures of bamboo and rattan with a hand-rail ; they usually take advantage of the presence of some big tree. Coast From Cape Datu to the mouth of the Sambas the coast is chiefly sandy ; thence to the Kapuas delta it consists of man- grove swamps. As far as Cape Sambas it is very sparsely inhabited. The southern shore has the same uniform features throughout ; at some places there are sandy beaches, but as a rule the vegetation comes down to the sea ; the coast is marshy and practically uninhabited, a few inhabitants being found in the coco-nut plantations, but even the small villages lie inland as a rule. The rivers are usually barred ; those with a small volume ,of water make funnel-mouths ; those of greater size form rudimentary deltas like the Katingan, or, by cross- communications, form a sort of inland delta, as do the Barito, Kapuas, Murung, and Kahayan, that does not project into the sea. The absence of deltas of importance on this coast is probably due to the strong currents which flow all the year either east or west parallel to the coast. On the east coast the southern part has high forest which reaches the sea. Beyond Cape Dewa northwards it is marshy, but south of Cape Aru and between Balik Papan and the delta of the Kutei, and farther north between the Berau and Bulun- gan, there are sandy beaches, while in the neighbourhood of Cape Mangkalihat the coast is here and there rocky. Along the whole of this coast there are few prominent landmarks, the coast hills seldom coming within six miles of the shore, which is low, swampy, and covered with vegetation. At the river mouths the vegetation (largely nipa palms) is taller than along the rest of the coast. On the southern shore the discharge of the rivers during the western monsoon is very great, and discoloured water, edged with a streak of foam, is frequently seen 30 or 40 miles out at sea. BORNEO 47 The coast is badly provided with harbours that afford safe anchorage ; as a rule the bays are wide and open, and provide little security. Such harbours as exist are at the mouths of rivers, but the excellence of the harbour bears no relation to the length of the stream, the better harbours on the east coast especially being, like Balik Papan, at the mouths of compara- tively short rivers. The harbours on the greater rivers are usually some distance (from 12 to 25 miles) up stream. As a rule the coast is flat and marshy, with mangrove swamps, and overgrown with impenetrable forest. It seldom rises many feet above the sea except where the mountains approach the shore. ' The sea is shallow, and reefs extend frequently a long way out to sea, especially along the southern shore. Geology The location of the various geological formations of the island may be referred to the physical divisions outlined above. The view here adopted is that of a stable mass having a definite north-east and south-west trend in its fracture lines with a crumpled mountain ridge in the western half, followed by foothills which sink into plains, and these into swamps. The island is regarded as an old crust block, ridged, fractured, folded, and faulted, with sunk lands merging into the depressions of the Celebes and Sulu Seas. The trend line is indicated by the main Kapuas range. This trend is continued through the Palawan Islands to Manila, and through the Sulu Islands to Mindanao. The east -and- west Berauw ridge is the boundary between two sunken areas fringing the depression of the Celebes Sea and the rift of Makassar Strait. This ridge is fractured across in the straits but continues through northern Celebes. The main trend is again indicated by the ranges of Martapura, in Banjermasin, in the south-eastern corner of the island. The whole island is characterized by intense folding, and the closed folds are extensively fractured by mass faults. Through these faults and fissures rise dikes and veins of igneous rock, forming sUls, bosses, laccohtes, and transgressions of basic rock, while the more acid granites and their allies are now exposed as hard central cores where they originally accumulated as batholites, reservoirs, or deep, broad injections. The whole 48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY crusted mass is thus stiffened and consolidated, and has lost its plicability. The result is twofold. The table-mountain structure (Miiller Mountains) and the basin and range structure (Bisar Highland) are dominant. High mountains like Kina Balu in the north have a horst or step structure. Isolated dis- connected peaks in groups or singly (Semitau) are dotted over the mountain area, their contour lines corresponding closely to their exposed central core and the later rocks upon their flanks. The constant equatorial rains produce persistent and vigorous denudation which, acting upon this block-structure, results in a confused assemblage of rounded heights and hollows where- ever strong faulting has not produced dominant peaks and ridges. It has been suggested that Borneo was what Celebes is — that the whole island has been raised until the low-lying land intervening between the high ridges took the place of gulfs of the sea, such as those which now separate the ridges of Celebes. The above account of the structure of the island does not support this theory. The ' mountain land ' of Borneo is composed of crystalline schists, phyUites, older eruptive rocks, and ' old slate ' (possibly Devonian). On the south side above the Kapuas River it is faulted downward extensively in a general east— west direction. Below this mighty fault are great bands and ridges of Jurassic marls, limestones, and occasional diabase tuff with beds of jasper and radiolaria. South of this a broad band similar in direction is again faulted downward and lies like a broken ribbon of Cretaceous (Cenomanian) rocks much folded and contorted. This band, however, does not adjoin the Jurassic save where occasional faulting is irregular, but is bounded along its length by Tertiary strata which also lie in patches upon the Cretaceous central ribbon. This ribbon extends eastwards to the Kapuas water- parting. The Tertiary beds are immense. horizontal masses of sandstone faulted and denuded into table-mountains. Farther to the west, south of Sarawak, the faulting is in a network, more close and complicated, with many igneous intrusions, trending generally north-east and minghng Archaean, Jurassic, and Tertiary rocks in disorder with igneous intrusions of varied age. First, then, we have the schistose mountain land, then the varied formations of the. Kapuas plain, and then south of BORNEO 49 this rises an enormous area of entirely igneous rock crossed by the Equator and extending in a broad rounded exposure in every direction for nearly 200 miles and covering 40,000 square miles of surface. The