HISTORY
OF THE
BRITISH POSSESSIONS
IN THE
INDIAN & ATLANTIC OCEANS;
COMPRISING
CEYLON, PENANG, MALACCA, SINCAPORE,
THE FALKLAND ISLANDS, ST. HELENA, ASCENSION, SIERRA
LEONE, THE GAMBIA, CAPE COAST CASTLE, 8ic. &c.
BY
R. MONTGOMERY MARTIN, F.S.S.
SEAL OF CEYLON.
LONDON:
WHITfAKER & Co. AVE MARIA LANE.
MDCCCXXXVII.
GIFT
CONTENTS.
POSSESSIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN.
BOOK I.
CEYLON.
CHAPTER I.
Geography — Area — General History, &c. . . . p. I
CHAPTER II.
Physical Aspect, Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, &c. — Chief
Town — Forts, &c. — Geology — Soil, Climate, &c. —
Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms — Culti-
vation, Stock, &c. . . . . . . . p. 20
273
VI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
Population White and Coloured — Castes — Religion
— Civilization, &c. p. 55
CHAPTER IV.
Civil Government — India Establishments — Military —
Defence — Finances — Commerce — Shipping — Gene-
ral View of Ceylon p- 87
BOOK II.
PENANG, MALACCA, AND SINCAPORE.
CHAPTER I.
PENANG.
Locality, Area, Physical Aspect, History, Population,
Revenue and Expenditure, Government, Commerce,
Social Condition, and Political and General Advan-
tages, &c p. 123
CHAPTER II.
MALACCA.
Locality, Area, History — Physical Aspect, Climate —
Natural Products, &c. — Population — Government —
Education — Commerce, &c. . . . . .p. 137
CONTENTS. Vll
CHAPTER III.
SINGAPORE (SINGHAPURA.)
Locality, Area, Physical Aspect, History, Population,
Revenue, and Expenditure, Government, Commerce,
Social Condition, and Political and General Advan-
tages, $rc , . . . p. 1 53
VIII CONTENTS.
POSSESSIONS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN
BOOK III.
THE FALKLAND ISLANDS
CHAITER IV.
Locality — Extent — Climate — Soil — Harbours — Pro-
ductions, and Advantages to Great Britain . p. 171
]]nnK IV.
ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
Locality — Area — History — Physical Aspect, Climate,
Geology, and Soil — Vegetation — Population — Pro-
duce — Revenue and Expenditure, Shipping, &:c. . p. 184
ROOK V.
BUrnSH SETTLEMENTS IN WESTERN AFRICA.
INCLl DING SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMIUA. AND
CAPE COAST CASTLE.
CHAPTER I.
Locality — Area— History — Physical Aspect— Rivers
— Geolofry— Climate — Vegetable and Animal King-
doms — Population — Government — Finances — Com-
merce—Social State and Future Prospects, &c. &c. p. 213
CONTEVTS. IX
CHAPTER II.
(reolofiry and Soil — Climate — Disease — Vegetable and
Animal Kingdom. &:c p. 259
CHAPTER III.
Population of Sierra Leone. Gambia. Src. — Varieties
of Races. Character. &rc. . . . . .p. 289
CHAPTER IV.
Governments and Finances of Sierra Leone. Gambia,
&-C. — Commerce. Imports, and Ex^iorts, Shipping,
Sic .p. mo
ROOK VI.
Steam Navigation through the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans — Proposed Plan of Post Office Steam
Packets via Madeira, St. Helena, Cape of Good
Hope, Isle of France, Ceylon. &^c. — Advantages and
Disadvantages of the Red Sea and Cape of Good
Hope Route Balanced — Computation of the Ex-
pense of Twelve Steam Packets, &-c, . . .p. 339
Appendix. Gold Coast p. 353
CEVLON, &€.
BRITISH POSSESSIONS
IN THE
INDIAN OCEAN;
COMPRISING
CEYLON, PENANG, MALACCA, AND SINGAPORE.
1
GS*
CEYLON,
Sfc,
BOOK I.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY — AREA — GENERAL HISTORY, &C.
Ceylon (Selan, Singhala, Lanka, Serendib, or Tap-
rohane), situate between the parallels of ^.^Q. to
9.50. north latitude, and from 80. to 82. east lon-
gitude, is one of the most magnificent islands on
the face of the globe ; in shape it is somewhat
ovate ; the extreme length is about 270 miles from
north to south, with an extreme breath of 145 miles
(an average of 100), a circuit of 750 miles, and a
superficial area of about 24,664 square miles.
General History. — The original Singhalese, or
Ceylonese, are probably descended from a colony of
Singhs, or Rajpoots (to whom, in appearance, even
at the present day, they bear a striking resemblance)
500 years B.C. But the Malabars, it is stated,
several times succeeded in invading the island 200
years b.c. Mr. George Tumour in his erudite epitome
of the history of Ceylon, derived from Pali and
CEYLON, &c. B
CEYLON,
8fc.
BOOK I.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY — AREA — GENERAL HISTORY, &C.
Ceylon (Selan, Singhala, Lanka, Serendib, or Tap-
rohane), situate between the parallels of 5.56. to
9.50. north latitude, and from 80. to 82. east lon-
gitude, is one of the most magnificent islands on
the face of the globe ; in shape it is somewhat
ovate; the extreme length is about 270 miles from
north to south, with an extreme breath of 145 miles
(an average of 100), a circuit of 750 miles, and a
superficial area of about 24,664 square miles.
General History. — The original Singhalese, or
Ceylonese, are probably descended from a colony of
Singhs, or Rajpoots (to whom, in appearance, even
at the present day, they bear a striking resemblance)
500 years B.C. But the Malabars, it is stated,
several times succeeded in invading the island 200
years e.g. Mr. George Turnour in his erudite epitome
of the history of Ceylon, derived from Pali and
CEYLON, &c. B
2 CEYLON.
Singhalese records, begins his chronology 543 years
before the birth of our Saviour, and names the first
king, Wejaya, who landed on the island with 700
followers, and founded a government at Tamana-
nowera ; but Mr. Turnour does not state whether
the Pali accounts remark if the island was then
inhabited. At an early era the island seems to have
attracted the attention of the western world ; thus
Dionysius, the geographer, mentions Taprobane (its
ancient and classic name) as famous for its elephants ;
Ovid speaks of it as a place so far distant that it
could be no advantage to have his fame extended
thither; Pliny thought it the commencement of
another continent, and extolled it for the purity of its
gold and the size of its pearls. In the reign of
Claudius, a Roman, who farmed (says the Rev. Mr.
Fellows) the customs in the Red Sea, was driven in
his bark by a gale of wind from the coast of Arabia
to Taprobane, where he received a most favourable
reception, and so extolled the glory of the imperial
city that the sovereign of Taprobane sent to Rome
an embassy of four persons via the Red Sea. We
have existing evidence that, in remote ages, Ceylon
was an extensively peopled and civilized country (it
has now only fifty-eight mouths to the square mile).
Near Mantotte are the ruins of a very large city, con-
structed of brick and mortar, and an immense artificial
tank, or reservoir for water, the basin of which is
sixteen or eighteen miles in extent ; an embankment
about nine miles from the tank is formed of huge
stones, eight feet long, four feet broad, and three
feet thick (these are cemented together by lime), the
GIGANTIC ANCIENT WORKS. 6
length of the dam is 600 feet, the breadth about
sixty, and the height from eight to twelve feet. This
gigantic work is said to have been executed by the
Hindoos, who made Mantotte the capital of a kingdom
which they established over the northern parts of
the island. Of an antiquity, however, more remote
than the foregoing, are various buildings and works
towards the interior, constructed of vast stones,
elegantly cut and dovetailed-like into each other.
No mortar has been used in some of the edifices
which still exist (as if in defiance of the ravaging
hand of time), with visible inscriptions on them,
which no existing human being can understand.
Among the works of this remote age is the Lake of
Kandely, near Trincomalee, which is fifteen miles in
circumference, formed by the artificial junction of
two hiUs, which in one part in particular exhibits a
parapet formed of huge blocks of stone, twelve to
fourteen feet long, and broad and thick in proportion.
This parapet is at the base J 50 feet broad, and at
the summit thirty feet. By means of this wonderful
structure the adjoining high lands are connected.
It is also singular that arches are to be found in
the parapet, and over them conduits, similar to those
used by the Romans in Italy, and termed condottori.
Belonging also to this age is a gigantic pagoda
(forty miles south of Batticaloa), the base of whose
cone is a quarter of a mile in circumference, sur-
rounded by an enclosure one mile in circumference,
consisting of a broad wall of brick and mortal, with
numerous cells in it, and an entering colonnade of
stone pillars ten feet high.
B 2
4 CEYLON.
Mr. Brooke, in tracing the course of the Maha
Villagunga in 1825, came on the ruined tracks of
several verv extensive canals, one of which he esti-
mated to have been from five to fifteen feet deep,
ana from forty to 100 feet wide. The natives told
him that this canal was cut by people whose stature
w^as forty feet high ! The largest recorded bridge
was one in the southern part of the island, stated to
be 280 cubits (630 feet) long ; the next in size was
193 feet long, across the Kaloo-Ganga, on the road
from Adam's Peak to Bentotte. The remains of a
stone bridge exist near the Fort of Kalawo Oya, the
stones of which are from eight to fourteen feet long,
jointed into one another and laid in regular lines,
the upright pillars being grooved into the rocks
below; this bridge was built 1500 years ago, and
Captain Forbes demonstrated that the Singalese, at
that remote period, used the wedge and chisel for
splitting and shaping those huge blocks of stone,
after the manner which has also been introduced
into Britain in the nineteenth century.
It is recorded in ancient manuscripts that, Anora-
jhapoora, the ancient Cingalese capital, was sur-
rounded by a wall sixteen miles square, and indeed a
list of streets of the city is still in existence. To
the north of the ruins of this place, are six pagodas
of immense magnitude, the form being half a sphere
with a spire built on it ; the two largest are each
270 feet high, of solid brick-work, once entirely
covered with chunam (lime polished like marble), the
solid contents of one of the largest is about 456,071
cubic yards, and with the materials of which it is
ANCIENT HISTORY OF CEYLON. 5
composed, a wall of brick might be constructed
twelve feet high, two feet wide, and ninety-seven
miles long- ; the roofs are composed of curiously-
carved rafters of wood, and the expense and labour
emp-oyed in the whole of the structures must have
been immense. In the ancient histories of Trin-
comalee it is stated by Sir Alexander Johnston that
two kings of Solamandelum, Manumethy Candesolam,
and his son Kalocarta Maharasa, reigned over the
greater part of Ceylon, and over the southern pen-
insula of India, about the 512th year of the Cadi Yug,
or 4400 years ago, who constructed the great
buildings and tanks, the remains of which are yet
extant.
But we must leave these remote ages and come to
some later period. In the sixth century Ceylon was
the chief mart for eastern commerce. In the six-
teenth year of the reign of Praakrama Bahoo the
First, (A.D. 1153,) this Singalese monarch sent a
fleet of 500 ships, with an army on board, and pro-
visioned for twelve months, to avenge the insults
offered to the Singalese ambassador and to Singalese
merchants by the King of Cambodiae and Arramana.
This vast fleet was equipped in six months. In the
thirteenth century it was visited by Marco Polo, who
pretty accurately narrated the particulars of the
island, which he described as ' the finest in the world.'
The central situation of Ceylon had led to its port
being frequented by ships from China, India, Arabia,
&c. by which means Galle and Columbo, from their
favourable situation, became intrepots for the general
commerce of the east. When the Portuguese first
6 CEYLON.
visited the island, a.d. 1505, they found it had for a
long period been declining, owing to intestine wars,
and invasions from Malabar and Arabia ; the Cinga-
lese King availed himself of the assistance of the
Portuguese Admiral (Almeida) for the expulsion of
the invaders, promising in return an annual tribute
in cinnamon. In 1518, the Portuguese, under Alva-
renga, began to fortify themselves in Columbo, Galle,
&c., and soon after they obtained complete possession
of the maritime provinces, and drove the King of
Kandy to such extremities, that he w^as glad to re-
tain even possession of the interior provinces.
For a century the Portuguese held their sway,
when in 1 603, the first Dutch fleet arrived at Trin-
comalee and Batticaloa, and offered to assist the King
of Kandy against the Portuguese. In 1632, a strong
Dutch armament, acting in conjunction with the
King of Kandy's forces, commenced a series of con-
tests with the Portuguese, and after a long and san-
guinary struggle, which lasted until 1656-7, the
latter were finally driven from an island, of the sea
coast of which they had been masters for nearly 150
years.
The Cingalese, however, soon found that they had
exchanged masters to no advantage, for from 1656
to 1796, the Dutch were engaged in a series of per-
petual hostilities with their mountain neighbours.
The conduct of the French republican government
to Holland towards the close of the last century, in-
duced the Dutch to acquiesce in our apparent forcible
occupation in 1796 of Columbo, Galle, Trincomalee,
&c., but as regards the Kandians, we were not more
DUTCH AND ENGLISH CONQUESTS. 7
fortunate than our predecessors, for in 1799, soon
after the elevation of a new king to the Kandian
throne, we became involved in hostilities, which led
to our capture of the Kandian capital in 1803.
As this circumstance led eventually to our total
occupation of the island, it may be satisfactory to
give an abridgment of a memorandum on the affairs
of Ceylon, prepared from the official documents in
Calcutta in 1803, and which I have just now (Sept.
1837) among the Marquess Wellesley's papers.
A short time after the return from Madras to Ceylon of Mr.
North, in July, 17^9> there was reason to believe that the
court of Kandy began to entertain suspicions of the intentions
of the British government, in consequence of an embassy
which it had been taught to expect, not having been sent to
that Court. These suspicions were increased by the measures
which were adopted by Mr. North to place the Malay corps on
a respectable footing, and at last assumed so serious an ap-
pearance, as to induce Mr. North to send a confidential native
agent for the purpose of demanding an explanation from the
tirst Adigaar, or minister of the government of Kandy.
In consequence of this communication, the first Adigaar re-
quested Mr. North to grant him an audience at Setaraca, on
the frontiers, as he had something to communicate which was
of the greatest importance to the British government.
Accordingly an interview took place on the 5th of January,
1800, between Mr. North and the first adigaar. Previously
to this interview Mr. North had reason to think, from the in-
formation of the native agent whom he had deputed to Kandy,
that the object of the first adigaar was to establish an English
military force in Kandy, and to pay for it a tribute in Areka-
put, and other productions, to the British government, and
that this military force was to protect his own power, together
with that of his nominal master the King of Kandy, in whose
8 CEYLON.
name it was supposed the first adigaar intended to continue
to govern the kingdom.
At the interview however on the 5th of January, 1800, the
first proposal made by the adigaar to Mr, North was to depose
the reigning king, who had been placed on the throne ^ by the
first adigaar in direct violation of the laws of the kingdom of
Kandy. This proposal was rejected in the most positive man^
ner, as Mr. North very justly did not think himself warranted
to join in a conspiracy against a prince in perfect amity with
the British government, and who had been recognized by Mr.
North as the legitimate sovereign, on the grounds of his being
in possession of the throne on Mr. North's accession to the
government of Ceylon.
But although Mr. North did not think himself justified in
contributing in any degree to the deposition of the King of
Kandy, he was not disposed to insist on that Prince's retaining
any large portion of authority in his dominions, and conceived
that he provided much more effectually for the king's security
and happiness by placing him under the protection of a British
military force, than by leaving him in the hands of a daring
and ambitious minister, or of a faction which had proclaimed
him an illegitimate usurper.
Mr. North, therefore, felt no hesitation to promise the adi-
1 This event took place about the year l^Oil. The account
given by the adigaar was, that the country had formerly been
inhabited by devils, who had been expelled by Seredin. From
this period a regular succession of kings of the Cingalese race
followed for ages. These in return were afterwards expelled by
the accession to the throne of Kandy of the race of Malabar
kings. About the year 17^1, the adigaar's brother, who had
also been adigaar, placed on the throne a prince of Malabar
extraction; and in 1798 the present adigaar, in the midst of
civil discord, succeeded in obtaining the tlu'one for the reigning
prince, although he had no legal pretensions to it, and was, in
fact, illegitimate.
EMBASSY TO THE KING OF KANDY. 9
gaar support * in obtaining all authority short of royalty in the
country, in case he should be able to prevail on the King to
ask for a British subsidiary force, and to put himself and his
country under the British protection.'
Mr. North in this conference informed the first adigaar of
his intention to send General Macdowall as ambassador to the
King of Kandy with valuable presents. General Macdowall
was instructed to negotiate the treaty with the King of Kandy
which was founded on the principles stated in the conference
which took place between tlie first adigaar and Mr. North, on
the 5th of January, 1800, to which the fii'st adigaar had agreed,
and which he had promised to carry into effect. Another im-
portant object of the embassy was to obtain a perfect know-
ledge of the situation of the court of Kandy, which was essen-
tial to the improvement of our general interests, as well as to
prevent the dangers which it was apprehended would attend
the implicit observance, on the part of Mr. North, of the direc-
tions of the first adigaar, whose intentions, Mr. North ' knew
to be atrocious, and such as he could never abet.'
General Macdowall arrived on the frontier of Kandy on the
20th of March, 1800, where, according to appointment, he met
the first adigaar, accompanied by two otficers of inferior rank,
and by a great number of followers.
On the 8th of April, General Macdowall arrived at Gunarora,
and on the 9th had his first audience of the King of Kandy.
He was received with every demonstration of respect and
kindness, and soon after his audience entered on the subject
of his mission.
The treaty proposed by General Macdowall, embraced the
following objects.
1. The preservation of the reigning king.
2. The permanent establishment of a British force in the
Kandian territories.
3. The obtaining some commercial advantages.
4. The prevention of immediate bloodshed and future civil
war, by the delivery of the chiefs of the persecuted party into
the hands of the British government.
5. The procuring the administration of the revenues of the
10 CEYLON.
country, or at least such powers, as might prevent the con-
thiuance of the wretched system which had hitherto prevailed,
to the detriment of its natural resources.
The treaty, however, was rejected by the ministers of the
court of Kandy, who proposed a counter project nearly similar
to one which had been formerly offered to the government of
Madras. The general refused to enter on the discussion of
this counter project, and demanded his audience of leave. The
ministers then consented to the proposed treaty, with the ex-
ception of the article which provided for the establishment of
a considerable body of troops near the town of Kandy. They
wished to reduce this number to 400, but as such a modifica-
tion was little calculated to afford security to the British terri-
tories, Major-General Macdowall declined the proposal and
quitted the town of Kandy.
The ministers also rejected three modified proposals from
Mr. North, and the negociation here terminated.