northern edge of this mass is called the Miiller Moun- tains. It consists in the west of isolated andesite mountains, and is continued eastward by tabular masses of volcanic tuffs 4,000 ft. thick containing silicified tree-trunks in situ, and these by volcanic hills of very acid lavas. This great igneous area is therefore of very varied composition. The schists of the mountain land belong to various ages and are largely meta- morphic. The mountain land, composed of rocks older than the tertiaries which are stiffened and often metamorphosed by igneous contact, extends in isolated outliers protruding through the tertiaries which are below them in height, above them in sequence. These Tertiary beds in the hill land are superposed in the following order. The lowest or breccia conglomerates are followed by the sandstone stage of great development and thickness containing important beds of Eocene coal. The third or marl stage with fossils, is succeeded by the highly fossili- ferous limestone stage. Planking the wet flat land in a belt and penetrating between the Tertiary spurs, on the sides of which it is often left in the form of horizontal terraces, comes what is called diluvium, to distinguish it in age from the more recent alluvium that follows it. The diluvium, partly marine, partly fresh-water, forms a slightly undulating plain of solid clayey, sandy, and pebbly beds, containing platinum, diamonds, gold, and iron in abundance, indicating the richness of the rocks from which it has been derived. Following the diluvium in age are all the more recent deposits, some of which are still in process of formation, derived from the denudation of all the slopes above them, and forming the lower-lying soils. These are of very wide occurrence along the great river valleys of southern Borneo. There are three types of alluvial deposit in Borneo^ — recent marine, fluviatile, and recent coral formations. The marine are typical shore- formations of no great extent. The widely-spread fluviatile deposits, sometimes 40 miles across, are dark brown, black, or bluish clay, rich in humus in the upper, harder in the lower layers. In some cases the alluvium is over 600 ft. thick. NETHEBLANDS INDIA J) 50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Islands adjacent to Borneo Karimata Islands. — The Karimata Islands lie off the west coast of Borneo. They are peopled with settlers from Singga and Siak, who are occupied in fishing and in working the iron found in Great Karimata. Anambas, Natuna, and Tambelan Islands. — ^There are some 300 islands lying in the China Sea between the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and forming part of the Riouw-Lingga Residency ; they are divided into the Anambas Islands (96 small islands) ; the Natuna Islands (55 islands), subdivided into the Great Natunas (of which the principal island is Great Natuna, about 40 miles in length, most of which is covered with forest), the North Natunas, and the South Natunas ; and the Tambelan Islands (40 small rocky islands, of which Tambelan is the biggest). Most of the larger islands are mountainous, and there are many short rivers, navigable for boats at high tide, and natural harbours. Pulu Laut. — The chief island in close contiguity to Dutch Borneo is Pulu Laut, off the south-east corner of the island. It is 55 miles in length and 20 miles in breadth. It rises at its northern end to 2,300 ft. The island is densely wooded. Its principal importance is that it possesses coalfields in the north, where the mines are chiefly worked by natives, the centre of this industry being Simbimblingan. Celebes Form and Surface The island of Celebes extends from 1° 45' N. lat. to 5° 37' S. lat. ; its westernmost point, near Cape WiUiam, is in 118° 49' E. long., its easternmost by the Limbe Strait is in 125° 5' E. long. From the backbone of the island which runs north and south for above 450 miles there project three long peninsulas, running respectively north-east, east, and south-east, the first of which is considerably the longest. Three deep gulfs are 'thus formed on the eastern side ; these, from north to south, are the Gulfs of Tomini or Gorontalo, Tolo, and Boni., The whole island from the extremity of the north-eastern peninsula is almost 800 miles long. Its length is disproportionate to its breadth, which is on the average between 36 and 120 miles, narrowing CELEBES 51 at one point to 18 miles. No place in it is as much as 70 miles from the sea. The whole island is mountainous, and individual mountains such as Mt. Batang (or the Peak of Bonthain) in the extreme south, and Mt. Koruwe in the centre of the island, rise to more than 10,000 ft. In the extreme north-east and south the , mountains are volcanic, some in the former being active, and soKataras and hot springs being found in Minahasa, the district of the extreme north-east, while Una Una, an island in the Gulf of Tomini, has been in eruption in recent years. The part of the island that runs north and south has two parallel ranges in its southern extension, with a longitudinal valley between, constituting the basin of the River Walannae which drains into the considerable Lake Tempo. The western mountain range terminates in the great mass of Batang, the eastern is continued across the Saleier Strait into the island of Saleier. Between the western range and the sea is an alluvial coast plain from 7 to 30 miles wide, but throughout the island there is little alluvial plain, for the rivers have only short courses, and, with few exceptions, the sea is deep in the immediate vicinity of the coast, the 100-fathom line coming at many points within half a mile of the shore. North of the central block the elevation of the mountains is lower, and there is only one ridge of mountains, which is crossed near the Equator by low-lying land, through which a canal might be dug. In the western part of the central block are a series of alternating mountain ridges and intervening plateaux which run down in parallel lines to Cape Mandar. At Cape Dondo the h'ne of the mountains alters its direction. The north-east peninsula at first runs west and east, and con- sists of ridges that do not follow the, coastal trend but run obliquely from south-west to north-east. The granite forma- tion of this part produces the characteristic soil with swamps and bogs in the hollows and loose debris on the hill sides. After continuing for more than two hundred miles in this direction the peninsula turns to the north-east, and the volcanic region of Mnahasa begins. This is the most mountainous part of the island, though the mountains are not so high as in the centre and the south, the highest, Mt. Klabat, at the extreme north- east end of the island, being 6,560 ft. high. The moimtains which through Gorontalo (the