The motives which induced Mr. North to declare war
against the King of Kandy are explained in a declaration pub-
lished at Colombo on the 29th January, 1803 ; it will there-
fore be sufficient to observe, that a force was assembled at
Colombo amovuiting to I7OO men, under the command of Ma-
jor-General Macdowall, and another detachment at Trinco-
malee, amounting to 1200 men, under the orders of Lieute-
nant-Colonel Barbut. In his letter to Lord Clive of the 30th
January, 1803, Mr. North specifically states * that he should not
have occasion to trouble Lord Clive for troops, unless he
should be obliged to make a second campaign, which consider-
ing the force assembled, the moderation of Mr. North's views,
and the disposition of the principal head men, and the people
in general on the Kandian territories, who were desirous of
co-operating with the British troops, or at least of not acting
against them, was not (Mr. North trusted) probable.'
On the 28th of January, 1803, Mr. North addressed a letter
to the King of Kandy, submitting to his Majesty the declara-
tion of the causes and objects of the entrance of his troops into
the territories of his Majesty, together with the articles of a
pacific convention proposed to be concluded between his Ma-
PROPOSED CONVENTION WITH THE KING OF KANDY. 1 1
jesty and the nobles of the court of Kandy, on the one part,
and the government of Ceylon on the other.
This convention stipulated for a compensation for the loss
sustained by the merchants of Putelam, as well as for the ex-
penses incurred on account of the military preparations, for
the security of the payment of which the King of Kandy was
immediately to cede to his Britannic Majesty the province of
the Seven Corles. By the convention it was also proposed that
the King of Kandy should recognise the sovereignty of his
Britannic Majesty over all the territories lately occupied by the
Dutch in the island of Ceylon, and ceded by them in conformity
to the stipulations of the peace of Amiens to his Britannic
Majesty ; that the government of Ceylon should be permitted
to form a road across the territories of Kandy between Colombo
and Trincomalee ; that British troops, with their guns and ar-
tillery, should be allowed to pass along this road without mo-
lestation, and that the government of Ceylon should be allowed
to establish resting-places and post-houses along the proposed
road ; that the King of Kandy should permit, (for the benefit
of both countries,) a communication by water, if practicable, to
be made across the island, under the direction of the British
government, and allow such measures to be taken as might
render the rivers more navigable for the advantage of both
parties ; that the King of Kandy should also engage for him-
self, heirs, and successors not to enter into any negociation
with any foreign power without the concurrence of the Gover-
nor of Ceylon ; and that his Britannic Majesty, through the
Governor of Ceylon, recognized the King of Kandy, his heirs,
and successors, and engaged to furnish a quota of troops when-
ever the King of Kandy might require them, on his paying for
their maintenance while employed in his service. The remain-
der of the convention related to points of internal economy,
and do not require to be stated in this narrative.
The King having refused to accede to the terms offered to his
acceptance in Mr. North's letter of the 28th of .January, hosti-
lities commenced on the 19th of February, by the attack and
capture by Colonel Hogan, of the fifty-first regiment, of two
strong posts called Galle Gederah and Geriagamrae. On the
12 CEYLOX.
same day, Colonel Barbut, of his Majesty's seventy-third regi-
ment, advanced with a detachment towards the great Candian
river, the banks of which, together with the village of Walla-
poola and the neighbouring hills, were occupied by the enemy
in force. A few shots from two mortars and one six-pounder
soon, however, compelled the Kandians to retire, and the de-
tachment crossed the river on the morning of the 20th of
February, and took possession of the village of Wallapoola,
situated within an English mile and a half of the town of
Kandy.
General Macdowall marched into Kandy on the evening of
the 20th, and found it totally deserted, the King having left it
with the adigaar on the 19th February, removed all the trea-
sure from the palace, and the inhabitants from their houses.
Prior to his flight, the King caused the magazines to be blown
up, and set fire to his palace, and to the principal temples.
The King, it appears, retired into the distant province of
Oora, to the south-west. As he refused to accept the terms
offered to him by Mr. North, and did not even propose to ne-
gociate with General Macdowall, but after the delay of a fort-
night answered Mr. North's letter to him without taking the
least notice of the conditions which Mr. North had offered to
his acceptance, Mr. North tendered the abdicated throne to
Prince Budha Sawmy, the rightful heir, who would have suc-
ceeded to it on the demise of the last King, if the intrigues of
the adigaar had not intruded the present fugitive prince, in the
intention of deposing him to make way for himself. Colonel
Barbut was, in consequence, detached soon after the capture of
Kandy for the purpose of escorting him to that capital.
About this period a dreadful endeniial fever broke out in the
interior of the island, and deprived the public service of several
valuable military officers, and a very large proportion of the
European troops employed in the late service. This most
fatal malady appeared under the form of a very bad bilious re-
mittent, and was attended with nearly the same symptoms in
all cases. The extent of the disease will be fully compre-
hended by the following facts: — The 5lst regiment, which
marched from Colombo SCO strong, lost before its return one
TREATY OF PEACE WITH THE KING OF KANDY. 13
fifth of the men, besides having I70 men sick in the hospital.
A detachment of the 65th regiment, consisting of one captain,
three subalterns, and eighty men, employed in keeping open
the communication with Kandy, and covering a depot of stores
and provisions, lost 27 men, besides having 50 in the hospital :
of the four officers, one died, and two returned dangerously ill.
The native troops, however, did not suffer in an equal propor-
tion; and it is a curious circumstance that a journey of eight
or ten miles from the sea coast should lead to a country where
the source of the endemial disease is so powerful as to affect
almost every European constitution exposed to its influence.
A treaty was entered into between the new King and Mr.
North, for the speedy restoration of peace, and the general
security of the inhabitants of the island.
By this treaty it was stipulated that restoration should be
made to Mootoo Sawmy of the town of Kandy, and all the pos-
sessions dependant on the crown of Kandy, then occupied by
the British troops, excepting the province of the Seven Corles,
the two hill-forts of Geriagamme and Gallegederah, and the
line of land across the Kandian territories, sufficient to form a
direct road from Colombo to Trincomalee, which province,
forts, &c. were ceded to his Britannic Majesty, in perpetual
sovereignty.
Provision was made for the identification of the interests of
the British Government, and of Mootoo Sawmy. The British
Government agreed to recognize Mootoo Sawmy as the legiti-
mate sovereign of Kandy, as soon as he had assumed that title
with the usual solemnities, and consented, under certain sub-
sidiary engagements, to maintain, for the preservation of his
authority, a British force whenever it might be required. The
remaining articles provided for the future intercourse between
the subjects of the two states, for the regulation of the internal
duties and commerce, the safety and maintenance of the King
lately on the throne, and for the residence at Kandy, whenever
it might be required, of a public minister, on the part of the
British Government.
It also appears that, after the conclusion of this treaty, Mr.
North determined to hold a conference with the two adigaars
14 CEYLON.
of Kandy, for the purpose of procuring their consent to the
establishment of a secure and permanent peace. In conse-
quence of this resolution, Mr. North left Colombo on the 28th
of April, and reached Dombaderria on the 1st of May.
On the 3rd of May a conference took place at Mr. North's
bungalo, in which it was proposed that the adisfaars and the
principal nobles of Kandy should become parties to the treaty
lately concluded between the British government and the
Prince Mootoo Sawmy, on certain additional conditions,
which, after some discussion, were finally agreed to by the
adigaars, and sealed, signed, and delivered by the respective
parties on the following day.
This convention stipulated that the new King Mootoo
Sawmy should deliver over ^ the administration of the province
belonging to the crown of Kandy to the first adigaar, with the
title of grand prince, during the term of his natural life, and
that he should reside at JafFnapatam, or in such other part of
the British territories, as might be agreed upon between
Mootoo Sawmy and the British government ; that the first
adigaar should engage to pay an annual sum of 90,000 rix dol-
lars for the maintenance of Mootoo Sawmy, and that for the
better payment of this sum, as well as for the allowance pro-
posed to be granted to the King lately on the throne of Kandy,
the first adigaar should deliver to the British government, in
the course of every year, a certain gratuity of arckanut (20,000
annually), taken at a specified valuation (six rix. dollars per
ammonam), the price of which should be paid to the agents of
the first adigaar by the British government, in coined copper,
or in such other articles as might be agreed upon between the
' On account of the inertness of his own character, and the
timidity of his friends, A[r. North says, ' if he consents by his
own signature to exchange a turbulent power which he never
could fully obtain, nor securely exercise, for the peaceable en-
joyment of high power and an affluent income, we have no
reason to oppose his wishes.'
TREACHERY OF THE KANDIANS. 15
parties, in which case the British government agreed to charge^
itself with the payment of the allowances ^ stipulated for Mootoo
Sawmy, and for the King lately on the throne.
That the first adigaar should cede in perpetuity to the Bri-
tish government the village and district of Gungavelle, now
called Fort Macdowall, in exchange for the hill fort of Geria-
garame, which the British government agreed to cede again to
the first adigaar.
That all the princes and princesses of the royal family then
in confinement should be set at liberty, and be allowed to re-
tire with their property wherever they might think proper,
and that a general amnesty should be observed on both sides
to all who might have supported or opposed the claims of
Mootoo Sawmy in the late or any former contest.
Finally, that the preceding articles should be carried into
effect as soon as the Prince lately on ihe throne of Kandy
should be delivered into the hands of the British government,
and that until that event should take place, a perfect truce and
cessation of hostilities should continue between all the con-
tracting parties.
This truce continued until the month of June, when it was
broken by the treachery of the Kandians, who, under the first
adigaar, did not scruple to avail themselves of the first favour-
able opportunity to attack the British garrison at Kandy.
The result of this transaction has been differently represented.
The oflacial account communicated by Mr. North to the Go-
^ The advantage of this arrangement was as follows : — The
arcka was to be sold to the British government at six rix
dollars per ammonam. That article, however, paid a duty on
exportation of ten rix dollars, and sold at Colombo before the
payment of that duty at from fourteen to eighteen rix dollars
per ammonam. The clear gain to government, therefore, was
about twenty rix dollars per ammonam for the whole quantity,
viz. 20,000 ammonams is 360,000 rix dollars, after paying the
specified allowance of 40,000 rix dollars.
2 About 40,000 rix dollars.
16 CEYLON.
vernor-General in Council is here stated, and such further re-
ports are annexed from private sources of intelligence as may
appear to throw any light on this melancholy and almost un-
exampled event.
It appears that Mr. North had already made preparations
towards the middle of June for evacuating Kandy, and a de-
tachment of Malays was on its march to that place from Trin-
comalee with a number of doolies to bring away the sick and
wounded. The Governor of Ceylon had also agreed to a pro-
posal from the adigaars to evacuate Kandy, provided the gar-
rison might be permitted to retire unmolested.
Accordingly, Major Davie, commanding the garrison of
Kandy. evacuated that place under a capitulation^ with the first
adigaar, on the 24th of June. He was permitted to retire with
his arms and ammunition, and was promised every mark of at-
tention ; but no sooner had he commenced his march, than he
was treacherously attacked, a party of his Malays deserted over
to the enemy, and the whole of the British troops^, with their
officers, were most inhumanly murdered^.
• The force, in Mr. North's statement of the 7th July,
amounted to 40 Europeans in good health, and 200 Malays.
General Macdowall, on the 4th of July, states the British force
to have amounted to about 200 Europeans and 800 natives ;
and Mr. North, in a letter of the 20th July, observes, rhat the
loss may be estimated at 700 eftective men. These contradic-
tions are probably owing to Mr. North not having included the
sick, which by all accounts appear to have been numerous, or
the gun Lascars, &c.
• On the 4th July, 1803, ' not one man had escaped on whom
General Macdowall could rely for an authentic account of this
melancholy transaction. More than 100 gun Lascars were re-
covered in an action with the Kandian army at Hangwelle, on
the Gth of September, 1803, and there is every reason to be-
lieve that Major Davie and Captains Humphreys and Rumley
were not put to death, but were still in confinement at the date
of the latest advices from Ceylon.'
2 Return of names of those officers who are reported to have
CRUELTY OF THE KING OF KANDY. 17
The garrisons of Fort ?>Iacdowall, to the eastward, and of
Dombarcia to the westward, of Kandy, refused to capitulate,
and escaped from the enemy's country with inconsiderable loss.
Until 1815 we retained the maritime provinces,
while the King of Kandy kept the interior, but in that
year the monarch being deposed on account of his
repeated acts of oppression and cruelty (one act was
making the wife of his prime minister pound to death
her own children in a rice mortar). General Brown-
rigg was invited by the Kandian chiefs to take posses-
sion of the interior, and excepting an expensive and
troublesome insurrection, which lasted from 1817 to
1819, Ceylon has ever since had the British sway
established over the whole island.
Captains-General and Governors of Ceylon, whilst
IN possession of the Portuguese.
Pedro Lopez de Souza, Jerome de Azevedo, Francois de
Menezes, Manuel Mascarenhas Homen, Nanha Alvares Pe-
been put to death by the Kandians after the capitulation of
Kandi, on the 24th of June, 1803 : —
Bengal Artillery. — Captain Richard Humphreys.
\Qth Foot. — Lieutenants M. H. Byne, Peter Flenderleith,
Hector Maclain, Ensign Robert Smith, Quarter-master J. J.
Brown, Assistant Surgeon William Hope.
51*^ Foot. — Lieutenant Ormsby,
Malay Regiment. — Major Adam Davie, Captain Edward
Rumley, Lieutenant William Mercer, Ensigns Robert Barry,
Louis Goupill, John Fanthome ; Lieutenant Blackeney of the
19th regiment, commanding pioneer corps; Garrison Surgeon
Holloway, Madras establishment. Rt. Mo u bray,
Acting Deputy Adjt.-Gen.
The sick Europeans in hospital had their brains beat out
with clubs and stones.
c
18 CEYLON.
reira, Constantine de Say Noranlia, D. George d' Almeida,
George d'Albuque, Diego de Melho, Antoine Mascarenlias,
Phillippe Mascarenlias, Manuel Mascarenhas Honien, Fran-
cois de Mello Castro, Antoine de Sousa Continho, under whose
administration Colombo was surrendered to the Dutch ; A. D.
Mezely Menezes, last Captain-General, in command of Jaffna
and Manar.
Governors, whilst in the possession of the Dutch.
At Galle. — William Jacobszen Coster, Commander at the
surrender of that place ; administration commenced I3th
March, 1640. Jan Thysz, President and Governor, 1st Aug.
1640. Joan Matsuyker, Ordinary Counsellor and Governor,
24th May, 1646. Jacob Van Kittenstein, Governor, 26th
February, 1650. Adrian Van der Meyden, Governor, 11th
October, 1653.
Colombo. — Adrian Van der Meyden, Governor, 12th May,
1656. Ryklof Van Goens, Governor, 12th May, 1660. Jacob
Hustaar, Extraordinary Counsellor of India, and Governor,
27th Dec. 1663. Ryklof Van Goens, Governor, from 19th
Nov. 1664/ Lourens Van Peil, Commander, President, Go-
vernor, and Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 3rd Dec. 1680.
Thomas Van Rhee, Governor, 19th June, 1693. Paulus de
Rhoo, appointed Governor and Director of Ceylon, 29th Jan.
1695. Gerrit de Heer, Governor, 22nd Feb. 1697- The mem-
bers of the Council, 26th Nov. 1702. Mr. Cornelius Johannes
Simonsz, Governor, May, 1763. Hendrick Becker, Governor,
22nd Dec. 1707. Mr. Isaak Augistin Rumph, Governor and
Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 7t:h Dec. 1716. Arnold
Moll, Commander at Galle, 11th June, 1723. Johannes Her-
tenberg, Governor, 12th January, 1724. Jan Paulus Shagen,
Commander at Galle, 19th Oct. 1725. Petrus Vuyst, Gover-
nor and Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 16th Sept. 1726.
Stephanus Versluys, Governor and Extraordinary Counsellor
of India ; administration commenced 27th Aug. 1 729. Gual-
terus Woutersz, Commander of Jaffnapatam, 25th Aug. 1732.
Jacob Christian Pielaat, Extraordinary Counsellor of India and
Commissary, 21st Dec. 1732. Diederick Van Domburg, Go-
DUTCH AND ENGLISH GOVERNORS. 19
vernor, 21st Jan. 1734. Jan Maccara, Commander of Galle,
1st June, 1736. Gustaff Willem Baron Van ImhofF, Extraor-
dinary Counsellor of India and Governor, 23d July, 1736.
Willem Maurits Bruininck, Governor, 12th March, 1740.
Daniel Overbeck, Governor and Extraordinary Counsellor of
India, 3rd Jan. 1742. Julius Valentyn Stein Van Gollnesse,
Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 11th May, 1743. Gerrard
Van Vreeland, Extraordinary Counsellor of India and Gover-
nor, 6th March, 1751. Jacob de Jong, Commander of JatFna-
patam, administration commenced 26th Feb. 1751. Joan
Gideon Loten, 30th Sept. 1752. Jan Schreuder, Counsellor
and Governor of India, 17th March, 1757- Lubbert Jan Baron
Van Eck, Governor (under whose administration Kandy was
taken on the 19th Feb. 1763), 11th Nov. 1762. Anthony
Mooyart, Commander of Jaffnapatam, I3th May, 1765. Iman
Willem Falck, Governor, &c. 9th Aug. 1765. Willem Jacob
Van de Graaf, Governor, &c. of India, 7th Feb. 1785. Joan
Gerard Van Angelbeek, Governor, &c. under whose adminis-
tration Colombo surrendered to the arms of his Britannic
Majesty, on the 16th Feb. 1796.
English Governors.
The Hon. the Governor of Madras in Council ; administra-
tion commenced 16th Feb. 1796. The Hon. Frederick North,
12th Oct. 1798. Lieut. -Gen. Right Hon. Sir Thomas Mait-
land, G.C.B. 19th July, 1805. Major-Gen. John Wilson,
Lieut.-Governor, 19th March, 1811. General Sir Robert
Brownrigg, Bart. G.C.B. 11th March, 1812. Major-Gen. Sir
E. Barnes, K.C.B., Lieut.-Governor, 1st Feb. 1820. Lieut.-
Gen. the Hon. Sir E. Paget, K.C.B. 2nd Feb. 1823. Major-
Gen. Sir J. Campbell, K.C.B., Lieut.-Governor, 6th Nov.
1822. Lieut.-Gen. Sir E. Barnes, G.C.B. 18th Jan. 1824.
Major-Gen. Sir J. Wilson, K.S.S. Lieut.-Governor, 13th Oct.
1831. The Right Hon. Sir Robert Wilmot Horton, Bart.
G.C.B. 23rd Oct. 1831.
C 2
20
CHAPTER II.