west-and-east portion of the D 2 52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY peninsula) are divided by valleys in regular sequence no longer show the same system, but the river valleys radiate in different directions from the volcanic cones. The volcanic activities of this region have had a great effect on the fertility of the soil, and the forests there are uniformly luxuriant. In the east and south-east promontories the mountains sweep roimd in concentric semicircles from the island of Peling to the island of Buton. The south-east promontory has much the same characteristics as the southern peninsula. Parallel mountain ranges along the two coasts bound a swamp of no great breadth which lies along the sea. Through the peninsula there is another rift in which lie the principal lakes of the island, Poso, Matana, and Towuti, and farther south the swamp of Lake Opa. The priiacipal rivers of the peninsula flow do^Ti longitU(dinal valleys, and either form basins of inland drainage or break through gorges to the sea. The eastern peninsida is little known. Along the south coast lie the TokaUa Mountains, more than 8,000 ft. high. It shows for the most part the same features as the south-east peninsula, of coastal mountains, a lower central plateau, and a higher mountain system. Much of the island is covered with forest, especially round the Gulf of Tolo. This is penetrated by scarcely perceptible paths. The vegetation grows up the precipitous and almost vertical mountain slopes. The rift valleys are extremely fertile. Lalces The principal lakes lie along the rifts between the parallel chains of mountains. In Minabasa is Lake Tondano (2,000 ft. above the sea) with a length of 9 and width of 3J miles. The recently discovered Lake Ililoi is merely an expansion of the River Poigar. In Gorontalo are Lakes limboto, Batudaka, and Bolano Sawu. In the central nucleus of the island is Lake Lindu, drained by the River Gumbasa nearly northward into Palu Bay, on the west coast ; farther south in the same longi- tudinal rift are Lakes Tempe and Sideiireng, monsoon-lakes, which almost dry up dm-ing the dry monsoon, leaving tracts for the cultivation of rice and maize. East of this, along a somewhat similar but wider depression, are the chief lakes of the island, Poso, Matana, and To\yuti. These are very deep CELEBES 53 rift lakes, Matana having been sounded to 1,500 ft., and Poso to 1,000 ft. In addition to these there are many smaller lakes of various types — shallow lakes on the plateaux, numerous in all parts of the folded mountain areas, 'crater lakes in the south and north-east, solfatara lakes with hot springs, and temporary lakes or swamps, with or without outlet, which dry wholly or in part in the dry season. Rivers The rivers of Celebes, owing to the shape of the island, have no great length and are of little importance. Their course is rapid, and their fall great. Waterfalls and rapids are very frequent, the best known being the falls on the River Tondano where it issues from the lake of the same name, which lies 2,000 ft. above the sea. The only rivers of any length are those which run longitudinally. These either collect into basins of inland drainage like the Opa swamp or lake, or break at right angles across the mountain ranges like the Tyenxana which drains Lake Tempe, or the Lariang, which, after flowing north- wards under the name of Koro, turns westward and reaches Makassar Strait, or flow into a longitudinal sea-inlet like the Palu. The length of the rivers given in several descriptions of the island has been much exaggerated. There is little opportunity of navigation on any of the rivers. The Lasolo, one of the chief streams of the south-eastern penin- sula, admits steamers for 16 miles from its mouth. The others are only navigable for smaller vessels, and their mouths are almost invariably obstructed by bars. The Jenemeja, which flows into the Gulf of Boni in one of the few parts where therie is a coastal plain of any breadth, is a broad river and navigable for a considerable distance from its mouth. The Poso, entering the Gulf of Tomini, is wide and navigable by blottos up to Paluasi, but is full of rapids above. The Sadang, entering the Gulf of Mandar on the south-west coast, has many affluents and is navigable by sampans. The rivers of Gorontalo (Poigar, Bone, Buol, &c.) are only navigable by native craft for a few miles. The Walannae flows into Lake Tempe, and both it and the Tyenrana, which flows from that lake into the Gulf of Boni, are navigated for many miles by native vessels. 54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Coast Borneo stands in a shaJlow sea on a shelf that projects from the continent of Asia ; ' New Guinea, in a similar sea, on a similar shelf projecting from Australia. Between them Celebes is situated in a very deep sea, the only part of which that is at all shallow is the southern part of Makassar Strait, where lies the Spermonde Archipelago. For most of the rest of the island the 100-fathom line comes very near the shore, being seldom more than 4 miles distant, except at the head of the gulfs, and sometimes within half a mile. It is, generally speaking, a dangerous coast, fringed by drying coral reefs, and with many shoals and banks in the narrow strip of water short of the 100- fathom line. In consequence of the three deep gulfs of Tomini, Tolo, and Boni, Celebes has an immense length of coast in proportion to its area. The coast-line is more than 2,000 miles in length. Each of the peninsulas is continued by groups of islands, which are described below. As a rule the mountains come very close to the sea, and the strips of coastal plain are narrow, the most considerable being that of Luwu at the head of the Gulf of Boni, where the shore for some considerable distance is low and flat. Other jjarts with similar characteristics are the neighbourhood of Makassar, where the interior is hidden from the sea by the trees and villages which fringe the coast and the plain of the River Tangka near Sinjai. In parts, as in the region north of Palu Bay, the coast is high and heavily timbered, with rocky points and sandy beaches. In other parts, as by Cape Tdli Toll and along much of the north coast of the Gtilf of Tomini, swamp takes the place of sand, and mangroves instead of forests line the shore. The reefs which fringe the coast often enclose many small islets, as in Mengkoka Bay and many parts of the Gulf of Tomini. The deeply indented coast with the numerous reefs and other dangers to navigation are a great hindrance to the coastal trade, and the island is not endowed with a great number of natural harbours. The best are : on the north coast Menado Bay, a good port except in the months of December, January, and February, when it cannot be used, but