PHYSICAL ASPECT, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, LAKES, &C. — CHIEF
TOWNS — FORTS, &C. GEOLOGY SOIL, CLIMATE, &C. —
ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL KINGDOMS — CULTIVA-
TION, STOCK, &C.
Fa-VOurably situate at the west entrance of the Bay
of Bengal, Ceylon is separated on the north west
from the Coromandel coast, by the Gulf of Manaar,
[in breadth 62 miles,] and 150 miles distant from
Cape Comorin ; on the south and east its beautiful
shores are laved by the Indian Ocean. The interior
of the island is formed of ranges of high mountains,
in general, not approaching nearer to the sea than
40 miles, with a belt of rich alluvial earth nearly
surrounding the island, and well watered by numer-
ous rivers and streams. A picturesque table land
occupies the southern centre, and thence, tovrards
the coast, is a continuous range of low hills, and
elevated flat land extending nearly to the sea-shore.
To the west the country is flat, and on the northern
shore, broken into verdant rocky islets, and a penin-
sula named Jafnapatam. The lofty central division
of the island varies in elevation above the level of
the sea, from 1,000 to 6,000 feet, but the range of
table land may be estimated at from 2,000 to 3,000
feet higher above the sea. The mountains run in
sreneral in continuous chains with the most lovelv
valleys the sun ever shone on between them ; the
hills clothed to the very summits with gigantic
forests, from which issue magnificent cascades and
PHYSICAL ASPECT. RIVERS. 21
foaming cataracts, that form in the valleys placid
rives and babbling brooks fringed with turfy banks,
and all the beautiful verdure of the tropics. The
heights above the sea, in English feet, of some
of the principal mountains, &c. in the interior of
Ceylon are (L by levelling ; A by geodesical opera-
tions) : — Upper Lake in Kande, 1678, L. : Mattea
Pattanna, the hill above it, 3192, A ; Oorraggalle,
the rocky ridge of Hantanne to the southward of the
town, 4310, A ; Hoonassgiria Peak, 4990, A ; ' The
Knuckles,' a part of the same chain, 5870, A ;
Highest point in the road leading through the Kad-
dooganawa Pass, 1731, L. ; Adam's Peak, 7420, A ;
Nammoonnakoolle, near Baddoolla, 6740, A ; Am-
boolluawa, near Gampalla, 3540, A ; Pedrotallagalla,
close to the Rest House of Nuwera Ellia, 8280, A ;
Diatalawe, near Hangoorankette, 5030, A ; Alloo-
galle, near Amoonapoore, 3440, A.
Rivers. — The rivers, as may be expected, are
numerous ; in fact, the whole island abounds with
perennial mountain streams, rivulets, and rivers, the
latter more numerous on the south and west than on
the north east. The principal are — the Maha-Villa-
Gunga, which is navigable for boats, and rafts during
a great part of the year, from Trincomalee (where it
falls into the sea), nearly as far as Kandy (in the
centre of the island), where its course is impeded
by a ledge of rocks ; the Calany Gunga, or Mutwal,
is not inferior in importance to the former, and is
the medium for much internal intercourse for 50
miles from Columbo to Ruanwelle ; the Welawe
and Gindora, &c., all of which serve rather the pur-
22 CEYLON.
poses of irrigation than navigation. There is, how-
ever, an inland river navigation over 100 miles of
picturesque country from Chilaw to Putlam, thirty
miles north of Caltura.
Lakes. — ^There are a few lagunes on the table
land, the principal advantage of which is, the abund-
ant supplies of fish which they afford, and in irri-
gating the rice lands. In the maritime provinces,
particularly in Batticaloa, the communication between
one district and another is maintained by canals con-
necting extensive salt water lakes, which have em-
bankments of a stupendous nature, constructed by
the Cingalese three centuries before the Christian
era. Small vessels from India may land their car-
goes at Calpentyn in the Gulf of Manaar, and have
them conveyed l:y canal to Colombo.
Tlie ridge called, ' Adam's Bridge,' which may be
said to connect Ceylon with the Peninsula, consists
of a mass of loose sand, with no firm foundation of rock
or clay to support it. The sand appears to be trans-
ported in great quantities from one side to the other
of the ridge, according to the direction of the mon-
soon ; for, in addition to the action of the surf, which
washes it over to the lee side, where it is narrow, —
in other parts, w^here it is broad, streams of it, in a
dry state, are carried across by the wind itself, and
deposited there. The channels through the strait
are very shallow, and not more than sufficient for
the small country boats to pass ; but it is stated, in
the records of the Dutch government at Ceylon, that
a Dutch fleet once passed through the channels of
Adam's Bridge to avoid a Danish fleet in chase of
COLOMBO. 23
them. It has been justly observed, that if such
really were the case, the channels must have been in
a very different state, as some parts of the * bridge'
are now dry, and a few feet of water is the greatest
depth any where on it.
The principal channel now used by the Dhonies,
and other small country boats, lies on the western
side of the strait, on which channel some curious
dams appear to have been formed by the action of
the sea on the soft sand- stone. According to the
records of the Pagoda of Ramisseram, it appears that
this island was, about the close of the fifteenth century,
connected with the Peninsula, at which time, it is
recorded, that pilgrims passed over it on their way
to the Pagoda.
It is proposed to deepen the principal channel,
which probably might be accomplished for a moderate
sum, so as to make it available not only for the coast-
ing trade, but for large vessels, by which a great
deal of time would be saved.
Colombo. — Ceylon may not inaptly be termed the
Malta of the Indian Ocean ; its commercial capi-
tal, Colombo, is situate on the south west coast,
latitude 6°. 57'. north, longitude 80°. 0'. east, de-
fended by a strong fort (built on a peninsula pro-
jecting into the ocean), measuring one mile and a
quarter in circumference, having seven principal bas-
tions of different sizes, connected by intervening cur-
tains and defended by three hundred pieces of cannon.
The fortress is nearly insulated, two thirds of the
works being almost laved by the sea, and with the
exception of two very narrow and strongly guarded
24 CEYLON.
causeways, the remainder protected by a fresh water
lake and a broad and deep ditch with a fine glacis.
Four strong bastions are seaward, and three face the
lake and command the narrow approach from the
Pettah, or native town outside the walls. The sea
itself is additional strength for the fortress, for on
the extensive southern side the surf runs so high
on a rocky shore, that any attempt at landing troops
would be attended with certain destruction, and on
the west side, where the sea is smoother, the approach
is completely commanded by the batteries ; and a
projecting rock on which two compact batteries are
placed, entirely protect the roadstead ^ ; in fact the
fortress of Colombo, properly defended, may be deemed
impregnable against any force likely to be brought
against it.
Trincomalee. — The maritime station of the island,
(Colombo is the seat of government) is, in a political
point of view, of the most importance, not merely as
regards Ceylon, but from being, as Nelson justly
described it from personal knowledge, ' the finest
harbour in the world.' It is situate on the east
shore, latitude 8. 32. north, longitude 81. 17. east,
150 north east from Colombo, (to which a fine road
has just been opened) 128 miles, travelling distance
from Kandy, and within two days' sail of Madras ^.
Its physical aspect may be described as a narrow
^ See large edition for sailing directions.
2 Trincomalee is the port of refuge to ships obliged to put
to sea when the stormy monsoon commences on the Coroman-
del coast and western side of the bay of Bengal ; the port can
be made in any season.
TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR. 25
neck of land or isthmus, connecting the peninsula on
which the fort of Trincomalee is built, (which juts
out a considerable distance into the sea), to the main
land ; towards the W. this isthmus gradually ex-
pands itself into a plain of considerable extent, which
is bounded on the S. E. by a ridge of lofty moun-
tains, on the N.W. by low wooded hills, and on the
W. at the distance of about a mile from the fort, by the
inner harbour. As far as the eye can reach from the
fort, excepting in the immediate neighbourhood of
the bazaar, the country is covered with wood.
The scenery of the spot has been compared to
Loch Katrine on a gigantic scale, (the vast harbour
appearing land-locked) the grandeur of which cannot
be surpassed ; the fortifications sweep along the
rocky coast \ipwards of a mile in length, encompass-
ing the base of a steep hill on the sides connected
wuth the adjacent land : the town and fort are placed
at the bottom of a rock, and joined to a narrow neck
of land running out towards the sea and separating
the inner harbours from two outside bays, which
lie on either shore of a three sided or cornered
promontory.
' Dutch ' and ' Back ' bays are entirely commanded
by the artillery on the south and north side of the
fortified rock, and the mouth of the harbour is pro-
tected by Fort Ostenberg, situate on a mount three
miles west of Trincomalee. No communication can
take place with the promontory (the part that pro-
jects into the sea being protected by steep rocky
cliffs) except through the well- covered gates of the
fortress, and the best engineers have pronounced
26 CEYLON.
their opinion of its impregnability if the place be well
garrisoned.
Fort Frederick, where the European troops (con-
sisting generally of four companies of a European
regiment, a company of royal engineers and artillery,
and detachments of the Ceylon rifles) are stationed,
is a fortified neck of land projecting into the sea,
separating Back Bay from Dutch Bay. The ground
rises gradually from the glacis to the flag- staff, a
height of about 300 feet, and then slopes towards the
sea, till abruptly terminated by a perpendicular cliff,
from which a plummet may be dropped to the water,
a distance of 240 feet. The depth at the base is so
great that a line-of-battle ship may pass close to it.
None but military reside within the works. The
prospect from the barracks towards the sea is only
bounded by the horizon, whilst towards the land, the
eye ranges over the splendid scenery of the inner
harbour. Fort Ostenberg, and a long extent of wooded
country.
Fort Ostenberg is near three miles from Fort Fre-
derick, and is built on the termination of a ridge of
hills that partly form the boundary of the inner har-
bour. The fort commands the entrance, and its base
is washed by the sea on three sides ; it also protects
the dock-yard, which is immediately below it. A
detachment of the Royal Artillery are quartered there,
and a company of Europeans.
The vicinity of Trincomalee is a wild uncultivated
country, abounding with game of all kinds, from a
snipe to an elephant. Quail, jungle fowl, moose-
deer, and monkeys, are found on the Fort Ostenberg
POINT DE GALLE. 27
ridge. The Mahavilla Ganga, which runs past
Kandy, empties itself into the sea not far from
Trincomalee. It has lately heen surveyed by Mr.
Brooks, the mast'^'r attendant, who reports favourably
of its capabilities. IL is navigable for some distance,
and he is of opinion, that with a little expense it
might be made so to within 40 miles of Kandy, and
thereby open a water- communication by which the
coffee, timber, and other produce of the interior could
be brought to the sea-coast.
The harbour, beautifully diversified with islands
covered with a luxuriant vegetation, is spacious
enough for holding all the ships in the world, ac-
cessible at all seasons, and the depth of water within
the bay of Trincomalee is so great, that in manv
places, not far from the shore, it is unfathomable,
and vessels may lie close alongside the rocks in
perfect safety. The rise and fall of the tide is not
sufficient for wet docks : mariners prefer Back Bay
to Dutch Bay, from its being easier of egress for
one half the year.
Point de Galle is another strong fortress and
excellent harbour, situate at the very southern ex-
tremity of the island, in latitude 6^ V north, lon-
gitude, 80^ 10' east, distant seventy-eight miles
along the sea-shore, south-south-east from Colombo ;
the road, shaded the whole way by magnificent groups
of cocoa nut trees, forming a belt from the water's
edge to some distance inland. The fort is a mile
and a quarter in circumference, on a low rocky
promontory, commanding the narrow and intricate
entrance leading to the inner harbour ; the extensive
28 CEYLOX.
and substantial works are like those of Colombo,
surrounded for the greater part by the ocean, and
there is every convenience of water, &c. capable of
enabling the fortress to stand an extended siege.
The outer and inner harbours are spacious, and the
inner secure at all seasons of the year ^
But if the sea-coast be well defended, not less so
is the interior ; every hill is a redoubt, and the passes
in the mountains might be defended by a resolute
enemy, by rolling the stones off the summits of the
heights. Kandy (in 7° 18' north latitude, 80° 47'
east longitude ^) the capital of the interior (eighty-
five miles from, and 1600 feet above Colombo) is
' Both Monsoons here influence die winds and rains.
2 Ladtude and longitude of the principal places : — Basses
(Great) latitude 0° 13' 0"; longitude 81° 46' 0" Ditto, (Litde)
latitude 6° 24' 30" ; longitude 81° 55' 0". Batticoloa Road,
lantude T 44' 0"; longitude 81° 52' 0". Belligara Bay, la-
titude 5° 57' 30" ; longitude 80° 33' 20". Calamatta Bay, la-
titude 6° 47'; longitude 81° 2' 58". Colombo, lantude G° 57' 0"
longitude 86° 0' 0". Dodandowe Bay, latitude 6° 6' 47" lon-
gitude 80° 14' 24". Dondra Head, latitude 5° 55' 15''; lon-
gitude 80° 42' 50". Foul Point, laiitude 8° 30' 27" ; longitude
81° 30' 12". Galle, latitude 6° 1' 46"; longitude 80° 20' 0".
Gandore, latitude 5° 55' 42"; longitude 80° 44' 30". Ham
bantolle, ladtude 6° 6' 58" ; longitude 81° 14' 44". Kandy,
latitude 7° 18' 0", longitude 80° 49' 0". Thahawelle Bay,
latitude 5° 59' 30" ; longitude 80° 52' 15. Thattura, latitude
5° 56' 26''; longitude 80^ 40' 7". ^■illewel]e Bay, latitude
5° 7' 37"; longitude 80° 50' 21". Point Pedro, ladtude
9° 49' 30"; longitude 80° 24' 0". Jangalle, ladtude 6° 1' 16" ;
longitude 80° 54' 48". Trincomalee, latitude 8° 33' 0" ; lon-
gitude 81° 24' 0". Vendelo's Inlet, ladtude, 75° 70' ; lon-
gitude 81° 44' 0".
PARADEINIA BRIDGE. ROADS. 29
situate at the head of an extensive valley, in an
amphitheatre commanded by forts on the surrounding
hills ; the vale has but two accessible entrances, well
guarded, and the city within four miles is nearly
surrounded by a broad and rapid river, (the Maha-
Villa Gunga) filled with alligators. Paradeinia bridge,
which, during the past year has been thrown over
the rapid and unfordable river Maha- Villa Gunga,
consists of a single arch with a span of 205 feet,
principally composed of satin wood ; its height above
the river at low water mark is sixty- seven feet, and
the roadway is twenty-two feet wide. The arch is
composed of four treble ribs, transversely distant
from each other five feet from centre to centre ; the
sum of the depth of these ribs is four feet, which,
with two intervals of two feet each, makes the whole
depth of the arch eight feet ; the arch beams, with
the exception of those next the abutments, are
sixteen to seventeen feet long and twelve inches
thick, abutting against each other with an unbroken
section, secured at the joints by the notched pieces
which support the road-way, the latter being held
in their position by means of cross ties below and
above the arch, and immediately under the road- way :
these cross ties, with the aid of diagonal braces,
which are also locked into them, serve to give
stability and firmness to the whole structure, which
has no other material but timber in its construction.
The roads in the maritime country are through
groves of cocoa-nut trees along the sea coast ;
carriage roads extend from Colombo as far as Chilaw
to the northward, and from Colombo through Gallee
30 CEYLON.
as far as Matura to the southward. The main road
from Colombo to Kandy (the Simplon of the East,
on which there is now a ' mail coach and four') is a
work of stupendous magnitude ; hills have been cut
away, valleys filled up, and (near Kandy) a tunnel
five hundred feet long cut through the mountain,
while rapid and unfordable torrents and rivers have
had elegant iron and wooden bridges thrown across
them ; a capital road has been opened between Trin-
comalee and Colombo, and before a few more years
have elapsed, every town in the island will be con-
nected by roads passable at all seasons.
Geology, — The island would seem to have been
at no very distant period connected with the pen-
insula of Hindostan, from which it was probably
separated by an irruption of the ocean. Uniformity
of formation characterises Ceylon, the whole of the
island, with few exceptions, consisting of primitive
formations, the varieties of which are extremely
numerous ; the most prevailing species is granite or
gneiss ; the more limited are quartz, hornblende,
dolomite, and a few others. The varieties of granite
and gneiss are innumerable, passing often from one into
another, occasionally changing their character alto-
gether, and assuming appearances for which, in small
masses, it would be extremely difficult to find appro-
priate names. Regular granite is not of very common
occurrence ; well formed gneiss is more abundant,
but sienite is not common ; pure hornblende, and
primitive greenstone, are far from uncommon ; and
dolomite sometimes of a pure snow white, well adapted
for the statuary, occasionally constitutes low hills in
7
GEOLOGY. SOIL, 31
the interior : limestone is principally confined to the
northerly province of Jafnapatam, and the island ap-
pears to be surrounded by an interrupted chain, or
belt of sandstone, interspersed with coral. The coral
of the Pamban banks is not the zoophyte of the Me-
diterranean and the South Seas, but a light, porous,
crumbling substance, sometimes cut and shaped into
bricks by the Dutch ; and more frequently burnt into
lime. Of this species of lime the late fort of Nega-
patam was built ; and so great is the hardness which
it acquires by long exposure to the weather, that
when Major De Haviland, some years ago, requested
a specimen of the masonry of the fort to be procured
and sent up to him, the iron crows and other instru-
ments ased in detaching the blocks, were blunted and
bent in all directions by the solidity of the chunara,
which is far more adhesive than that obtained from
shells. A stone capable of being converted into so
valuable a cement would almost pay the expense of
its excavation.
Soil. — The north division of the island is sandy
and calcareous, resting upon madrepore, as it is little
elevated above the level of the sea ; the surface of
the elevated lands of Saifragam, and Lower Ouva,
is much stronger and well adapted for tillage ; the
granitic soil of the interior produces the most lux-
uriant crops wherever there are a sufficiency of hands
to call forth the gifts of industry. The soil of the
southern plains is sandy, resting on a strong red
marl termed * cabook,' the base of which is granite,
and in the neighbourhood of Colombo the lands are
32 CEYLON.
low, and subject to inundations from the Mutwal
River.
The foundations of the island are apparently cal-
careous, yet the greater proportion of its soil is sili-
ceous, in many places (as in the cinnamon gardens
near Colombo), the surface being as white as snow,
and formed of pure quartz sand. The soils of Ceylon
are stated to be in general derived from the decom-
position of gneiss, granite, or clay, ironstone, the
principal ingredient being quartz in the form of sand
of gravel, decomposed felspar in the state of clay,
combined with different proportions of the oxide of
iron, quartz in most instances being the predomi-
nating substance, and in many places forming
nine-tenths of the whole, the natural soils seldom
containing more than three per cent, vegetable
matter. The most productive earths are a brown
loam resulting from the decomposition of gneiss, or
granite, exceeding in felspar, or a reddish loam ori-
ginating from the decomposition of clay ironstone :
the worst soils are those where quartz predominate,
proceeding from the disintegration of quartz rock,
or of granite and gneis, containing a very large pro-
portion of quartz.