when its place can be taken by the port of Kema, on the east of the island ; Amm-ang Bay, which is 9 miles across and penetrates the land 9 miles ; CELEBES 55 Kwandang Bay, a wide bay with islands ; and Dondo Bay (13 miles long), of which the western shore is very steep, although it is shallower under the east shore. On the western shore of the island is Tambu Bay (13 miles across at the entrance and 17 miles long) ; Palu Bay, which penetrates 19 miles and is 3 to 4 miles in breadth, and contains Donggala as its principal port, the centre of the trade of the district ; and Pare Pare Bay, which is 4 miles long and divided into two parts by a narrow passage. Makassar, though the principal port in the island, is in a dangerous part of the coast, and its approach needs careful navigation. In the Gulf of Tomini, Gorontalo has an excellent harbour, the mouth of the river being very deep ; the other chief bays are the wide bay of Poso, and the Gulf of Poh, which penetrates eastward about 22 miles. The whole of the Gulf of Tomini outside the 100-fathom line is very deep, but storms are rare and the currents are weak, and though there are few spacious anchorages, there are numerous sheltered places along the coast. The Gulf of Tolo has some important bays, including at its head Tomori Bay, which is 5 miles wide at the entrance and penetrates 20 miles, and contains inside it many smaller bays ; and Kandari Bay, which runs 4 miles inland, gradually in- creasing in width, and containing good anchorages, sheltered as it is from winds by the high surrounding hills. Staring Bay, just to the south, is of considerable extent, but has not been examined. The western shore of the Gulf of Boni is in great part fringed by reefs, and on the eastern side the same feature makes certain anchorages, such as Mengkoka Bay, largely inaccessible. At the head of the gulf, fringed by the low alluvial plain of Luwu, is Palopo Bay, and to the east of it Usu Bay. Near the south- eastern extremity of the gulf is Sopang Bay, which afEords anchorage for vessels of moderate size. Geology The broad central block of Celebes, from which the peninsulas project, stands midway between the two rifts of Makassar Strait and the Boni depression. It is a complex of igneous rocks, with granite, gneiss, diorite, and amphibolite characters, 66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY jnerced hero and there by later eruptives, for the most part Tertiary. This block is enclosed around its base by Cretaceous rocks ovei'laid by tertiaries and recent alluvial deposits towards the coasts. Around the south-eastern corner of the block, both along the coast and inland, there is a broad band of pre-Tertiary tuffs, fringed occasionally by the coral limestone known as Jcarang. The northern part of the Gulf of Boni is widely bordered by pleistocene and alluvial deposits, resting in the north-east upon late tertiaries, but in the neighbourhood of Paloppo there is a band of old plutonic basic )-ocks. This band fringes on the cast a series of parallel faulted folds of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks through Avhich protrude axial belts of metamorphic roeks and schists. Eastward of the band itself, across the Gulf of Boni, the same plutonic rocks reappear, and extend across the south-eastern peninsula, enclosing Lake Towuti, to the Gulf of Tolo. The meridional ridge of Celebes, which runs north and south parallel to the west coast, has an axis of crystalline schist, tourmaline quartzite, and glaucophane schist, penetrated and overlaid by andesite and basalt. The whole is flanked by tufEs which make a fertile strij) along Makassar Strait, and are in turn overlaid by the late Tertiary Orbitoides limestone, which forms an inland cliff. The southern extension from the central block has been the scene of crustal and volcanic disturbance, resulting in the depression of the Walannae and Lake Tempe, and in the forma- tion of the Batang volcano. The predominant north-and-south direction of the faxilting is evident here, and the dislocations have raised the late Tertiary limestone in some parts to a height of more than 3,000 ft., while elsewhere it appeai-s at sea-level in contact with the present coral reefs. Portions of the Archaean foundation are revealed here and there. EastM'ard of the central block, from the head of the Gulf of Boni northward to Parigi at the head of the Gulf of Tomini, there is a marked fault line bounding the igneous complex of the central block. This faulted and depressed area contains Lake Poso. It is composed of crystalline schists and meta- morphosed shales, with gneiss and metamorphic limestones, while a triangular area north of Lake Posso consists of late tertiaries fringed with alluvium, and elsewhere there are old CELEBES 57 lake-basins filled with alluvium, and swamps ])artially filled. The fault is bounded on the east by the old plutonic rocks already mentioned as appearing on both sides of the head of the Grulf of Boni. The south-eastern and eastern peninsulas may be considered in the main as a broken crustal block with plutonic rocks, somewhat similar to, but older than, the western block, and more dislocated. The exposures known from the north Banka coast, southward past Lake Towuti, to the detached islands on the east coast are similar in character, these plutonic basic rocks being of pre-Tertiary age. Running south inland along the Gulf of Boni the Lake Poso metamorphics are continued through Kambuna Island. This band is faulted eastwards, and then appears a series of Pleistocene to recent rocks passing over to the north of Muna with no tertiaries except a small patch in the south of Buton Island. Around Mengkoka Bay (midway on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Boni) is a fringe of coral limestone (karang) which borders Kabaena north and south, covers more than two-thirds of Muna, all except the centre of Buton, and all Wowoni with the small islands north of it. The south-eastern peninsula is otherwise little known. There are indications of Jurassic rocks south of Lake Matana and these are known also in patches in the eastern peninsula, of which the base is composed of the old plutonic rocks fringed by tertiaries, and, along the sea border, by recent rocks. The metamorphics reappear in Peling Island and are fringed by karang. The north-eastern peninsula, in that portion which lies west- and-east, is sharply divided structurally into northern and southern belts. The northern belt consists' mostly of sedimen- tary rocks. Cretaceous or Tertiary, some altered by meta- morphism, with later denudation products in the valleys. This belt runs parallel with the north coast and is separated by a parallel fault line from the southern belt, which consists of granites, gneisses, and intrusives, with Archaean scihists and altered rocks caught in faults. The faulting is rectangular, so that the western portion stands as a horst block that sinks by a series of steps to the depression of Lake Limboto. The valleys are filled with sediments according to their age, but for the ■most part with recent deposits. Older rocks. Cretaceous and Tertiary, are preserved in occasional east-and west bands, and 58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY in places near uhe south coast there are fringes of karanc/. The north-eastward prolongation of Minahasa, as has been seen, is volcanic, .and differs from any other portion of Celebes, and its physical features, soil, and drainage are dominated by this volcanic modification. There is a line of old volcanic mountains, and much present soKataric activity such as hot springs, mud eruptions, and sulphur emanations. Small earth- quakes are common. Islands adjacent to Celebes tipermunde Archipelago. — The Spermunde Archipelago lies off the west coast of Celebes, north of Makassar, in a part where Makassar Strait is comparatively shallow. It consists of a great number of low islands, surrounded by coral reefs. Coco-nuts are grown, but the sandy soil is unsuited for other produce. Sangi Islands. — The Sangi (or Sangir) Islands continue the north-east extension of Celebes towards Mindanao ; they are set upon a long narrow ridge along the volcanic band, with great depths on both sides of them. They are volcanic, but fringed with recent coral formation (Jcarang). Some of the volcanoes aj'e still active, including Mt. Abu (or Awu) on Sangi, which has had recent disastrous eruptions (1892, &c.) ; there have also been small earthquakes. The most important islands are Sangi, Siau, and Tangulandang (or Tagulanda). Between the last and Celebes, among other islands are Talisse and Banka (not to be confused with Banka Island off Sumatra). The important channel of Banka Passage (see Chap. I) passes to the north of these. Sangi (27miles long, and 9 to 17 miles broad) is mountainous in the north, but only attains moderate heights in the south. The coast is generally steep ; the principal port, Taruna, is visited by steamers. Siau is extensively cultivated with numerous nutmeg and coco-nut plantations ; apart from agriculture and fishing, the principal industry is the weaving of Manila hemp. The volcanic soil makes both these islands exceptionally fertile. Tangulandang has two peaks about 2,500 ft., the island sloping from them to the westward. The principal industry is boat-building. Ruang, west of Tangu- landang, contains an active volcano. Talauer Islands. — This group lies to the north-east. The chief island is Karkelong (Karakelang), \\hich is 39 miles long CELEBES 59 and 15 wide at the northern part ; the southern part Js said to be 2,300 ft. high. The coast is generally steep-to, except on the south side, which is fringed by a reef nearly a mile wide. Several bays, including Esang Bay, afford anchorage. This island is parted by a strait about 1 mile wide from Salibabu, M'hich sometimes gives its name to the group. ScMldpad or Togian Islands. — The Schildpad Islands lie in the Gulf of Tomini. They extend for nearly 80 miles east and wesi. The chief islands, Talata Koh, Togian, and Batu Daka, are separated by such narrow channels that they practically constitute one . island, and the passages between them are difficult for navigation. Batu Daka is rocky and almost un- inhabited. The other islands are hilly and densely wooded. Detached from the other islands is Una Una, with an active volcano, the lower slopes of which are very fertile. Banggai Archipelago. — The Banggai or Peling Islands lie off the eastern extremity of Celebes, to which they belong gso- graphically, though, like the Sula Islands farther east, they belong politically to the residency of Ternate. There are four chief islands, Peling, Banggai, Labobo, and Bangkulu, all inhabited. Excepting part of Peling, these islands are very imperfectly known. They produce good timber, including ebony. Peling is greatly indented, and is a mountainous and wooded island. It has many bays affording anchorage, and others obstructed by reefs. These islands are frequented by fishermen for trepang and turtle. Islands off the South-Eastern Peninsula of Celebes. — Off the south-eastern corner of Celebes is a group of islands, of which the most imjDortant are Kabaena, Muna, Buton, and Wowoni. They are separated from the peninsula by the Tioro and Wowoni Straits, both of which are dangerous. The Buton Strait, between Muna and Buton, is very narrow, but is navigated by those ships that do not go outside the islands. The islands are hilly. Buton, which is over 100 miles long, has a chain of lime- stone mountains, 600-700 ft. high, along its axis. East of it lie the small Tukang Besi Islands. Muna is less hilly ; it consists of coralline limestone, but the hills run less definitely north and south. Kabaena consists partly of limestone, partly of volcanic hills. Buton is penetrated on the eastern side by a great bay, KaU Susa, with some good anchorages, but full of dangers.- 60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Saleier. — Saleier (or iSalayar) is an extension of the eastern mountain-chain in the southern promontory of Celebes. It is about 50 miles long, with a greatest width of 8 miles. It is traversed by a chain of mountains reaching 2,000 ft., which descend steeply to the sea on the east side, and gradually slope to the flat stretch on the west. Its streams can only be entered by praus. It is populous and prosperous, owing chiefly to its proximity to Makassar. The Moltjocas The name of the Moluccas is here aj)plied in the wide sense defined in Chapter I. It should be observed that the political boundaries do not coincide with the geographical divisions (see Chap. YLII, p. 260, and key-map). The component groups will be dealt with in order approximately from north to south. Halmaheira (or Gilolo). — Halmaheira ( = mainland) is not as important as its size would suggest. It is about 200 miles long, and has an area of about 6,500 miles (including the islets close to the shore), but, except in the northern peninsula, it is not thickly populated, and it is not fully known. It resembles Celebes in shape, having four peninsulas that meet at a central point, a long western coast, and three deep gulfs on the east. It is very mountainous, and is in the jnain of ancient formation. The northern peninsula is mostly occupied by two mountain ranges, between which Kes a well-cultivated, undulating plain. The mountains along the western coast are volcanic, and at least one. Gam Kenora (4,922 ft.), is active. The other three peninsulas are intersected by mountain chains, from which spurs extend to the