Climate. — Ceylon is under the complete influence
of the monsoons, the north-east prevailing from No-
vember to February, and the south-west from April
to September; the intervening or equinoctial months
having variable winds or calms. The eastern side of
the island is hot and dry. like the Coromandel coast,
occasioned by the north- east monsoon ; the opposite
CLIMATE AND WINDS. 33
division of the isle is temperate and humid hke the
southern Malabar shore under the influence of the
south-west monsoon ; the climate, however, of the
southern coast is more congenial to Europeans than
perhaps any part of the continent of India. On the
whole the north and north-east mav be said to be
drv, and the south-west moist. The south-west wind
is more general all over the island, as both at Co-
lambo and Trincomalee it blows for five months in
succession, whereas the north-east blows at Columbo
only in the months of December and January, seldom
beyond them. Among the mountains of the interior,
the winds are modified by local circumstances, ac-
cording to their proximity to the east or west coast :
and the highest and most central land have peculiari-
ties of their own. Thus, at Badulla, in Upper Ouva
(where there is an excellent hospital and military sta-
tion), the wind for three-fourths of the year is from the
north-east, and in June, July, and August variable.
Owing to its intertropical position the quantity of
rain that falls in Ceylon is very great, probably
three times that of England. Being less frequent,
the showers are much heavier while they last, a fall
of two or three inches being not uncommon in twenty-
four hours ; the average of the alpine region is about
eighty-four inches ; on an average, however, less rain
falls on the east than on the west side of the island ;
a lofty mountainous ridge often acting as a line of
demarcation, one side of which is drenched with rain,
while the other is broiling under an unclouded sun.
Colonel Colebrook, in his valuable report on this
lovely island, justly remarks that, the climate and
CEYLON, &c. D
CEYLON.
seasons of the north and south districts are strikingly
contrasted. On one side of the island, and even on one
side of a mountain, the rain may fall in torrents,
while on the other, the earth is parched and the herb-
age withered ; the inhabitants may be securing them-
selves from inundations, while in another they are
carefully husbanding the little water of a former sea-
son which may be retained in their wells and tanks.
Thus, throughout the southern division, where the
rains are copious (owing, probably, to its exposure to
the Southern Ocean) canals are not less useful in drain-
ing the lowlands, than in the conveyance of produce;
and embankments are much required to secure the
crops from destruction during the rainy season ; while
in the north division of the island, tanks and water-
courses are in the greatest request, to secure the in-
habitants against the frequent droughts to which
those districts are liable.
Owing, also, to its insular position, no climate is
more favoured than Ceylon, its temperature being
moderate when compared with the scorching plains
of India. Along the sea-coast the mean annual tem-
perature may be taken at 80° Farenheit ; the extreme
range line from 68° to 90°, and the medium from 75°
to 85°. The climate of the mountains is of course
cooler, but its vicissitudes greater. At Kandy, which
IS 1467 feet above the sea, the mean annual tempera-
ture is 78°; at the top of Mamini CooH Kandi, 5900
feet high, Dr. Davy found the temperature at eight
A.M. 57°. At Columbo (the capital) the mean daily
variation of the temperature does not exceed 3°,
while the annual range of the thermometer is from
METEOROLOGY.
35
76° to 86i° Far?nheit. At Galle the mean daily
variation is 4°, and the annual range 71° to 87°.
Jaffnapatam, mean daily variation 5°, annual range
70° to 90°, Trincomalee, greatest daily variation
] 7°, annual range 74° to 91°. At Kandy (the capi-
tal of the mountain, or table land in the interior),
mean daily variation 6°, annual range QQ° to 86°.
At Newera Ellia, a military convalescent station,
mean daily variations as high as 11°, and annual
variation from 35° to 80°.
CEYLON
METEOROLOGY.
COLOMBO (SEA SHORE) REGISTER.
Thermometer.
Barome-
ter.
til
Rain*
•^
n
_r-]
Wind.
Guage,
3
•i
ta
S
^
inches
s
CO
O
S
Jan....
78
81
79
82|
76
29.85
29.80
N.
1.0
Feb....
79
83
811
85
76
30.
29.85
) N. to N. E.
j and S. W.
0.4
March
80
84
82
85
77
29.90
29.80
8.1
April..
81
84
82
86i
80
29.87
29.85
11.7
May...
82
85
82
86'
79
29.93
29.80
S. W.
G.G
June..
81
83
82
86
79
29.88 29.
Ditto.
2.3
July...
80
83
81
84
79
29.98 29.
Ditto.
10.7
Aug. ..
81
83
82
83
80
29.90 ...
Ditto.
3.5
Sept...
82
83
82
85
81
29.90
29.80
Ditto.
8.2
Oct....
80
83
81
83
78
29.90
29.80
Ditto.
7.1
Nov. ..
80
82
81
83
79
30.
29.90
\ S. W. to N.
/ and N. E.
7.1
Dec...
80
82
SO
84
73
29.90
29.80
18.6
• The rail
1 guage, shewing a total of 84.3 inches, is fo
r Kandy
(in 1819), in
the interior, which shows the average of the
' moun-
tain districts
; on the sea- shore, as at Colombo, the avei
■age an-
nual fal
lof 1
ain i
s froT
n 75
to 80
inche
s.
1
D 2
(Continued.)
36
CEYLON.
CEYLON METEOROLOGY. (Continued.)
BADULLA (2107 feet above the sea.
)*
Thermometer.
<
00
d
o
00
CO
o
1-:!
Jan....
62
72
66
Feb....
63
74
68
March
62
76
67
April..
66
78
70
May...
68
78
71
June..
64
77
72
July...
63
74
71
AU!^. ..
66
79
71
Sept...
66
79
72
Oct. ...
66
79
72
Nov...
67
75
71
Dec...
67^
73
71
Heavy rains, and very cold nights.
No rain ; hot.
A little rain, and warm.
No rain ; very warm.
Light rain ; wind}'.
No rain ; hot and" dry.
Ditto ; very hot.
Ditto; hot.
Ditto; ditto.
Heavy rains, and cool.
Ditto, ditto.
Hot and dry ; very cold nights.
* BaduUa is situate on a plain, surrounded by hills from 1 to 3000
feet, in a mountainous country, in the south extremity of Ceylon,
having the sea at 40 to 50 miles distant on the East, South, and West
sides: the elevation above the ocean level of 2107 feet.
The climate of Ceylon, where the soil is not cleared,
is undoubtedly subject to pernicious miasmata, aris-
ing from stagnant marshes, and dank and noisome
jungles, and even when the jungles are cleared, it re-
quires the sun to act on them for some time before
the unhealthy miasmata are dissipated ; at certain sea-
sons, therefore, endemic fevers appear in situations
favourable to their propagation, but the whole island
is becoming more uniformly salubrious as it becomes
cleared, and cultivated. The environs of Trinco-
make, which were formerly very unhealthy, have be-
IMPROVEMENT IN CLIMATE BY CLEARING. 37
come much less so by clearing the jungles in the en-
virons, and if the salt-water lake (' Snake Island' I
think it is termed) to the northward of Columbo were
cleared, the maritime capital of Ceylon, though within
8*^ of the equator, would be one of the healthiest and
pleasantest residences in India.
It is true that our troops have suffered much in
Ceylon, but it should be recollected, that as com-
pared with the Indian army, their wear and tare of
duty is much more severe than the latter, and they
have not the facilities of water communication which
the Ganges and its tributaries afford ; the one countrv
is in many parts quite unpeopled, and the other com-
paratively civilized ; add to which a pernicious sys-
tem prevails in Ceylon, of making the troops com-
mence marches at midnight, than which nothing can
be more injurious. A late intelligent Deputy Inspec-
tor General of the hospitals in Ceylon (H. Marshall,
Esq.) has drawn up the following comparative table
of the health and mortality of troops in India, Ceylon,
and Mauritius, but it must be remembered, in the
first place, that the data for Ceylon were made some
time ago, since which period the country is materially
improved, and in order to judge more correctly, we
should know the ages of the deceased and invalided,
and the tropical servitude endured. I give, how-
ever, the table, in the hope that it may induce further
inquiry based on more extensive facts ; there are no
class of persons better qualified for topographical
details than the medical officers of the British army,
who have contributed so much to extend the litera-
ture and science of England throughout her colonies
38
CEYLON.
Health of Troops in India, Ceylon, and Mauritius.
Stations.
India :
Bengal Army
Madras Army
Ditto ditto
i7th Dragoons
Royal Regiment, 2d
battalion
13th Regiment*
34th ditto
45th ditto
59th ditto
65th ditto
G9th ditto
78th ditto
Ceylon :
19th Regiment
73d dittot
83d ditto
Maurititts :
S2d Regiment
Period.
1825
1808
1815
1809
1807
1823
1803
1819
1806
1801
1805
1797
1796
1818
1818
1820
1826
1809
1821
1822
1831
1829
1823
1830
1818
1822
1820
1815
1819
1820
1820
1831
7976
8717
12592
730
1067
764
89
738
901
971
844
846
837
654
871
53-1
774 9-7
713 8-1
794 6-3
75 7-8
92I 7-6
]33 19-6
&9\
63
69
64!
68'
96 11-3
62' 7-4
184 28-1
78 8-9
20 3-7
Z2
= e
37P
486
37
2-5
M ;3 ^
2, -^
■^ <u -
4-7
3-7
3-1
2-8
5-3
6-3
4-5
14-5
10-1
10-8
11-5
10-
8-4
10-2
33-4
15-2
8-2
* This gallant regiment suffered much during the Burmese war, and
the disproportionate mortality was owing to the unhealthiness of Ran-
goon, &c.
t The mortality of this regiment was owing to its great fatigue and
exposure during the Kandyan war, and subsequent rebellion in the
mountain and jungly districts.
Since the first edition of this work appeared T
have received the following data, demonstrative of
the improvement that has taken place in the healthi-
ness of the climate of Ceylon.
It will be perceived that the average mortality of
the troops, the best criterion that can be referred to,
has considerablv diminished, and that the chance of
AVERAGE MORTALITY OF THE TROOPS. 39
longevity to an European are now very nearly as great
as if he resided in a temperate climate.
Extract from the Columbo Journal of August, 1832.
We publish the returns of the four following regiments, now
stationed in this island, the 58th, 61st, 78th, and 97th: —
Strength of the 78th regiment on arriving in Ceylon,
August, 1826 553 men.
Increase from various sources 116
669
Deduct transfer and discharges 44
Died by natural deaths 141 625
Casualties and suicides 13
154, or 24 16-25 per cent, in 6 years.
Strength of the 97th regiment on arriving in Ceylon,
August, 1 825 538 men.
Increase from various sources 158
696
Deduct transfer and discharges 40
Died by natural deaths 172 656
Casualties and suicides 6
178, or 27 11-82 per cent, in 7 years.
Strength of the 6lst regiment on arriving in Ceylon,
November, 1828 544 men.
Increase from various sources 26
570
Deduct transfer and dischargfes 8
Died natural deaths 92 562
Casualties 2
94, or 16 204-281 per cent, in 4 years.
40 CEYLON.
Strength of the 58th regiment on arriving in Ceylon,
November, 1828 521 men.
Increased GO
581
Deduct transfers, &c 8
Died by natural deaths 59 573
Casualties 4
63, or 1 1 per cent, in 4 years.
Strength of the artillery on landing in Ceylon,
August, 1828 73
Died 15, or 20 40-73 per cent, in 4 years.
Summary.
The 78th have diminished by 24 lG-25 in 6 years.
The 97th 27 11-82 in 7 years.
The 61st 16 204-281 in 4 years.
The 58th 1 1 in 4 years.
Royal artillery 20 40-73 in 4 years.
100 in 25 years, or 4 per cent,
per annum.
Statement showing the strength of the service and
reserve companies of the 58th regiment, and the
numbers of sick in each respectively, on the first day
of every month from January to August, 1832. The
reserve companies were stationed at Fermoy, in Ire-
land.
With the exception of the month of January, or
rather of December, 1831, the proportion of sick was
in each month far less at Kandy than at the depot in
Ireland ; and in the seven months taken collectively
the rate at Kandy was below four, whilst at Fermoy
it was above six in the hundred.
RETURNS OF SICK, AND ANNUAL MORTALITY. 41
Return showing the Strength and Number of Sick with the
Service and Reserve Companies of the 58th Regiment up to
August, 1832.
Months.
Service Companies
stationed in Ceylon.
Reserve Companies
stationed in Ireland.
Number of
sick on the
1st of each
month.
Strength
on the 1st
of each
month.
Number of Strength
sick on the on the 1st
1st of each of each
month. month.
1
1832.
1st of January
26
26
23
19
29
17
16
12
523
521
519
516
514
512
510
506
10
16
16
14
18
15
18
23
261
268
•268
267
269
269
264
272
1st of February
1st of March
1st of April
1st of May
1st of June
1st of July
1st of August
168
4121
130 2138
Strength of European Troops in Ceylon in the Years 1833
and 1834, and Annual Mortality.
Years.
Strength. Deaths.
1833
1834
1985
2660
57, under 3 per cent.
70, about 3J per cent.
S. Forbes, M.D.
Deputy Inspector of His Majesty'' s Hospitals in Ceylon.
When Ceylon is cleared and cultivated all over,
as our West Indian Islands are, it will be as healthy
as England. I have known Europeans and the
descendents of Europeans, in Colurabo, nearly 100
years of age, without scarcely ever suffering pain or
sickness. Fogs and mists are rare, except in some
of the deep densely foliaged valleys of the interior,
and all round the sea-coast there is an unvarying
42 CEYLON.
alternation of sea and land breezes, twice in the 24
hours, which are felt nearly across the island in every
direction.
A delightful station has been formed at Newera
EUia, south west from Kandy 50 miles, 14 from
Fort M'Donald, 15 from Maturatte, and 122 from
Columbo. The road between Newera Ellla and
Kandy leads through a wild and mountainous coun-
try, the scenery always picturesque, sometimes mag-
nificent in the extreme ; at one time, the traveller
is surrounded by steep and inaccessible mountains,
whose sides are clothed with dense forests : rocks of
an enormous size, deep and precipitate ravines, and
cataracts rushing with foaming velocity from the
heights, diversify the scene. The height of Newera
EUia plain (four miles long, and one and a half
broad) is nearly 6,000 feet above the sea, and
it is surrounded by steep mountains of irregular
height (covered with wood to the very summit), one
in particular — rising almost 2,000 feet above the
level of Newera Ellia River, which meanders through
lovely banks across the plain. The climate is deli-
cious, never approaching tropical heat in summer,
and yielding ice in winter ; the mean temperature,
by day and night, for the entire year 55^ F. The
water is so pure as to form a transparent solution
w^ith nitrate of silver ; several chalybeate springs
have been met with. The daisy, buttercup, violet,
ribwort, dandelion, barbery, briar, &c. flourish in-
digenously ; the rose, pink, mignionette, and car-
nation, are as fragrant as in England ; delicious
strawberries are abundant ; and potatoes, carrots.
VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. CINNAMON. 43
artichokes, peas, beans, salads, cabbages, turnips,
parsnips, and in fact every British cuhnary vegetable,
thrive luxuriantly. The soil (in which limestone
has been found) is of a deep black mould, resting
on a stratum of yellow clay and gravel, numerous
varieties of beautiful quartz exist, and the frequenters
of a climate within a few degrees of the equator,
will learn, with astonishment, that a fire is always
enjoyed by night, and frequently in the day.
Vegetable Productions. — No island on the face
of the earth is richer in vegetable productions, than
is this famed isle of palm and spices ; I need scarcely
allude to cinnamon, of which it may be said to have
a monopoly, as China has of tea. This delightful
spice grows wild as well as cultivated, in every
southern part of the island, whether in the white
quartz soil of the gardens on the sea- shore at
Columbo, or in the red Cabook hills of Kandy, where-
ever, in fact, there is sufficient moisture.
A description of the plant and the mode in which
the bark is prepared, may not prove uninteresting : —
The laurus cinnamo7ium, although cultivated in many tropi-
cal places, has its principal habitation at Ceylon, which is
capable of yielding a sufficient supply for every country in
Europe ; the tree whence the cinnamon bark is derived grows
to the height of from 15 to 20 feet, with an irregular and
knotty stem, branchy and ligneous roots, fibrous and inodorous
wood, external bark rough, thick, scabrous, and of an ash
colour, inner bark reddish, (the young shoots are often deli-
cately speckled with dark green and light orange colours) ;
branches umbrageous inclining horizontally and downwards ;
leaves oblong and in pairs, from six to nine inches in length
and three broad, petiolated, colour dark green ; flowers clus-
tered on one peduncle, white, wanting calyx, smell resembling
44 CEYLON.
a mixture of rose and lilac ; fruit an oval berry, larger than a
black currant, receptacle tbick, green and bexangular. The
roots have the pungent smell of camphor, and the delicious
odour of cinnamon, yielding camphor by distillation; the leaves
have the pungent taste of cloves ; the berries, by boiling, yield
an unctuous substance like wax, emitting an agreeable odour,
and formerly used as candles for the exclusive use of the
Kandian Court. Cattle of every kind eagerly feed on the
luxuriant foliage, while pigeons, crows, and othnr birds, devour
the berries with avidity. To the industry of man belongs the
bark, the varieties of which are dependent on the nature of the
soil, on the skill in cultivating and peeling, and on the age
and healthiness of the plant. About 2,000 acres of land are
laid out in regular cinnamon plantations in Ceylon, and about
30,000 persons employed thereon. The peeling of the bark
begins with May and ends with October ; the peelers (chalias,
a distinct caste in Ceylon) commence the process by striking
a sharp bill-hook into a shoot which seems fit for peeling ; if
on opening the gash the bark separates gently, it is fit for
decortication ; if otherwise, the shoot is unhealthy, the gash is
carefully closed, and the sucker left for future examination ;
shoots thus found fit (generally from three to five feet long,
and three-quarters of an inch in diameter) are then cut down,
conveyed to sheds, and there cleared of leaves and twigs ; by
means of two longitudinal slits the bark peels off" in two semi-
circular slips ; wlien a sufficient number are collected, the
sections are placed in close contact (as two quill-halves would
be laid one within the other) and the whole bundle is firmly
pressed and bound up together for twenty-four hours, until a
degree of fermentation is produced, which facilitates the re-
moval of the cuticle ; subsequently the interior side of each
section of bark is placed upon a convex piece of wood fitted to
its size, and the epidermis, together with the green succulent
matter carefully scraped off" (if any of the outer pulpy sub-
stance be allowed to remain, the cinnamon has an unpleasant
bitterness ;) a few hours after the removal of the cuticle, the
pieces are again placed in each other, and the bark in drying
gradually contracts and rolls itself into a quill-like form.
THE COCOA NUT TREE.
45
During the first day it is placed under shelter on open plat-
forms, subsequently it is finally dried in the sun, and made up
into bundles of about thirty pounds weight. A plantation re-
quires seven or eight years' growth before yielding produce ;
the tree is least advantageously propagated by seeds, — layers
and shoots, or transplanted stumps, are the best means of
extending the growth. The following are the quantities of
cinnamon recently imported, exported, and consumed in
England : —
Imported.
Exported.
Consumed.
1827,
lbs. 267444
359692
14451
1828,
337483
354536
15696
1829,
544225
386108
29720
1830,
464175
535223
Nil.
1831,
225869
504643
23172
1832,
36762
524277
15271
1833,
102402
447855
11073
1834,
221222
222493
11686
The duty on importation is 6d. per lb.
From Columbo to Tangalle, a distance of 100
miles along the sea shore, plantations of cinnamon,
amidst groves of cocoa nut trees, skirt the whole
coast for ten miles from the bordering of the tide,
which laves the very roots of those graceful and in-
dispensable palms, the cocoa nut, being in reality the
most valuable product of the island. In 1813 it was
calculated that there grew along the coast between
Dondrahead and Calpentyn (184 miles), ten million
cocoa nut trees. I recollect hearing in Cevlon an
enumeration of 99 distinct articles made from this
tree, among the principal were : — 1. Arrack (the
spirit under this name, made from the cocoa nut
blossom, is far superior to the Batavian arrack, made
from rice), which is distilled from the sweet juice of
the incised flower-stock, termed — 2. ' Toddy' in
46 CEYLON.
itself a delicious wholesome beverage, when drank
fresh drawn before the morning sun has caused
fermentation to commence. 3. Jaghery, a coarse,
strong grained, but peculiar flavoured sugar (well
adaped for crystallization, or refining in England),
made in abundance from toddy. 4. Vinegar, equal
to any made from white wine, also prepared from
the toddy, and used in making exquisite 5. pickles,
from the young shoots. 6. Coir, or ropes, strong
and elastic, and having the peculiar property of
being best preserved for use in sea-water (hence
their adaptation for mooring, and other purposes, to
which they are now applied in Mauritius harbour
and elsewhere, as also for running rigging in the
India shipping). 7. Brushes and brooms, of various
descriptions. 8. Matting of excellent quality. 9.
Rafters for houses. 10. Oil of much value, and
now used in England for candles as well as lamps.
11. Gutters or water-spouts, or conveyances, for
which the hollow stem or trunk is so well adapted.
12. Thatching for the peasants' cottages, the shady
broad leaf being admirably suited for the purpose.
13. Alkaline ashes from the burnt leaves, and used
by washermen. 14. The roots are sometimes masti-
cated in place of areca nut. 15. Baskets of the
young shoots. 16. Drums of the crust of the trunk.
17. Reticulated cloth cradles or couches for infants.
18. The terminal buds, used instead of cabbage.
19. Translucent lanterns of the young leaves. 20.
Tablets for writing upon with an iron stylus or pen
(after the Roman manner), from the leaflets. 21.
An iEolian harp of the stripes of the leaf. 22.
COTTON SUGAR-CANE TOBACCO, &C. 47
Stuffing (coir), in place of hair, for couch cushions,
mattresses, saddles, &c. To particularise further,
would, however, be tedious, suffice it to say, that the
natives of the Maldive islands send an annual embassy
to Ceylon, the boats conveying whom are entirely
prepared from this tree, the persons composing the
embassy, clothed and fed on its products, and the
numerous presents for the Governor of Ceylon, are
all manufactured from this queen of the palms.
From Tangalle to Chilaw, a distance of 135 miles,
it is nearly one continued grove of cocoa-nut, bread-
fruit, and jack-fruit trees, the latter being scarcely
inferior in importance to the natives as an article of
food, &c. than the cocoa-nut. Cotton grows with
the greatest facility, whether Nankin, Bourbon, or
Brazil ; the buds are ripe within four months after
the seed is put in the ground, and the interior, par-
ticularly about Taldeina, contains immense supplies
of the gigantic cotton tree, whose silky pods, when
bursting, cover the earth around with their beautiful
glossy filaments, which our manufacturers in Man-
chester would be so glad to obtain.
Every village or hut has its patch of sugar-cane
and tobacco ; the latter, in many parts of the island,
has a delicious aroma. Coffee grows luxuriantly,
and even without care, of an excellent quality ; when
properly attended to it is considered by many supe-
rior to Mocha ^ The pepper -vine grows nearly in a
1 The importation of Ceylon coffee into the united kingdom
in 1832, was 2,824,998 lbs. notwithstanding a tax of 9d. per
lb. being levied on it in England. Next year, however, the
duty will be 6d.
48 CEYLON.
state of wildness all over the island. Cardamom
plants are equally plentiful. The much sought after
areca-nut is of the finest species, and unsurpassed,
nay, even unequalled in any part of the east. The
rice of Ceylon has a richness of flavour I have never
found in any other country. Teak forests abound,
and excellent masts and yards of the largest size are
every where procurable. Calamander, ebony, satin,
rose, sappan, iron, jack, &c., and every species of the
most beautiful cabinet-making woods, are in rich pro-
fusion (see the Ceylon cabinet desks, dressing-cases,
&c., so much and so justly admired in England).
Enchanting groves of the Palmyra palms surround
the villages in the northward of the island, and like
the cocoa palms in the south, are of the greatest
value to the peasantry in seasons of drought. The
following shows the nature of the crop, and the num-
ber of acres under each crop in the island. From
what I know of the interior I imagine it can only be
an approximation to correctness.
VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS.
49
•puBi pa;
-BAptnoufi
JO S3J0V
JO -ox
1768661
1694048
1825264
1645594
2130322
1674136
■doio
ui saioy JO
•ox mojj
05 — M Cl CO
00 CO CVI
CO CO C: CO -M
CO -" CO -- ^ CO
Tf — 1 -- CC 35 UO
Cq CO ■«• CO CO -^
•ajn;sHj
83248
84422
77705
75887
115315
111430
•oooBqox
t^ l-O -Cf r-C — Tt<
CO — OJ t^
CO -»< C5 >*< t^ t^
lO t^ t^ CO
•uo;;oo
CO CO 'f -ti
CI — ■ OC CO
C>J CO C5 t^ — I^
•SB9J
CO Ci t^ <M
c:; — 1 -»< C5 CO
I^ — ' — C^l
•uioo
UBipui
CO CO — ■ CO I<1
— ■ CO f-H — c -H
i-> CO C5 Ci «o
•tnEjg
c; -.- CO 00 lo
00 -^ JO oj Tf. -r^
CV) -*• CO CO -cf<
-H CO
•piB;sni\[
•^ CO CO Ci CO
•laddaj
•99503
lO ^C ^ Ci f^
C5 00 >-0 •>*<
-^ C5 C^ CO
r-. r-. CO
— C»l (M M CO
CO in t^ — '
t^ M oq C: " CO
0>1 CO CS (M CO
•sureig
44424
49772
122748
120008
88131
102069
•XppBj
189476
165350
195497
158649
161238
212126
■sinaji
CO C5 — 1 I^ CO
1^1 C^l CO CO CO CO
CO CO CO OC CO 00
3
C
C^
•ODOBqox
lbs.
2052516
1144140
3624684
•uo;;o3
in 00 uo c^ i^
. "-1 f C5 — > C2 TT
to t^ t-* t^ CO 10 i-o
^ Lo -.*< CO •^ CO
'-' CO IM CD t^ CO CO
O) CO
■SBaj
bushels.
2574
2834
2647
24278
•aztBH
bushels.
17726
17020
104816
102037
96100
34477
•UIBI£)
to
"T cc ■* in M t^
i 00 C^ Ci TT
'-- --1 (M C5 CO CM CJ
S5 in m in US 50 «D
5 .-c <M
•piB;stij\[
to
■flj m IM t^ 00 00 CO
^ -< SVl C5 Th CO (M
"^ 5>J in c;
s '-
•J9dd9j
busliels.
200
192
1531
2658
5437
6273
•39503
bushels.
4669
3225
28938
32756
61110
88378
•surej{)
bushels.
576319
494721
670J22
657710
769116
• 804937
•^PP^J
bushels.
6042678
5163991
5831187
5299695
4590602
3976540
•siBa^
OC C5 — SM CO
M C^ CO CO CO CO
00 00 00 00 00 OC
50
CEYLON.
•oooEqox
Ph -« " -^ M 0. TO
TO '=^
•uoiioo
•SBaj
per
bushel.
Is.'Vorf.
Is. Gd.
to 2s.
2s. Gd. to
4s. 6rf.
Is. to
4s. id.
■9ZTEI\[
per
bushel.
Is. 3d.
Is.
1.9.
3d. to
Is. Gd.
Gd. to
Is. llrf.
id. to
3s. 8d.
•aiBJ£)
per
bushel.
2s.
3s.
3s. 9d.
Is. 9d. to
2s. 3d.
9d. to
4s. to 7s.
•piBisniv[
per
bushel.
Is.
Is.
Is.
9d.
2s. to
8s. id.
id. to
5s. lOd.
•jaddaj
per
bushel.
8s. id.
5s.
6s.
is. Gd.
to 12s.
id. to
25s. Gd.
is. 2d. to
22s. Gd.
•33503
.
a 2 • • ^ «i • ^ ^ ^' o,"
^TOTO t^c.-^^^
SUIBJO 3UIJ
J3r-l 50TO.^eOTOO
•.{ppEJ
— ■ ..0.0.
g^-^ s *. ^. -e =^ -5: ^ *: «
^ ^ .2 2 i '^•'' ■■''.'* 42
•SIE3\
cc Ci « e<i (?o
M M TO C-J c-3 CO
00 00 00 00 00 00
"ce
e<i a> 10 «o oc 55
,^ ^ ■- CO tc
00 TO C5 t^
■0 — =0 00 »^
<j. TO TO TO -T "^
i-o «^ t^ C^
— n >-• — t^ t^
-«< t^ — UO 00 .-"
TT =5 — C-.
CO I^ TO M Tj. tT-
559904
550333
551419
537203
552740
5917G9
CO
j^ r^ w T* 00
C^ I^ TO •>»< <M
_ ^ — 00 r-
w c; ~ ■>) TO
■M ■M CO CO TO TO
oc oc 00 OS 00 oc
ANIMALS. THE ELEPHANT. 51
Animals. — If the vegetable kingdom be rich in
Ceylon, the animated one is no less so, from the
gigantic elephant to the many- coloured chamelion ;
indeed earth, air, and water is instinct with life. The
elephants of Ceylon have long been famed for their
size and docility ; as regards the former, some writers
have of late stated that the African elephant is the
larger of the two. I have, when traversing parts of
Ceylon and districts of Africa, had ample opportunities
of comparing both beasts in their wild state. Often
have I been obliged to sleep in a gigantic cotton or
umbrageous jack tree, while a herd of those magni-
ficent animals were grazing beneath me, or browsing
off the nethermost branches of my nightly shelter ;
and at other times I have chosen a safe position for
firing (in youthful thoughtlessness) at these sagacious
and generous brutes, who have subsequently spared
my life when I was at their mercy ; I may, therefore,
consider myself qualified to judge between the two
animals.
The Asiatic elephant is considerably taller than anv
I ever saw in Africa ; his head is not so large, nor
his limbs so unwieldy as that of the latter, and ac-
cording to the accounts of those who catch and do-
mesticate them, the former is a much more valuable
animal than the latter to man. Though still extremely
numerous in Ceylon (I have seen wild herds of 100
and 200 young and old elephants), this extraordinary
creature will doubtlessly disappear before cultivation
and civilization, particularly as his noble nature dis-
dains to produce a breed of slaves. They have been
for some time used in government works, in drawing
E 2
52 CEYLON.
timber and stones for bridges, and in conveying the
baggage of a regiment when on the march, a duty
which their surefootedness over the mountains renders
them peculiarly adapted for.
The tiger of Ceylon is a formidable and destructive
animal, and so bold that it has been known to come
into a bazaar and snatch off some unfortunate cooley,
or seize on an European soldier's child while the
mother has been spreading out her washed clothes
on the hedge opposite her dwelling. The buffalo in
its wild state is also a very troublesome opponent,
particularly if his antagonist have a red coat or jacket
on. The elk of Ceylon assimilates in appearance with
the fossil remains of those found in Ireland. Deer
of every variety are plentiful, and their flesh, when
preserved in honey for two or three years by the wild
Veddas, forms a feast which a London alderman once
tasting would never forget.
Snakes are numerous ; but of twenty different kinds,
examined by Dr. Davy, sixteen were found harmless.
The tic polonga of the coluber species is the most
deadly in its poison ; I have seen a strong dog die in
fifteen minutes after being bit, and a fowl in less than
three minutes : the cobra capello carawalla, and three
or four others, are nearly equally fatal. The natives
say that the tic polonga lies in wait on the road side
to dart out on travellers ; my observations lead me to
believe such is the case. A large snake called the
pimbei^ah exists, the length of which is thirty feet.
While travelling through Ovah and the central pro-
vinces, I have been assured by the Mohanderems of
the districts, particularly towards Ruan Welle, of the
MINERAL KINGDOM. 53
existence of boas of a much greater size than thirty
feet, and their ovi and viviparous habits distinguished.
The alligator is found in most rivers, and the jackal
in every tope ; the mountain provinces are infested
with a species of small leech, that cling with peculiar
tenacity to any bare flesh, and draw much blood,
their bites in diseased constitutions being productive
of considerable after suffering.
Wild peacocks are abundant in the interior. The
jungle cock of Ceylon is a splendid bird, equal, if not
superior, in plumage to the golden pheasant. The
quail, snipe, and woodcock of the upper districts
would please any epicure, and a fish gourmond,
whether on the coast or inland, might never feel
satiety, if variety and exquisiteness of flavour could
ensure appetite. The beef is small, but sweet, and
the mutton of JafFnapatam equal to South Down.
Eating is a favourite pursuit with some old Europeans
in Ceylon, and certes it is a good place to indulge
that faculty in.
Mineral Kingdom. — The metallic riches of Cevlon
are yet almost unknown ; the island, as before ob-
served, is principally composed of granite, with veins
of quartz, hornblende, and dolomite ; rock and shell
limestone are found near Kandy and Jaffhapatam ;
iron and plumbago (the latter now forms an article
of considerable export) are abundant ; and gold (some
say also quicksilver) and silver are found in the hill
streams. Amethyst, topazes, cats' eyes, garnet, cin-
namon stone, sapphires, rock crystals, shorl, zircon,
rubies, and diamonds, &c. the island has long been
famed for : the celebrated pearl fishery in the Gulf of
54 CEYLON.
Manaar my limits forbid me here dwelling on. The
natural history of the pearl-oyster is imperfectly
known ; the banks have been found suddenly to fail
when a productive fishery had been anticipated. At
certain seasons the young oysters are seen floating in
masses, and are carried by the current round the
coast ; they afterwards settle and attach themselves
by a fibre or beard to the coral rocks, and on sand
they adhere together in clusters. When full grown
they are again separated and become locomotive. The
pearls enlarge during six years, and the oyster is sup-
posed to die after seven years : they are fished at a
depth of thirty-six feet in the calm season. The
length of time which the divers remain under water
is almost incredible to an European. Nitre caves are
numerous ; alum is plentiful, and the coast from Chilaw
to Manaar and Jaffna, on the western side, and from
Tangalle, through the Mahagampatoo, to the east-
ward, contains the most extensive and valuable salt
formations which are to be met with in India. The
leways, or natural deposits at Hambantotte, yield the
largest supply of the finest salt, owing to the peculiar
dryness of the air, and the rapid evaporation at cer-
tain seasons ; the salt which thus crystallizes sponta-
neously is of great purity, and more slowly dissolved
when exposed to the moisture of the atmosphere than
that which is artificially prepared. There are many
inducements for capitalists to emigrate to Ceylon ; its
extensive fisheries of pearl and chank {voluta gravis),
the manufacture of coir ropes, cocoa- nut oil, and in-
digo, the distillation of arrack, the preparation of
plumbago, the collection of Chaya roots {oldenlandia
POPULATION. 55
umbellata of Linnaeus, used for dyeing red, orange, and
purple), Sapan wood and ivory, for the Indian and
English markets, and the cultivation of cinnamon,
pepper, cardamoms, tobacco, grain, ginger, cotton,
silk, &c. &c.
CHAPTER III.
POPULATION WHITE AND COLOURED — CASTES — RELIGION —
CIVILIZATION, &C.
That Ceylon was formerly extensively peopled is
evident from the works and structures before alluded
to, but it would appear the number of the inhabitants
had been declining for the last four or five centuries.
An increase has now commenced in the maritime pro-
vinces, which had, in 1814, mouths, 475,883; in
1824, 595,105; and, in 1832, 698,611. Colonel
Colebrooke states in his report, that the population,
in 1824, was, in the southern or Cingalese pro-
vinces, 399,408 ; in the northern or Malabar districts,
195,697; and in the interior or Kandyan provinces,
256,835 ; total, 852,940. The returns from the ma-
ritime provinces are doubtless correct, as the village
registers of marriages, and births, and deaths are
kept as punctually there as in England^ ; but having
^ The coroner's inquests held in the maritime provinces for
the year 1833 showed 148 deaths, of whom 38 fell from trees,
87 were drowned, 19 fell into wells, 6 from bites of serpents, 1
alligator, 2 elephants, 8 murder, 10 natural, and among the
remainder are included 8 murders.
56
CEYLON.
myself traversed the Kandyan provinces more exten-
sively perhaps than any European, I should think
the estimate of their population is under rather than
over the mark : it is to be feared, however, that the
decreasing of the semi-barbarous inhabitants of this
splendid region has scarcely reached its acme, per-
haps it may now be considered stationary, as the com-
forts of the people are on the increase.
A colonial office manuscript affords me a few con-
secutive years of the aggregate population of the
island: I derive 1831 and 1832 from the Ceylon
Almanac. It appears singular that the number of
slaves should be on the increase, although every child
born of bond parents since 1812 has been born free,
according to the generous determination of the slave
owners.
Census of the Maritime Districts of Ceylon, in 1814.
Above the age of
Puberty.
Children.