coast ; there are summits from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. high. The mountains are thickly wooded. There are ■ numerous rivers, of which the chief are the Taliabu and Kaii, but none is of great importance. There are several lakes. The forests are rich in a great variety of trees. Morotai (Morti). — Morotai lies 14 miles north-east of Halma- heira. It is more than 50 miles long, and from 13 to 26 miles Avide. It is high for the most part, the highest point in the Sabotai range being about 3,000 ft. It has numerous rivers, navigable by small boats for some distance inland. On the river banks and in the flat south-west part of the island are forests of sago-palm, and inland many dammar trees. MOLUCCAS 61 Ternate. — Ternate is the northernmost of the Hne of islands off the west coast of Halmaheira. It is the seat of an ancient sul- tanate and now contains the chief town of the residency that bears its name. The island consists almost entirely of a conical volcano (5,184 ft.) with four peaks, which is constantly active ; it has suffered from many eruptions and earthquakes. Ternate has an area of about 25 square miles and is 6 miles across. It is densely wooded, and on the south and south-east is cultivated. Between the lava ribs are pieces of flat ground planted with rice and maize, and the island also produces sago, coffee, pepper, nutmegs, and cloves, but the last have been unimportant since Amboina was given the monopoly. Between Ternate and Tidore is a fine harbour. Tidore, 5 tsj ■JU Mb o I o CLIMATE 89 Borneo and Celebes, north-east, nortli, and north-west winds merge into the western monsoon of the Java Sea. In the Molucca passage the northerly monsoon veers to north-east in December. It is at its greatest strength in February and March, - but is still northerly in April. In June the south-westerly monsoon takes the form of a south wind with or without a slight westerly element. In the Molucca Sea, where the mon- soons, especially the eastern, blow steadily, winds blow from north-north-west and south-south-east. In the^Banda Sea the sovith-east A\-inds are strong by May, decreasing during Septem- ber, and appearing again along with the remnants of the west, in March. Winds of Sumatra. — In the north of Sumatra the wind directions are outside the scheme of winds which holds for the greater part of the Dutch Indies. North-east wuids in January alternate with the south-west monsoon in July. In the Malacca Strait land and sea breezes are regular on both coasts, and in the offing the monsoons are only regular when in the adjacent seas they are at their height. The south-west monsoon seldom blows far up into the strait. In the middle of the strait at this season (May to October) variable winds prevail, chiefly south- east and south-west, with long calms. On the Sumatra side light winds and calms prevail, and heavy squalls from the land are experienced during the night. ' Sumatras ' — squalls from the south-west — are more common during the south-west monsoon than in the north-east monsoon. They generally blow during the first part of the night, are sometimes sudden and severe, and are accompanied by thunder, lightning, and rain. North-west squalls are also more common during the south-west monsoon and occur in the north-western part of the strait. The north-east monsoon season (November to April) is here the fair season, there are seldom at this time any hard squalls and there is much less rain than in the other season. In November variable winds, frequently north-west and west, occur, but occasionally the north-east wind sets in in this month. North- west and west winds are not unknown during the period of the north-east monsoon. Late in March the north-east and northerly winds become variable and light, with strong land breezes at night. On the east coast of Sumatra regular land and sea breezes may be felt in favourable spots as much as 30 miles inland. 90 CLIMATE TJic wind iw gejieially north-east by day and south-west by night all the year round. But at any time north-west and south- west winds are observed at uncertain periods, with fine weather. ' Sumatras ' are more frequent on the east than on the north coast. On the west coast of Sumatra the influence of the south- west and north-east monsoons is felt as far south as about lat. 2° N. But from the north-west point of Sumatra , to 4° N. lat. the winds are quite different from those between lat. 4° N. and 2° N. In the more northerly of these divisions; the south-west monsoon prevails from May to October and the north-east monsoon from December to March. At night, during the height of the former, the sea breeze at times prevails, and generally the land winds are clearly perceptible by the deflection of the wind to south-east or north during the night. Between lat. 4° N. and 2° N. is the region of calms and light variable winds. The influence of the monsoons is felt in a westerly tendency of the day winds from March to November, and in an easterly tendency during the other monsoon. Feb- ruary has south-east, east, and west winds by day, south-west, east-south-east, or south-east by night. In March west winds by day and north-east to east by night are observed. April is marked by south-west and north-west winds day and night. From May the north-west winds become more prominent, reaching their maximum in October. From May to November at night the winds are north-west to north-east. In August north-east winds are more frequent. From November to January the day winds are variable, north-east to east gene- rally at night. The winds at Seribu Dolok in Central North Sumatra are illustrated in Table II, p. 104. Here the directions at different hours show an irregular distribution. Seribu Dolok is 50 miles from the north-west coast of Sumatra, so that land and sea winds are not to be looked for. The least frequfent winds are south-east, south, and north. At Padang north-Avest and west winds prevail from February to March Avith fair weather ; in May, June, and July north-west to south-west winds are experienced, Avitli thunder and rain squalls. The south-east monsoon, Avhen at its height in the Indian Ocean, is noticeable in Padang, but only as a light breeze prevailing for a couple of hours. From August to December the north-A\est and west m inds are mgII established CLIMATE 91 with hard squalls and much rain. January in mostly calm, with a land wind at night. Winds- at Batavia. — For Batavia observations extending over a period of ten years are averaged in the following table in order to illustrate the constancy of the land winds and the influence of the monsoons . The hour of observation is 7 . 30 a .m . , when the land winds are still blowing. N. NE. E. SE. S. SW. W. NW. 0/ /o 0/ /o % % % o/ /o % % Jan. . 3-6 ■9 3-5 3-5 20-7 13-8 43-8 10-2 Feb. . 5-0 •5 2-6 1-5 27-1 13-9 35-6 12-8 Mar. . 1-3 — 3-8 4-6 35-8 23-6 24-1 5-5 April . 1-3 — 11-0 8-3 51-9 12-7 10-4 1-3 May . •4 — 15-8 10-5 53-7 9-6 7-4 1-3 June . ■4 — 16-5 11-5 57-3 7-9 4-0 •4 July . •4 ■4 21-5 17-0 46-0 8-3 3-8 — Aug. . •4 1-2 16-5 11-5 59-3 5-5 4-0 -4 Sept. . •8 — 12-9 10-9 58-9 12-9 2-4 — Oct. . 1-9 •8 8-3 9-8 57-8 13-9 5-7 1-5 Nov. . 1-7 — 7-6 8-4 46-9 21-9 9-7 1-3 Deo. . 1-7 •4 5-7 3-5 27-0 17-1 35-4 8-3 Cahns are frequent at Batavia, being 38 per cent, of the total in February and never less than 24-5 per cent, (in August). The force of all winds is light. Frequency and force as a rule increase together. Diurnal Variation. — Wind directions show considerable changes at different times of the day and night in accordance with local and monsoonal influences. Ten-year records taken at Batavia show that from 10 a.m. to noon north-west winds prevail from December to March, north in October and Novem- ber, and east from April to September. From 1 to 6 p.m. the winds are north or north-west from January to April, north-east to north from May to November, and west in December. At Kayumas in East Java, on the north spur of the Kending Mountains (lat. 7° 56' S., long. 114° 9'E., alt. 3,117 ft.), south winds blow throughout the year at 6 a.m., with south-west in January and south-east in November and December. At noon, from November to March north Avinds prevail, and east and north-east the rest of the year. At 5 p.m. the prevailing direction is east, though in March only a westerly wind appears frequently. The north-west monsoon, therefore, is chiefly in evidence here when blowing in conjunction with the sea wind. Similar conditions are observed at Tosari, the health station in the Tengger Mountains. At 6.30 a.m. throughout the year 92 CLIMATE the prevailing direction is .south-east, varied with south-west in January and December. At 1 p.m. the winds are north-west, with nortJi-east from October to December, and at 5 p.m. the north-west wind appears in December to Febniary, but south- west the rest of the year. In January to March the early morning south-east wind is occasionally strong, though no wind here is very strong. Even when in January and February a strong west or west-north-west wind is blowing at the surface in the plains, the clouds on high mountains are seen to be passing to the west or west-north-west. The upper regions from 6,000 to 7,000 ft. or higher enjoy a uniformly serene climate through- out the year. Winds at Higher Altitudes. — Wind conditions in the higher altitudes have been to some extent investigated in Java. The north-west monsoon extends to about 6,000 ft., so that above this altitude a south-east wind blows throughout the year. The extent to which the south-east wind is driven out by the north- west monsoon depends on altitude, and accordingly the highest elevations receive less rain than those up to about 3,000 ft. During the south-east monsoon the upper current is checked in force at night. At Jember in East Java (lat. 8° 9' S., long. 113° 44' E., alt. 277 ft.), 20 miles from the south coast, the prevaihng -winds at 7 a.m. are north and north-east from Novembei' to April with south the rest of the year ; at 1 p.m. south and south-west all the year, and at 6 p.m. the same as at 1 p.m. ^ith frequent north and north-east from December to March. Yet at Krampon on the south coast of Madura (lat. 7° 10' S., long. 113° 10' E.) north-westerly winds prevail from January to March at all hours of observation. For the rest of the year south is the most frequent direction at 6 a.m., south-east and south at 2 and 6 p.m. Temperattjeb The most marked characteristic of the temperature is the very small montlily range and the comparatively low daily range. The fact that the sun's rays are never far from vertical ensures a high average of temperature (78°-80°F.) ; the great length of coast and high proportion of cloud do much to temper the heat and maintain an equable climate. For its equatorial position the archipelago therefore is not so hot as might be CLIMATE 93 supposed, for in every part either a refreshing sea breeze or else considerable altitude is to be found. A fairly efficient cooling agency is in addition the frequent thunderstorms which may cause the thermometer to fall from 5° to 7° F. in twice as many minutes. Some mean temperatures are given in Table III, p. 106. In many cases two yearly maxima, about May and October, are discernible, and one minimum, about January. In Sumatra, April and May are usually the warmest months, the end of the year being the cooler time. At Banjermasin ■maxima appear in May and October. The first maximum at least is delayed after the sun's zenithal position, owing to •terrestrial radiation and the cooling of the earth by the rains. It may be noted that Sumatra and Borneo have a somewhat higher temperature than Java. At Batavia and elsewhere in West Java the double maximum is better marked, the minimum falling in January and February. In the higher altitudes the second maximum appears earlier in September, though at Tosari the whole of the western monsoon season is warmer than the eastern monsoon, no doubt due to the greater amount of cloud in the former season. At Assembagus in the extreme east of Java, and on the north coast, maxima appear in April and November. At Menado in Celebes May and October show increases in temperature, while in Ceram and Timor the monsoons, rather than the sun's position directly, seem to have the greater effect. The daily range is of course greater in the mountains than at the coast, and in the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands is greater compared with similar altitudes in the west. At Batavia the mean daily range is 11-8° F., but it may reach to 38° in the mountains. The absolute maximum at Batavia is 96-1°. At Assembagus 99° has been recorded and in Timor 104° is said to be frequently reached. At Batavia the absolute minimum is 66° (in August) ; elsewhere the lowest figure that can be found is 36-7° at Pangerango. It is probable, however, that at the highest altitudes in bare regions the freezing point is reached — one authority indeed mentioning a minimum of 27° F. — ^though where trees abound it is said that this is never the ease. During thirty-five years the absolute maximum at Batavia reached 90° or over, once each in March, June, and July, twice in February, three times in April, four times in 94 CLIMATE January, five times in May, seven times in December, ten times in August, twenty-one times in September and November, and twenty-four times in October. The absolute minimum during the same period fell to between 70° and 66°, once in November, twice in January and February, three times in October, seven times in June, twice that number of times in September, eighteen times in July, and twenty-five times in August. The mean monthly maximum at Batavia is 91-6°, the mean daily maximum 84-6° ; the mean monthly minimum is 68'7°, the mean daily minimum 73-8°, and the greatest daily range 24-3°. Except in so far as altitude affects the temperature (about 1° F, for every 280 ft.) the figures for Batavia form a criterion of the temperature of South Sumatra, South Borneo, and Celebes. A few others appear in the following table ; ^ i n II II ^1 il Java: °p. °F. °r. "P. °R °F. "P. Biiitenzorg . . Tosari . . . Assembagus Sumatra : Padang .... Billiton : 91-3 71-2 99-1 65-1 49-5 62-4 85-8 65-7 89-6 71-2 57-4 70-7 22-3 16-6 31-0 14-6 8-3 19-1 76-8 60-6 79-3 93-0 69-8 86-7 73-4 18-7 13-3 79-7 Tanjong Pandang . Borneo : 91-6 66-6 85-1 72-0 22-7 13-1 77-0 Pontianak Celebes : 92-7 68-4 87-4 73-6 22-9 13-9 78-8 Menado . . . Moluccas 94-5 66-0 86-0 72-1 24-7^ 13-9 78-4 Amboina .... 