Total
Males.
Total
Females.
Grand
Total.
to
S
H
1564-17
142453
95091
81892
251538
224345 ' 475883
1
POPULATION RETURNS.
57
<u
(U
0)
[ti
o
a;
■aOi
n1
■a
CIJ
3
^
fe o
•sqiBaa
•S9gBUIBJ\[
•sqma
•9aj9uirao3
•3jnpBjnuBi\[
•ainjinouSv
CO
00
00
lO
rt
■ r-
cc
• CM
C^l
M
o
. wV
o
C
o
04
>^
t^
■4->
'-'
•"•
'~
^
d
^
^
CO
ir-
•*
0)
-■
00
=o
: '*'
be
O (M CO LO
; CO ^ ; Ci o
. t^ O . Cl t^
oo cc o oc
LO C5 M t^ O
• C-I — l^ C^l -H
I >0 Ol CM — 1^
cs ^ — ;:! t^
CM CO CO O Tt*
CM C^l CO CO O
' CO O CO C2 05
. O CO O ITS CO
Tt< CC -fH — c UO
c^i t^ LO oi c^
; — < LO c>i cc o
> "O r— C^) CO -f
C5 o o o o
CM CO CO CO CO
•S9{BIU9J
•S9IBJ\[
•S9IBttl9J
•S9tBJ^
•S9IBm9J
•S91BI\[
•SIB9X
lo Lo CO ci i-o 35 t^ ^»•
lO LO t^ "^ UO ^ ' — 'CO
CO -M ;0 O C^J CO LO CM
C500cocoioc5Tt«
-HCOOOt^CMCMuOCM
0>^C5t^OC0t^".0l
-^coooi^— <ccc;o
>-Oia3TfOOt--.t^o-ri
OOCC^-.OOC^OOC^I
cocoTh-fTfoirjio
CiCO-^CMO-*^-co
ocii-oeoci050t^
i^t>.r-itN.incoifjco
Or-i03i©CMO^
LO t>- ■* CM t^ t^ c^i —
OlOOiCOO— itOCM
GCOr-HC^lCOt^COCO
t^t^— i«0-OTfC5CM
^ ^ O C^l C.) CO CO o
COCOtJ^'^'^-^-^-^
CM>Ct^W5COOOTti35
OOCOT!'"*'.— ICOt^l^
C50C^-O'^C5^O
■'*'COTt<astocMoeM
t^t^tOJ^CCmOli-l
CO CO -*i Tf ■*< ■g< ,
ooc: coccooccocoo
a, 1^
1? 9 a
>. i> j;
>
tl
■•^
nS-TS
.5
O
0)
o
to
.5
'33
^
0)
rr
a
o
^
o
o
-a
,z^
>,
>
o
c
o
p.
g
to
0)
o
S5'
o
TS^
3
JJ
cS
o
H-l
3
o
., '
a
ce
0)
o
,Q
F
o
g
,c
^
?
0)
o
1
!^0
,r3
r^
o
>.
^
en
3
"3
C
G
o
TS
,=
CC
yj
rl
'=^
*
<U
TS
a,
58
The following, in some respects complete, view of
thinly the island is peopled, there not being in some
mile 1 The average for the maritime districts is 66,
whole island but forty.
Census taken in the year 1832 of the population of
County or District.
Maritime Provinces :
Colombo ,
Galle ,
Tangalle
Batticaloa
Trincomalee
Jaffnapatam
Manar
Chilaw
Delft
Total.
Kandyan Provinces :
Uderatte
Four Korles
Three Korles
Seven Korles .....
Uwa
Matele ,
Saffragam
Tamankadewe
Total.
Grand total.
1472
592
2360
1360
1680
1220
1088
720
28
10n20 3198
WTiites.
1746
400
42
197
285
302
117
109
1128
304
360
3728
4144
2272
1584
624
14144
24604
Free Blacks.
1835
470
26
190
65
322
130
112
3150
Slaves.
1212S6
44355
55282
15109
7070
74086
10940
15018
1651
112068
43459
50993
13924
5391
71554
10516
12735
1592
344797 322262
15
3213
3154
34541 27560
18231 13498
4727 3530
57698' 48671
16931 16672
7525 6708
24327 19759
689 717
164669 137205 1051
114
2
16
10144
27
11
10322
380
82
17
238
210
76
54
132
5
"2
18
10359
26
21
10583
509466.459467 11373
425
81
6
206
222
70
43
1053
11616
Population of
59
the population is highly interesting ; it shows how
districts more than four, five, or six mouths to a square
for the Kandyan provinces thirty- one, and for the
Ceylon, and of the Births, Marriages, and Deaths.
Total.
oi
Persons
employed in
Aliens anc
resident
Strangers
.2 i>
s
■D
'i-i
Q
'a
S
<
123746
114035
1871
162
61358
6854
10179
7292
2030
5240
47763
43934
161
150
17510
5221
6415
2600
233
1504
55324
51019
207
45
26247
3414
3207
4435
555
4406
15308
14116
21
9009
370
4921
1293
117
351
7371
5474
550
8
1598
954
447
458
133
726
S4532
822.'^5
215
136
63493
5393
19829
1036
4132
3876
110S4
10702
350
20
4396
450
623
436
698
336
15138
12868
1016
40
6621
941
752
991
210
503
1651
1592
39
117
969
34
7
164
6
83
358317
335975
4319
699
191201
23631
46440
18705
8114
17025
3i921
27985
3179
58
21472
2073
586
18313
13579
600
106
11615
325
160
4751
3536
131
23
3601
47
The returns under
57944
488S1
400
28
57701
243
these heads must
17141
16894
1281
8
15280
234
be wholly conjec-
7595
6868
809
6
2515
361
tural, no registers
24381
19S02
28
25000
having ever been
689
717
2
680
kept referrible to
the native popula-
165735
138262
6400
21
112S94
2759
1270
tion.
524052
474237
10719
40
304095
26390
47710
Ceylon, 1,009,C
08.
60
CEYLON.
The following- table demonstrates that in the
Colombo district, at least, population is on the in-
crease ; and it will be observed that the augmenta-
tion (except in the fort and pettah) has been steady
for the last five years.
Population of the District of Colombo.
Town of Colombo
Grand
Pettah
or Native
Total.
Corles or
Total of
Town.
Divisions.
Colombo
Years.
Fort.
District.
Within.
Without.
1816
657
4894
21664
27215
161286
188501
182G
734
4975
25475
31188
184172
215360
1827
514
4736
23916
29162
192982
222144
1828
499
4006
24454
28959
196543
225502
1829
495
4343
24792
29630
198637
228267
1820
465
4500
26990
31955
200768
232723
1831
432
4760
26357
31549
203242
234791
1832
237781
The population of the island, although comprising
a variety of different nations, may be divided into
four distinct classes : — first, The Singalese or Cev-
lonese (descended, as some say, from the Sings or
Rajpoots of Hindoostan, and bv others from the
Siamese ' ) proper, who occupy Kandy, and the south
and south west coasts of the island from Hambantotte
to Chilaw. Second, the Malabars, or Hindoos, who
invaded Ceylon from the opposite coast, and are in
possession of the north and east coasts, and of the
Ms it not probable that the Jains of Upper India and
Rajpoots are one and the same people with the Siamese or
Buddhists of Siam?
THE SINGALESE. 61
peninsula of JafFnapatam. Third, the Moors or
descendants of the Arabs, or perhaps, from Maho-
medans of Upper India, who are dispersed all over
the island (as the Moslems are over Hindoostan)
and in Pultam district form the mass of population.
Fourth, Veddas or Beddas, the aborigines of the
island, who dwell in the most untutored state (having
neither habitations nor clothing) in the great forests
which extend from the south to the east and north,
and also in the most inaccessible parts of the interior,
wild fruits and beasts being their sole sustenance,
and the branches of large trees their resting place.
There are some Malays, Caffres, and Javanese, a few
Chinese, and Parsee traders, and a good many de-
scendants of the Portuguese and Dutch, and even of
the English mixed with native blood, scattered over
the island. In colour the Singalese vary from light
brown or olive to black ; the eyes sometimes hazel,
but the hair almost always black, long and silky ; in
height they are 5 ft. 4 to 5 ft. 7 ; clean made, with
neat muscle, and small bone ; the chest capacious,
and the shoulders broad ; and in the mountainous
districts, like most other Highlanders, they have
short but strong and rather muscular legs and thighs ;
the hands and feet, like those of the Hindoos, are
uncommonly small ; the head well shaped, perhaps
in general longer than the European ; the features
often handsome, and generally intelligent and ani-
mated ; the beard is unshorn, giving manliness to
the youthful countenance, and dignity to that of age.
The Singalese women, particularly those of the
maritime provinces, are really handsome. The beau
7
62 CEYLON.
ideal is thus described by a Kandian courtier, well
versed in the attributes of an Eastern Venus : — ' Her
hair should be voluminous, like the tail of a peacock —
long, reaching to the knees, and terminating in
graceful curls ; her eyebrows should resemble the
rainbow, her eyes the blue sapphire, and the petals of
the blue manilla-flower ; her nose should be like the
bill of the hawk ; her lips should be bright and
red, like coral, or the young leaf of the iron tree ;
her teeth should be small, regular, closely set, and
like jessamine-buds : her neck should be large and
round, resembling the herrigodea ; her chest capa-
cious ; her breast firm and conical, like the yellow
cocoa-nut, and her waist small — almost small enough
to be clasped by the hand ; her hips wide ; limbs
tapering ; soles of feet without any hollow ; and the
surface of her body in general soft, delicate, smooth,
and rounded, without the asperities of projecting bones
and sinews/ The foregoing may be considered the
most general external character of the Singalese,
who are rather remarkable for agility and flexibility
of fibre than for strength and power of limb. What-
ever may have been the extent of civilization in
Ceylon at a remote period, at present I cannot say
that the Singalese are superior, if indeed equal, to
the Hindoos, in the domestic and fine arts ; although
many branches of manufactures, such as the vv^eaving
of cotton and silk, the smelting of, and working in,
gold, silver, iron, copper, &c. ; the cutting and set-
ting of precious stones, the glazing of pottery, appli-
cation of lacker, preparation of gunpowder, casting
of cannon, distillation of spirits, &c. &c. are carried
ADVANTAGES FOR EMIGRANTS. 63
on, it is by the most simple instruments, and with
little aid from mechanics, and less from science. In
the fine arts they are scarcely on a par with the
Hindoos, and in their structures of a recent period
certainly far behind the latter people, or even less
advanced than the Burmese. They however possess
great capabilities of instruction, and in the neighbour-
hood of the principal British stations are beginning
to profit by the superior handicraft of the European
artizan. It has been justly stated that the peasantry
of Ceylon, as well as of India, generally possess land,
from which they derive part of their subsistence.
The wages of common labourers vary in different
parts of the island from 6d. a day in Colombo to Sd.
and 4^d. a day in the country. The government has
interfered to fix these rates when requiring labourers ,
but higher demands are made to private employers,
according to circumstances. Those who possess
small portions of land rarely derive their support
from them exclusively, but employ themselves in the
fisheries, in trades and manufactures, and in the petty
traffic of the country ; and from the small amount of
their individual gains there is reason to conclude,
that if they could obtain regular employment near
their homes, or even at a distance, from 6d. to Is. a
day would be generally acceptable to them.
The wages of mechanics and artizans are propor-
tionally higher than those of labourers.
The minute subdivision of land has been accele-
rated in the maritime provinces by the Dutch law of
inheritance. In fields, gardens, and plantations,
which are farmed or held in joint ownership, the
64 CEYLON.
interest of an individual proprietor is often limited
to such fractional portions as are valued at a few
pence. For example, the inheritance of one person
will consist, in land, of nine-tenths of a seer of rice ;
trees, of five-twelfths of a cocoa-nut tree, and two-
thirds of a jack-tree.
The attachment of the natives to these possessions
is evinced by the fact, that they are often the subject
of protracted law suits. There are a few native
landholders in the Colombo district who possess
about 1,000 acres each ; but under the laws of inheri-
tance these will in time be subdivided.
In the south-western division of the island, the
cinnamon, pepper, cocoa-nut and coffee plantations,
would claim attention ; and in the northern division,
cotton, opium, and tobacco. By extending the cul-
tivation of these and other productions the internal
markets for grain would be encouraged ; the cinna-
mon gardens planted by the Dutch, which have been
abandoned, would be re-occupied, and pepper, which
is now imported, would be re- cultivated for expor-
tation.
The manufacture of cocoa-nut oil, of coir rope and
cable, and the distillation of arrack or rum from
sugar, would become objects of general speculation,
as they are now a source of profit to a few European
merchants.
Caste, as respects the Singalese and Malabars, is
scrupulously preserved, and very widely ramified,
almost every occupation having its distinct caste.
There are, for instance, the gold and silversmiths'
caste, the fishers', the barbers', the washermen.
[ CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS CASTES. 65
th<p manufacturers of jagliery (sugar), the toddy
drai.wers', the lime-makers', &c. &c. &c. ; but the
highest and most esteemed caste is that of Vellalahs,
or Goyas, whose occupations are purely agricultural ;
hoWever as land is assigned for the performance of
ever^y description of service, the practice of agricul-
ture is not confined to this class, but is exercised bv
persG'ns of all castes for their subsistence. By the
Kandyan laws the intermarriage of the high and low
castes is prohibited, and many distinctions recog-
nized and enforced, by which the latter are degraded
and reduced to a servile state, now considered here-
ditary. While the Malabars professing the Hindu
faith maintain the religious, as well as the civil dis-
tinction of caste, the Singalese or Buddhists have
abolished the former and retained the latter ; hence,
perhaps, the hostilities which prevailed between both
sects, whose sacred dogmas are both apparently
based on the creed and doctrines of Menu, the
great Hindoo lawgiver, an illustration for which will
be found by contemplating the parallel of the Ro-
manists and Lutherans, the essentials of whose reli-
gion, stripped of externals, are for the most part alike.
The distinctions of caste in Hindoostan as well as in
Siam, Birmah, and Ceylon, had their origin in a
superabundant population pressing too closely on the
heels of subsistence, and it was perhaps thought that
the introduction of a minute division of labour would
not only give more extended employment, but also
enable each person to learn more carefully his busi-
ness ; probably, also, it was politically conjectured
that the division of an immense population of so
CEYLON, &c. F
G6 CEYLON.
1*1
many millions into castes or sects, would render the
task of government more easy, by keeping evt:ry
individual in a fixed station in society. Women, a^,
in most parts of the East, are looked on ?(e an infe . ior
race of beings, and not fit to be trusted, as will be /,
seen by the following popular distich translated from'';;
the Singalese language : —
' I've seen the udunibara tree in flowei- ', white pli.L' .
the crow,
And fishes' footsteps o'er the deep, have traced through ebb
and flow ; ''
If man it is who thus asserts, his word you may heli'?ve,
But all that woman says distrust — she speaks but t;i deceive.'
Buddhist or Singalese Religion. — The reli-
gion of the Singalese is Buddhism, the early history
of which is little known. Many Hindoo -jN'ritfefi'S
agree, that Budh or Boodh, is supposed to be the
ninth avatar or incarnation of Vishnu (the second
person of the Hindoo Triad, and God of 'preserva-
tion ;) having appeared for the purpose of reclaiming
the Hindoos from many abominations into which
they had fallen, and to teach them more benevolent
forms of worship, than through the means of human
and animal sacrifices which they then extensively
(and with respect to animals now) practised. These
doctrines, says Mr. Coleman, being too simple, and
therefore interfering too strongly with the privileges
of the Brahminical priests, a religious war ensued
between the old and new sects, and the Buddhists
were ultimately expelled from the peninsula of India.
^ A species of fig-tree, which nevei' bears flowers.
COMMANDMENTS OF THE BUDDHISTS. 67
[Here we find a striking analogy to the incarnation
of our Saviour.] But the Buddhists, in general, will
not tolerate the idea of superior antiquity being
vested in the Brahminical faith ; they deny the iden-
tity of their deity with the ninth avatar of Vishnu,
which they declare was a mere manifestation of his
power. They do not acknowledge a creation of the
universe, but assert that it has been destroyed many
times and by some extraordinary operation as often
reproduced. They enumerate twenty- two of these
regenerated worlds, each of which was successively
governed by Buddhas, and that the present universe
has been ruled successivelv bv four, of whom Gan-
tama or Gaudama (whose doctrines now prevail in
Ceylon, Ava, Siam, &c.) is the fourth ; a fifth, Maitree
Buddha, is yet to come, previous to which this world
will be destroyed.
The commandments of Buddha were originally
five (necessary towards salvation) but five others
were added, which were meritorious but not impera-
tive. The first five are — 1st. Not to kill a living
creature of any kind ; 2nd. Not to steal ; 3rd. Not
to commit adultery ; 4th. Not to speak an untruth
on any occasion ; 5th. Not to use intoxicating liquors
or drugs. The meritorious commands are — not to
eat after mid- day ; and not to sleep on costlv, soft,
or elevated beds, (but on clean mats) or indulge
sensually. The others inculcate, generally, virtue
and benevolence, and the practice of individual ab-
stinence.
The heavens of the Buddhists are twenty -six,
placed one above another ; which together with their
F 2
68 CEYLON.
hells ' are thus described by Mr. Coleman ; and it
will be seen that there is indeed much need of the
light of education and Christianity, to remove such
ideas from the minds of an otherwise intelligent and
fine looking race of human beings : —
The heavens of the Buddhas are 26, placed one above
another. At the end of the maha calpi, when the world will
be at an end, six of the lower of these celestial abodes will be
destroyed by fire, four by storms, and six by water. The four
superior heavens will escape destruction ; but what will be-
come of the six intermediate ones does not so clearly appear.
The Great Hells are 34 ; but besides these there are 120
smaller hells. Those which are hot lie immediately under the
earth ; which may possibly account for the many volcanoes,
whirlpools, and sundry explosive and other turbulent things
that it contains.
The punishment for sinners in these hells are as correspond-
ingly degrading, as the condition of the good is in the heavens
transcendently happy; with this difference, that in their
amended state they contrive to forget (a thing very uncommon
in this lower world of ours) what they ascended from : whereas,
in their debased situation, their reminiscences are more per-
fect ; as we are told of a priestly dignitary, who having, for
practices it may be presumed partaking of the nature of the
insect, been transformed into a louse, became so absolutely
miserable at the idea of his goods and chattels, especially his
garment, in which he took great pride (unlike the pious and
patriarchal pastors of the western world, who entertain no such
proud or selfish feelings, or worldly considerations for rich gar-
ments or rich chattels of any kind) being divided among the
surviving priests, that his agitation was painfully obvious to
* I have generally found, that the more barbarous the nation
tlie more their religion was one of fear; and the greater the
intelligence and morality, the less the fear and the higher the
love.— R. M, M.
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE WORLD. 69
his old associates, who, with the feeling common to their order
towards sentient animals, applied to Gautama to know what to
do. The deity desired them to wait seven days (the term of a
louse's life,) in which time the miserable insect would be eman-
cipated in some way from his then unhappy state. A louse's
mental agony is, however, but as the bite of one to some of the
infernal punishments of the Buddha's Tartarus. Assura Nat
are their Minos and Rhadamanthus, and, as it may be ima-
gined, are not very tender in awarding to their opponents their
full share of any tortures which their misdeeds may have called
for. One of these is, that a man as big as three mountains,
and who is always in a hungry state, is tantalized by having a
mouth ijo larger than the eye of the finest needle. The
punishments attributed to the hells of the Buddhas assimilate
very nearly to those ascribed to the Tartari of the Indus.
The destruction of the world will, it is imagined, take
place in the following manner. A great rain will, at a future
time fall, in torrents ; after which not a drop will descend
from the heavens for a hundred thousand years. In this
period, plants, animals, and every living thing will perish, the
sun and the moon will disappear, and, in their stead, two false
suns will arise. The one will succeed the otlier, rising when
it sets. There will then be no night. The heat will be
intense, and small bodies of water dried up. A third sun will
arise and dry up the largest rivers ; a fourth, and fifth will come
and dry up the different seas ; a sixth will rend asunder the
1,010,000 earths, from whose rents will be emitted smoke and
flames. By the seventh sun the heavenly mountain Mienmo,
and all its celestial inhabitants, will be consumed. The de-
stroying fire, having then nothing more to feed it, will expire
of its own accord.
Future State. — The Buddhas allege that every thing
exists from natural causes ; that virtue brings its own reward
and vice its own punishment ; and that the state of man is
probationary. If he be virtuous, he will, after death, ascend
to one of the lower heavens, but will be born again many times :
and as he may each time continue virtuous, or according to
70 CEYLON.
the extent of his virtue, he will progressively ascend in the
scale of celestial bliss, till he may finally reach the highest
heaven, and obtain Nivani or absorption, not as the Hindus
believe, into a supreme being, which would not be in accord-
ance with the doctrines of the Buddhas, but a kind of cessation
of animal suffering, and exemption from farther transmigra-
tion. [In fact nothingness. ~\
If he have been wicked, he will, in like manner, descend
into the different hells, and will exist again in the forms of
different animals, according to the nature and extent of his
sins ; but the duration of his punishment is not eternal, and
is still supposed to depend upon himself. He may thus, ac-
cording to his conduct in the various forms he may exist in,
be again elevated to the probationary condition of man; and,
although his crimes may have once degenerated him into a lion,
or, as just noticed, into a louse, a monkey, a mammoth, or a
maggot, he will still, on attaining the state of man, be in a
condition to look forward, by the practice of virtue, to obtain
at a future period the blissful reward of Nivani. [Or Nothing-
ness !] If, however, he continue to be wicked in this degraded
and degenerate state, he will descend still lower and become
a devil, than which nothing can be imagined more base or
miserable.
Gaudama has enjoined, as a necessary qualification to obtain
Nivani or absorption, the performance o'i dana, or the bestowing
of alms; and of bavana, v^Xnch. consists in pronouncing three
words : aneizzo, doccha, and anatta. The first is to show that
he recollects that life is subject to vicissitudes ; the second,
that man is thereby liable to misfortune ; and the third, that
exemption from either does not depend upon himself.
Priesthood. — The Buddhas do not, like the Brahmins,
respect fire; and the rahans (or priests) never kindle one, lest
they should thereby destroy the life of an animal *. They
^ A Buddhist priest, on being shown the animalculae in a
glass of water, rather than continue to live even on water, is
said to have voluntarily starved himself.
PRIESTHOOD OF THE BUDDHISTS RITES, &C. 71
consequently do not cook any food ; though they eat that
which has possessed life, provided it be ready dressed ; such,
at least, appears to be the case in Ava, but in some places it
is said to be different. They commonly subsist on provisions
given as alms ; to collect which they issue every morning from
their convents, as early as it is sufficiently light for them to
distinguish the veins on their hands. They do not beg, but
they stop before every house in a street. If food be given to
them, they put it into their sabeit or baskets, and pass on
without returning thanks : if none be given they go on to the
next house in silence. They are clothed in a large yellow
mantle, folded becomingly round them, passing over the left
shoulder and leaving the right shoulder and breast uncovered.
They shave their heads and beards, and go barefooted: are
usually clean, but do not wear any ornaments. On receiving
the sacerdotal rank, they are enjoined to live in houses built
under trees in the woods ; but these injunctions are qualified,
so that they usually reside in convents or colleges, which in
Ava are described as the best habitations in the empire, built
in the most agreeable situations.
Tliey are well conducted, kind and hospitable to strangers,
and are the best informed men in the Burman empire. Each
college has a head, called zara or teacher ; of which, accord-
ing to the size of the colleges, or the estimation in which they
are held, there are degrees. The head of the colleges is the
zarado or royal abbot. Towards the whole of them the utmost
respect and attention are shown. They are the gratuitous in-
structors of youth, which is considered as a work of merit.
During their priesthood they must remain in a state of celi-
bacy, and observe other strict regulations ; but may, at any
time, leave their convent and marry, which is frequently done.
The Buddhists do not, strictly speaking, believe in a Su-
preme Being; the Jains, however, (one of the sects of Boodh)
do, and also admit of castes, which the former deny ; yet the
Jains assert that the Supreme Being has no power over the
universe. The dead are generally burned as among the Hin-
doos, where the Ganges is not contiguous.
72 CEYLON.
To counteract the effects of this idolatrous system,
great efforts are making by various classes of Chris-
tians ; and as a specimen of those efforts, as also as
an indication of their result, I subjoin the following
report of the Wesleyan Missions for 1835.
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION, SEA COAST
DISTRICT, (for 1835).
Colombo and Colpetty — Messrs. Clough and Toyne ;
John Anthonie^^, Assistant Missionary. Negombo —
Mr. Kilner ; Peter G. de Silva, Assistant Missionary.
Caltura — Mr. Bridgnell ; Cornelius Wijesingha, As-
sistant Missionary. Galle — Mr. M'Kenny ; John A.
Poulier, Assistant Missionary. Matura — Mr. D. I.
Gogerly ; Daniel D. Perera, Assistant Missionary.
Moi'uwa Corle — W. A. Lalmon, Assistant Missionary.
Ninety-three schoolmasters and nine school-mis-
tresses, chiefly natives.
More than twenty years have elapsed since the
commencement of the Wesleyan Mission in the island
of Ceylon. This Christian enterprize for the evan-
gelization of an important portion of the eastern
possessions of the British Empire commanded, from
the first, much public interest, which was heightened
by its proving to be the last missionary undertaking
of the apostolic Dr. Coke, and by the circumstances
of trial and difficulty in which his companions were
placed by his unexpected death. The mission had
to be reared from its foundation ; difficult languages
were to be learned ; and a knowledge of the character
of the people and of the country was to be acquired.
With grateful acknowledgments to the God of mis-
sions it is mentioned, that very much more than
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. 73
could have been reasonably expected has been ac-
complished. Ten mission stations, each of them
embracing- an extensive tract of country, have been
formed. The several languages used by the inha-
bitants, whether learned or vernacular, have been
acquired ; the holy scriptures have been translated ;
other valuable books have been composed or rendered
into the native tongues ; an extensive school system,
affording daily instruction to upwards of 4000 chil-
dren, has been established ; several hundreds of the
heathen and of professing Christians have been united
in religious fellowship ; the strongholds of atheism
and idolatry have been boldly attacked, and shaken
to their foundation ; and the leaven of Christianity
is finding access into the remotest parts and most
exclusive circles of the island. The committee add
with pleasure, that other committees are contributing
to the work of evangelizing this interesting land.
The Bible Society has with its accustomed muni-
ficence sanctioned, year after year, a liberal issue of
copies of the sacred volume from the mission press.
Some of the Missionarv Societies of our own countrv,
and of the United States of America, (for in this
cause there is now, happily, a generous fellowship of
Christian nations, as well as of the various British
churches,) have sent their agents into Ceylon as
fellow labourers for its spiritual cultivation ; and it
is not doubted that, by the present and by every
generation of the inhabitants, the benignant reign of
Britain, and the zealous efforts of the spiritual
labourers employed under its protection, will be
gratefully acknowledged.
74 CEYLON.
From Point Pedro, in the north of the island, Mr
Stott writes as follows : —
' There is an intense desire among the people of ^
this district to receive Bibles and tracts. When ^
am on the road they crowd round me, and say
* Give us books.' ' We want to read, and t* ;;
know the Christian religion : you teach it to us, bu f
we want books that we may read about it in ou. '
houses, and teach it to our neighbours.' Sometimes
they call after me, * Give us books, that we may
know whether your religion or ours is the better."
The farmers in the field say, ' We attend your
preaching, therefore you ought to give us books."
' Others say, * We were taught in your schools,
therefore you should give us books.' Some say,
* We have carefully kept those you gave us, give
us more.' Others, ' We can read, give us books.'
Thus they make many demands on me, and I
have given them great numbers of the scriptures
and of tracts, but not at all sufficient to meet the
wants or satisfy the wishes of the people. These,
I think, are pleasing indications, and tokens that the
Lord is imparting a desire to know the way of salva-
tion by Jesus Christ.'
In the south of Ceylon the cause of Christianity
is making progress ; several new places of worship
have been erected ; many of the villagers have con-
tributed materials for these buildings, and others
have afforded their labours gratuitously. From the
Caltura station ]\Ir. Bridgnell writes —
* This day I have preached four times in four
villages, have examined and catechised the children of
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. 75
four schools, and distributed during the day several
copies of a tract, entitled, * A Warning to Heathens'
— some in crossing the ferry, others to passengers
on the road, and others among the retired inha-
bitants of the jungle. A greater spirit of curiosity
is excited than I have ever seen before. Whether
the total number of Buddhist priests is decreasing I
cannot tell ; but I know of six priests who, since my
appointment to this mission, have thrown off their
robes, and whose places have not subsequently been
supplied.'
In reporting the state of the schools, Mr. Bridgnell
says —
' I can sincerely affirm it as my full conviction
that our mission schools are the most highly im-
portant of those auxiliary means by which we endea-
vour to teach and preach Jesus Christ. The children
make encouraging progress in the knowledge of
heavenly things ; and their parents, and other adults
attending the public examinations, receive much in-
struction by means of the catechisms, and by the
reading of the scriptures in the various schools.
Many of the children despise the absurdities of idol
worship and Buddhism, and refuse to join in heathenish
ceremonies. ' Out of the mouths of babes and suck-
lings God has perfected praise.' '
State of the mission. — Colombo. — ' During the
past year we have had many trials and difficulties to
contend with ; however we have reason to rejoice
that we have not been without prosperity. Our work
in the fort has been of a very pleasing character.
Our congregations in general have been too large
for the chapel to contain. The word of life has been
76 CEYLON.
received with the utmost seriousness ; sinners have
been converted, penitents pardoned, behevers built
up in their most holy faith, and a few have entered
into their eternal rest. We have now three classes
in the garrison, which contain forty- four members,
who are walking worthy of their high calling, and
labouring to adorn the doctrine of God our Saviour.
The female class of natives at the new Bazaar con-
tinue faithful and stedfast. Our cause at Colpetty
is progressive. The class met by the resident
preacher consists of ten, all of whom enjoy the
saving grace of God. The members of the native
class, with one exception, have continued steady ;
several of its members walk three or four miles every
sabbath to attend it. The Singhalese service in the
Colpetty school continues interesting ; frequently the
school is well filled with children and adults.'
' Number in society 84.'
Negombo. — " The state of our society on this sta-
tion is somewhat encouraging. We have eleven
dasses, containing 164 members, which are met
regularly every week either by the superintendent or
one of his assistants. Besides the classes, there are
upwards of thirty persons who meet together at our
small bungalow at Bandarawatee, every Wednesday,
for the purpose of being instructed in the principles
of Christianity.
' Several deaths have occurred in our little society
the last year, amongst whom one of our catechists
is numbered. He had been employed in that capacity
on the Negombo station since the commencement of
our mission there, and on every occasion manifested
his zeal for the more extensive diffusion of our holy
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. //
religion. Although his path had been darkened for
many vears in consequence of constant domestic
trials, over which he had no control, and which con-
tinued to the day of his death, yet the conversations
which I had with him during his affliction afforded
me sufficient evidence that he possessed an enligh-
tened confidence in God his Saviour, and that his
prospects of future happiness were clear and distinct.
As in life, so in death, the arm of the Lord sustained
him.
' Several members of the Mukelangam class have
lately begun to hold prayer meetings in the houses
of the people in that neighbourhood. This is a new
thing amongst them, and will, I trust, be the means
of inducing many to embrace the truth as it is in
Jesus. At the school of this village a very interest-
ing juvenile class has been lately formed, as also at
Bandarawatee, of twelve members. We cannot but
hope that the means which are now in regular and
active operation on this station will soon prove effec-
tual to the pulling down of the strong holds of hea-
thenism which yet remain. Number in society 164,
children 21 ; total 185.'
Caltura. — ' Number in society 64, children 98 ;
total 162."
Galle. — * We have a good English congregation
on the Wednesday evenings in Galle, as many of the
inhabitants understand English, and attend regularly :
and among the few who are united with us in church
fellowship there are several decidedly pious and holy
persons. Their attachment to the public ordinances
is desemng of notice. The Lord has given testi-
mony to the word of his grace — m.any are raised up
78 CEYLON.
as witnesses of the power of God to save, and, having
felt the blessedness of religion in their own souls, are
desirous that others should be made partakers of like
precious faith. We have recently adopted a plan of
visiting the people from house to house, to speak to
them individually on the concerns of their souls.
The time we have fixed upon for these visits is two
o'clock every sabbath afternoon, which, although the
hottest part of the day, yet, being the time when we
are most likely to find the people in their houses, we
judged the best. The subjects of our addresses to
the people during these friendly visits are personal
and family religion, and especially the necessity of
the observance of the Christian sabbath. The bene-
fits resulting from this plan soon appeared, and con-
tinue to be manifested in the numbers who attend
our public ministry, and the desire for religious know-
ledge that is awakening amongst the people.
* A new version of the Ceylon-Portuguese scrip-
tures is now passing through the press. The New
Testament is already published, and it is delightful
to see the eagerness with which it has been read.
Many have declared the satisfaction they will feel,
and the comfort with which they will die, if they are
spared to read the Old Testament scriptures in a lan-
guage they understand.
' Many of the natives also are induced to read our
scriptures. Numbers of children are from time to
time going from our schools with their minds par-
tially informed on religious subjects, and with their
prejudices in favour of the religion of their fore-
fathers considerably weakened. A small number
come to the native service in the chapel in the fort
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. /!>'
on sabbath mornings ; and in one of our schools
where we preach on Thursday evenings, besides Sun-
days, we generally have a small congregation of
adults, and intend to form a native class.
* In our other schools, in which we have service,
there are a fevv^ who attend regularly ; but listlessness
and unconcern about the things of eternity charac-
terize the bulk of the people. ' Come from the four
winds, O breath, and breathe upon these slain, that
they may live !' '
Number in society 48.
Matura. — " This circuit presents an extensive and
interesting field of usefulness among the natives.
The work is great but the labourers are few. And I
fear that this circuit may have suffered for want of
more labourers. However we have still enough to ex-
cite our gratitude, and to encourage us to persevere.
Number in society 64."
MoRUWA Corle. — ' Our congregations in private
houses, in the villages, and in the school here, are
on the increase, but their attendance is not regular ;
it depends altogether upon the state of the weather,
and the times w^hich they are not employed in their
cultivating business, &c. However, upon the whole
it appears that the light of the gospel is now diffusing
in these parts, and much solemnity is apparent in
our assemblies. I cannot but observe that there is
already a visible reformation among several of the
people here. Some once notorious drunkards and
quarrelsome men are now soberly and industriously
employed in providing for their families ; some, who
leaving their families were always in the gambling
7
80 CEYLON.
places, are spending their time now in better occupa-
tion ; others who lived profligately are now ashamed,
and confess it with sorrow. The common coolies re-
prove each other, when they hear any one cursing or
swearing. Number in society 30, children 17 ;
total 47.'
Total members in the Singhalese District 590.
Schools. — Colombo. — Pettah English School. —
' For a time we were obliged to suspend this school.
However, w^e have procured two teachers who are
equal to their work, and have re-opened it. 21 boys
and 3 girls have been received.
2. ' Colpetty School has prospered and given much
satisfaction during the past year ; at present it con-
tains 64 children, 6 of whom are girls. In this In-
stitution both English and Singhalese are taught by
the same master, who is laborious in the discharge of
his duty.
3. New Bazaar. — ' The discontinuance of a Ba-
zaar in that part of Colombo has occasioned the re-
moval of many native families, and altogether altered
the character of the place; 26 children attend, 7 of
whom can read the scriptures.
4. Nagalgam. — ' This school continues to be in-
teresting and prosperous. The school contains Q^
children, 22 of whom are girls. Both Singhalese
and English are taught. In this school divine ser-
vice is held every Sunday, and a native class met by
the preacher after service.
5. Kehelwatte School — ' contains at present 36
boys, 9 of whom read the scriptures with considerable
accuracy.
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. 81
6. Kalohoville School — ' contains 65 boys, 24 of
whom can read the scriptures, writft on paper and
olas, and repeat a good part of the Catechism.
7. Deheicella. — ' This village contains a numerous
population of low caste people, who appear to value
in some degree the instruction and improvement of
their children; b7 attend the school; 21 can read
the scriptures.'
Negombo. — ' On this station there are 16 schools
in various degrees of efficiency, some of them very
useful. They are under the care of 23 male and 2
female teachers, and contain 542 boys and 100 girls ;
total 642.'
Caltura. — ' Seventeen schools in connection with
this station are taught by 27 male teachers and 1
female. They contain 834 boys and 69 girls ;
total 903.'
Galle. — ' The schoolmasters of this circuit ge-
nerally have afforded satisfaction during the past
year. The children of two of the nearest schools
attend divine service in the Chapel in the Fort, and
are regularly catechised after preaching. In all the
other schools divine service is held once and in some
twice on the Lord's day.'
1. Fort School, — ' This school continues in a
prosperous state. At present the number on the
books is 54 boys and 14 girls.
2. Kalegane. — ' The number of children in this
school is 12.
3. Mahamodem School. — ' contains 43 boys and
8 girls.