93-2 66-6 84-6 73-4 19-8 11-2 79-3 The course of the temperature during the day at Batavia is probably typical of other low-lying places. Sunrise at about 6 a.m. marks the lowest figure reached. Temperature then rises in increasing ratio each hour (-7°, 2-0°, 2-8°) to 9 a.m., from which hour the rise is maintained, but at a decreasing ratio, to 1 p.m. It then falls by a constantly increasing ratio each hour (-2°, -5°, -8°, M°, 1-4°) to 6 p.m., after which there is a fairly even and gradual fall through the night to 6 a.m. The check to the rate of increase after 9 a.m., as well as the more gradual decrease to shortly after sunset, may be referred to the clouds which usually begin to gather at the former hour. CLIMATE 95 Humidity High relative humidity is characteristic of the climate on the sea coasts and other low-lying parts. Most places record from 78 to 84 per cent. In the highlands a greater range is expe- rienced, and in the highest mountains (11,000 ft.) as great a range as 87 per cent, has been recorded in 24 hours. Local differences in humidity are considerable, much depending on the direction and character of the wind and the situation of the place of observation. An indication of the diurnal variations is available only from Batavia. The greatest daily range is in August (30-8 per cent.), the least in February (18-6 per cent.). At different hours the variations. from the mean, though differ- ing considerably in different months, maintain a similar relation to the hours of the day. Thus 6 a.m. is the hour of greatest relative humidity in February and August (the dampest and driest months practically) and for the year, noon is on the average the driest hour, though in February this falls at 2 p.m. Rainfall Seasonal Distribution. — In general the greatest amount of rain is registered during' the west monsoon season, for at this time the periods of duration of the rains are longer than in the east monsoon. On the other hand, individual showers at the latter season are often more intense than in the former. The wettest months are accordingly December, January, and February, the driest July to September. In certain places each change of the monsoons, or one of them, is accompanied by increased rainfall. This is especially noticeable on the south coast of West Java, as at Chilachap (Station 15 in the tables below). In North Sumatra other conditions obtain, and here October is the wettest, while February and March are the driest . months. Bulungan, north of the Equator in Borneo, shows no important variation from the general rule. In the north-eastern peninsula of Celebes these conditions are partly reflected, for a second maximum of rainfall appears between two seasons of greater drj^ess, in March or April, and in July to October. In the Moluccas and northern New Guinea June and July are the wettest months, October and November the driest. . Begional Distribution. — On the average the greatest amount of rain falls in the south part of West Java, where the average 96 ( 'LIMATE is 126 in. annually. West Sumatra follows as the next wettest region (122 in.). Borneo generally has a rainfall very similar in amount to the last. Least rain falls in the Lesser Sunda Islands, which receive on an average only 58 in. annually. In Java a region of heaviest rainfall lies on or very near to a straight line drawn from Mount Cherimaj in Cheribon to Banyuwangi on the east coast of the island. This line passes through or near the highest mountain peaks. In addition, the whole of the south-western parts of Bantam and Batavia with an irregular tract stretching through nearly the whole length of the southern part of Preanger, have an annual rainfall of 120 to 150 in. The driest part of Java is the north coast, and especially the north coasts of the western districts of Pasuruan and Besuki. Exceptional, however, is the extreme north of Sema- rang, where Mount Muria catches the north-western monsoon. The following table illustrates both the regional and seasonal distribution of rainfall with the number of rain days. Amounts of rainfall are in inches and the number of rain days are in italics and brackets. The division of seasons is not very suitable for North Sumatra, Borneo as a whole, or Celebes as a whole, but is maintained in these cases for the sake of uniformity. W. monsoon Dec-Mar. ; ' Change ' April-May. E. iiionsoon June-Sept. ' Charu/e ' Od.-Noi: Totals. West Java : north part 52-09 16-14 18-07 17-48 103-78 „ „ south part (70-7) ■53-89 (24.0) 20-67 (28-4) 23-74 (24-9) 27-17 (148-0) 125-47 Mid Java : north part (78-1) 50-99 (30-6) 13-90 (35-7) 11-27 (34-8) 12-40 (179-2) 88-56 „ south part (72-1) 58-59 (22-6) 17-13 (20-3) 15-70 (21-3) 22-36 (136-3) 113-78 East Java ; north part (76-9) 44-72 (25-8) 11-03 (25-6) 6-30 (28-2) 7-32 (156-4) 69-37 „ „ south part (63-2) 52-76 (17-9) 14-93 (11-1) 16-45 (12-0) 17-48 (104-2) 101-62 Sumatra : West . (72-6) 45-79 (22-4) 20-31 (25-6) 30-63 (22-8) 25-59 (143-4) 122-32 East . . (66-3) 43-54 (31-0) 18-63 (49-8) 24-18 (37-3) 19-92 (184-8) 106-27 North . . (62-8) 28-66 (28-7) 15-12 (40-5) 30-04 (30-5) 21-89 (162-5) 95-71 Borneo (43-1) 47-56 (22-8) 21-46 (46-7) 28-32 (31-8) 22-99 (144-4) 120-33 Celebes ... (64-9) 39-01 (29-1) 17-60 (41-4) 20-24 (32-0) 10-55 (167-4) 87-40 Moluccas & North New {57-3) 34-37 (27-9) 20-90 (35-5) 38-54 (18-1) 12-09 (138-8) 105-90 Guinea .... Lesser Sunda Islands . (57-9) 35-62 (31-3) 8-22 (54-7) 6-57 (22-1) 7-64 (166-0) o8-06 (55-2) (14-6) (12-8) (12-0) (92-6) CLIMATE 97 Table IV, p. 107, gives for selected stations the mean monthly and annual rainfall, and the mean annual number of rain days. Quantitative Distribution. — The following table shows the percentage of observatory stations the annual rainfall at which comes within the limits in the left-hand column. 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