82 CEYLON.
4. Dcmgederah School. — ' The state of this school is
encouraging, and it at present contains 52 boys and
15 girls. The girls sew plain work neatly. A num-
ber of the boys read the Testament, and most of them
repeat the Catechism, Creed, and Ten Command-
ments.
5. Unuwattime School ' is suspended for the pre-
sent. ■'■'''■.
6. Bopey School. — ' The average attendance is
33.
7. Dawatue School. — ' The number of childre^ is
72 ; the master is an active, intelligent man. --*
8. Weiuelle School. — ' The number on the books
74 boys, 28 girls, of which number 19 read in the
Testament.
9. Tottagamey School ' contains 50 boys; 16
read the Testament, and 20 know the Catechism,
&c.
10. Mallawenne School. — ' This school contains
44 boys.
1 1 . Amhlamgoddey School. — ' At one part of the
year the country fever prevailed in this village. The
number on our list at present is 42 boys, of whom
16 read in the Testament, 24 repeat the Prayers,
Catechism, Ten Commandments,' &c.
Matura. — ' The masters of the circuit are met by
our assistants at Matura every Saturday forenoon,
for the purpose of receiving religious instruction,
that they may be better qualified for the discharge of
the duties of their office. The meetings are opened
and closed with prayer, and the plan of the Sunday
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. 83
services is made known. Any complaints which are
to be made regarding the pubHc conduct of the
masters are then preferred against them, and their
characters are investigated. If the charge of open
sin, of the neglect of duty, or of their attendance on
any heathen ceremonies, is substantiated, they are
dismissed from their situation: if no decisive evidence
can be obtained, they are suspended for a time until
the fact is ascertained.
1 . Matura English School. — ' The number of boys
who attend is 40, many of vvdiom are the sons of the
most respectable natives in the neighbourhood, who
read well in the Bible, and are considerably ad-
vanced in arithmetic. All the boys learn the second
part of the Conference catechism, and commit
hymns to memory. Tracts are frequently distributed
amongst them, and much good may be expected to
result.
2. Matura Singhalese ' school contains 43 boys.
3. Pittacatua ' school is in a flourishing state, and
some of the boys are very promising. The village in
which this school stands is very populous, so that we
have preaching here on Sabbath mornings and Wed-
nesday evenings. The attention v/hich the boys
manifest during divine service is truly pleasing. By
the blessing of God we hope to see much good done
in this village : the number of bovs in the school is
55.
Weradura ' school has revived during the past
year ; several girls have been added, who are taught
to read and to write ; and a woman is employed to
teach them to sew, who is paid by the masters.
G 2
84 CEYLON.
There are at present 28 boys and 20 girls v/ho at-
tend the school.
Dondrah ' school 1st. has been suspended until
we can obtain for it more suitable masters. When
this school was discontinued it contained 18 boys
who read in the Testament, 17 who repeated
the Catechism and Prayers, and 20 who could
write.
Dondrah ' school 2d. contains 61 boys, of
whom 20 read in the Testament, 46 can repeat
the Lord's prayer, the Creed, the Ten Command-
ments, and the morning and evening prayers. The
second master of this school is an active young
man, who was himself taught in one of our schools,
and the children under his care increase in the know-
ledge of divine truth. At one of the public exami-
nations, — it having been observed that the scriptures
teach us that all things were created by God, but
that Budha says, every thing was made of itself, — an
appeal was made to the boys, who they thought
spoke the truth, Jehovah or Budha, when a little boy
about eight years of age boldly cried aloud, that God
spoke the truth, for he made all things ; but that
Budha told a lie. This saying much surprised many
of the worshippers of Budha who were witnessing
the examination.
Naurunna ' school is situated about eight miles
from Matura, and contains 34 boys and 10 girls.
Weregampitte ' school contains '6Q boys and 23
girls, manv of whom are newly admitted; 14 boys and
2 girls however read in the Testament.
Tudawa School. — ' The village in which this
REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. So
school is situated is thinly inhabited, and I fear we
shall be obliged to discontinue it at the end of this
year.
Nupey School. — * There are 50 boys in this school:
15 read well in the Testament, and a very con-
siderable part of the children who attend can repeat
the Catechism, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the
Ten Commandments, and the morning- and evening
prayers at the end of the Catechism. During the
past year 12 boys have left this school, who are
able to read for themselves the word of eternal life.
Belligam Boys' School. — ' Of the number who
remain in this school, 19 can read the scriptures,
and a considerable number attend the public w^orship
of Almighty God in the Belligam chapel every Lord's
day.'
Belligam Girls' School. — ' Most of the girls attend
our chapel for divine service every sabbath, and more
would attend were they not prevented by great
poverty.
Pallane School. — ' In this school 30 boys and 1 1
girls are taught. Divine service is conducted in
the school every sabbath. We have an average
attendance of 15 adults, who, with the children, form
an interesting congregation.
Merisse School. — ' The people of this village call
themselves Christians, being baptized when infants ;
but all of them are worshippers of Budha and of
devils. The schools contain 60 children, 17 of whom
read the scriptures. And we have an average of
20 adults, who attend divine service in the school
every sabbath afternoon.
86 CEYLON. '
Mormva Corle. — * On this station there is only
one school, containing 40 boys and 10 girls : many
favourable opportunities of establishing additional
schools have occurred, and are under the considera-
tion of the District Meeting.
' In the Cingalese district there are 66 schools,
93 masters, 9 mistresses, 2730 boys, and 447 girls ;
total 3177."
Tamul District. — 'Jaffna, Mr.Percival; Solomon
Valoopulle and J. Matthiez, Assistant Missionaries.
Point Pedro, Mr. George. Ttnncomalee, Mr. Stott ;
J. Hunter, Assistant Missionary. Batticaloa, J. Katts
and John P. Saumuggam, Assistant Missionaries.
Twenty Salaried School Teachers.
" In this district there are 135 members of society.
The schools are as follows : — Jaffna — Pettali Portu-
guese Female School contains 46 scholars ; Bazaar
Tamul School, 80; Vannarpanne, 84; Thattan, 51
Cockoovil, 50. Point Pedro — Tamul School, 35
Chetty Terru, 52 ; Tampacitty, 37 ; Ploly, 45
Alvoy, 31 ; Caravatty, 49. Trincomalee — Nalavah
Theroo Tamul School, 96 ; Temple Tamul School, 62 ;
Thamplagam, 60. Batticaloa — Pullyantheevoo Eng-
lish School, 22 ; ditto Tamul ditto, 45 ; Nahvacoodah
Tamul ditto, 40 ; Ahrelpatthy Tamul ditto, 42 ;
Marootha'muny Tamul ditto, 70 ; Ahralioor Tamul
ditto, bb ; total in the district, 1032."
( 87 )
CHAPTER IV.
CIVIL GOVERNMENT — INDIA ESTABLISHMENTS — MILITARY
DEFENCE FINANCES — COMMERCE SHIPPING — GENERAL
VIEW OF CEYLON.
The legislative administration of the island is con-
fided to the governor, aided by a council composed
from among the oldest and most distinguished Euro-
pean civil servants, appointed by the governor or
sometimes by the Secretary of State for the Colonies
in England, and comprising six unofficial members
selected from the chief landed proprietors, or prin-
cipal merchants : it is provided that printed copies
of proposed ordinances be sent to the members ten
days before the summoning of the council, and the
regulations or laws of the government are published
in the Official Gazette some time before their enact-
ment, in order to elicit public discussion ; w^hen passed
into law they take immediate effect in the maritime
districts on their publication, and in the Kandyan
districts by the governor's proclamation, subject in
both to the final approval of the queen in council.
There is a special board for the administration of the
affairs of the Kandyan Provinces, whom the governor
is in the habit of consulting previous to his extension
of an enactment there, which may have been ordained
for the lower or maritime provinces. In the maritime
provinces the governor is restricted from authorising
contingent disbursements exceeding 75/., without the
concurrence of the council ; but in the Kandyan pro-
88 CEYLON.
vinces he orders expenditure on his own control. In
his executive capacity the governor refers or not to
the council, as he wills, but his proceedings are
recorded in the secretary for government's office, or
in the department charged with the execution of the
measure. The regulations of the government are
published with the translations in the native lan-
guages (Cingalese and Malabar), and widely dis-
seminated.
Three classes of persons are employed in carrying
on the business of government : first, the civil ser-
vants, who are sent out as ' writers' from England,
under the patronage of the Secretary of State for the
Colonies ; there are twenty-five principal appoint-
ments in the island, to which these gentlemen are
alone eligible, the seniors being exclusively employed
as heads of departments, in the revenue, as govern-
ment agents, chief secretary, paymaster, or auditor-
general, &c. &c. : as collectors of districts and
provincial judges and magistrates. The juniors as
assistants to the collectors or magistrates, and in the
chief secretary's department. On its present footing
the effective civil service consists of thirty-eight
members ; an acquirement of one or both of the
native languages is indispensable previous to the
holding of a responsible situation. The second class
is formed of Europeans (not of the civil service), or
their descendants, from among whom are appointed
provincial magistrates (of which rank there are six-
teen), and clerks in public offices. The third class
comprises the natives, who hold the situations of
modeliars (or lieutenants) of korles (or districts),
OCCUPATIONS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES. 89
interpreters to the courts of justice, and to the
collectors' offices or cutcheries. The modeliars are
still recognized according to ancient custom as com-
manders of the lascoreigns or district militia, although
at present chiefly employed in the civil administra-
tion of the country, and in the execution of public
works. There are, of course, gradations of native
officers in authority under them ; the assistants of all
natives are still regulated in a great degree by caste.
Independent of the numerous government * head-
men' and the titular ' headmen' who receive no
emoluments, there are, in conformity to ancient
usage, headmen appointed to each caste or class,
some of whom receive certain perquisites as the head
of fishermen do of the fish caught, &c. Since 1828
no ' headmen' have been appointed who could not
read and write the English language, and the head-
men form a valuable connecting link in the social
fabric, as well as an intelligent and respectable body
of individuals, from among whom the government
can select officers for the more immediate service of
the state. The number of principal headmen in the
Cingalese districts amounts to 243. In the Malabar
to 112, and in the Kandyan to 47 ; these num-
bers do not include the headmen of villages, w^ho
are more numerous.
The fourth class consist of officers selected from
the regiments serving in Ceylon, for the fulfilment
of the post of government agents or sitting magis-
trates in the Kandyan provinces, the duties of which
are performed efficiently and creditably upon small
salaries in addition to their military allowances.
90 CEYLON.
Patronage. — All appointments to the hij^lier
offices are provisionally made by the governor, vvho
selects candidates from the civil service according to
their seniority, when otherwise qualified, subiict,
however, to the confirmation of the Secreta i
State in England.
The magistrates and clerks are also appointed b\-
the government ; the modeliars and principal head^
men hold their appointments under His Excellency';?
warrant, being recommended by the Commissioner
of Revenue, the provincial headmen being rr v'om*
mended by the Collectors of Districts.
Kandyan provinces appointments are similarly
by the governor, on the recommendation oi i u-
Board of Commissioners (to whom the more im-
mediate management of those provinces is com-
mitted), including the chiefs or principal headmen of
provinces or departments, the chiefs of temples, and
the priests in the colleges or wihares. In the
northern or Malabar provinces the headmen of
villages or castes are commonly appointed on the
nomination of the inhabitants, a deputation pf
villagers making a return to the magistintc of the
candidate approved of by them.
Judicial establishment. — Justice is administered
first by a supreme court, with powers equivalent to
the Court of Queen's Bench, and in equitable juris-
diction to the High Court of Chanceiy ; it is presided
over by three judges \ appointed from Jilngl^nd,
^ The chief and two puisne judges hold office during the
pleasure of the crown, and may be suspended upon proof of
incapacity or misconduct by the governor and council.
NEW COURTS, 91
aided by a Queen's Advocate (whose functions are
similar to the Lord Advocate of Scotland), Master in
Equity and Registrar, also appointed from home :
and thanks to the enlightened patriotism of Sir
Alexander Johnson, trial by jury, (with reference to
Europeans or natives), is established under its
supremacy.
The island has been recently divided into five
provinces, the north, south, east, west, and central,
each of which are again subdivided into districts.
Within each district, there is one court, called the
District Court, holden before one judge, and three
assessors; the district judge is appointed by the crown,
and removable at pleasure ; the assessors are selected
from amongst the inhabitants of the island, whether
natives or otherwise, twenty-one years of age, pos-
sessing certain qualifications. The right of appoint-
ing, in each district court, one person to act as per-
manent assessor, is reserved to the crown. The
officers of the district courts are appointed in like
manner as those of the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court is held at Colombo (except on
circuit), and the district courts at a convenient speci-
fied place in each district.
Each district court is a court of civil and criminal
jurisdiction, and has cognizance of and full power to
hear and determine civil suits, in which the defendant
is resident, or in which the subject of action shaU
have' occurred, within the district (where the judge is
a party, the court adjoining takes cognizance of the
cause) ; and to try all oiFences, short of such as are
punishable with death, transportation, or banishment.
92 €EYLON,
imprisonment for more than a year, whipping ex-
ceeding one hundred lashes, a fine exceeding 10/.,
which shall have been committed within the district.
Each district court has the care and custody of
the persons and estates of idiots and lunatics resident
within the district, with power to appoint guardians
and curators ; and power to appoint administrators
of intestates' effects within the district, and to deter-
mine the validity of wills and to record and grant
probate thereof, and to take securities from executors
and administrators, and to require accounts of such
persons.
Offences against the revenue laws are cognizable
before the district courts (saving the rights of the
Vice Admiralty Courts), limited as in respect to
criminal persecutions.
The judgments and interlocutory and other orders
of the district courts, are pronounced in open court,
the judge stating, in the hearing of the assessors,
the questions of law and fact, with the grounds and
reasons of his opinion ; and the assessors declare, in
open court, their respective opinions and votes on
each and every question of law or fact : in case of a
difference of opinion between the judge and the
majority of the assessors, the opinion of the judge
prevails and is taken as the sentence of the whole
court, a record being made and preserved of the
vote of each.
The Supreme Court is a court of sole appellate
jurisdiction for the district courts, with original
criminal jurisdiction throughout the island : civil
and criminal sessions of the supreme court are held
POWERS OF SUPREME COURT. 93
by one of the judges in each circuit, twice in each
year : all the judges are required to be never absent
at the same time from Colombo, and also to be
resident at the same time at Colombo, not less than
one month, twice in each year.
At every civil session of the supreme court, on
circuit, three assessors are associated with the judge ;
and every criminal session is held before the judge
and a jury of thirteen men. In all civil suits, the
judge and assessors deliver their opinions and votes
as in the district courts ; in appeals from the district
courts, in criminal prosecutions, the appeal has not
the effect of staying the execution of the sentence,
unless the judge of the district court see fit. All
questions of fact, upon which issue shall be joined at
any criminal sessions of the supreme court, on circuit,
are decided by the jury, or major part of them ;
questions of law are decided by the judge in open
court, with the grounds and reasons thereof.
Where a person is adjudged to die by the supreme
court, at a criminal sessions, execution is respited
till the case be reported by the presiding judge to
the governor.
Judges on circuit holding criminal sessions are re-
quired to direct all fiscals and keepers of prisons,
within the circuit, to certify the persons committed,
and their offences, who may be required to be brought
before the judge.
The judges of the supreme court, on circuit, examine
the records of the district courts, and if it shall ap-
pear that contradictory or inconsistent decisions have
been 2:iven bv the same or different district courts,
the judges report the same to the supreme court at
D4 CEYLoy.
Colombo, who prepare the draft of a declaratory law
upon the subject, and transmit it to the governor,
who submits such draft to the legislative council.
The supreme court also makes rules and orders for the
removal of doubts.
The supreme court, or any judge of the same, at
sessions or on circuit, may grant or refuse writs of
habeas corpus and injunctions ; it may require district
courts to transmit to Colombo the records in any case
appealed, and may hear and decide appeals, in a sum-
marv way, without argument, and may frame and
establish rules and orders of the court, not repugnant
to the charter, which promote the discovery of truth,
economy, and expedition in business, to be drawn up
in plain and succinct terms, avoiding unnecessary
repetitions and obscurity.
Appeals are allowed to the Queen in Council, sub-
ject to the following rules and limitations : — 1. The
appeal must be brought, by way of review, before the
judges of the supreme court collectively, holding a
general sessions at Colombo, at which all the judges
shall be present. 2. The matter in dispute must
exceed the value of 500/. 3. Leave to appeal must
be applied for within fourteen days. 4. If the ap-
pellant be the party against whom sentence is given,
the sentence shall be carried into execution, if the
respondent shall give security for the immediate per-
formance of any sentence pronounced by the Privy
Council, until which the sentence appealed from shall
be stayed. 5. If the appellant shall show that real
justice requires the stay of execution, pending the
appeal, the supreme court may stay execution, on se-
curity, as before. G. In all cases the appellant shall
APPEALS TO QUEEN IN COUNCIL. 95
give security to prosecute the appeal, and for costs.
7. The court appealed from shall determine the nature
of the securities. 8. Where the subject of litigation
is immoveable property, and the judgment appealed
from shall not affect the occupancy, security is not to
be required ; but if the judgment do affect the occu-
pancy, then the security shall not be of greater amount
than to restore the property, and the intermediate
profit accruing from the occupancy, pending the ap-
peal. 9. Where the subject of litigation consists of
chattels or personal property, the security shall, in all
cases, be a bond to the amount or mortgage. 10.
The security for prosecution of appeal and for costs
shall in no case exceed 300/. 1 1 . The security must
be completed within three months from the date of
the petition of leave to appeal. 12. Any person
feeling aggrieved by any order respecting security or
appeal, may petition the Privy Council.
The same laws are administered in the district
courts as in the supreme court, namely, the Dutch, or
Roman law, with certain exceptions.
A prisoner can only be tried in the supreme court,
upon the prosecution of the Queen's advocate ; he
has the right of challenge to the jury before whom he
is to be arraigned ; he is entitled on his trial to the
assistance of an eminent proctor or barrister, paid by
the government (an admirable provision), and the wit-
nesses on both sides, in criminal cases before the
supreme court, are also paid by the government.
Police. — Crimes, except in some of the maritime
provinces, where the drinking of arrack leads to every
species of vice, are in general rare, and the Singalese
being in the aggi-egate a quiet, docile people, petty
96 CEYLON.
litigation (owing to the extended division of property)
usurps the place of passion and its attendant results.
Owing to the peculiar constitution of the village com-
munities, each of which has its ' headman' and subor-
dinate officers and peons or constables, the commis-
sion of an offence is speedily followed by detection.
Among the principal offences are ear and nose slitting,
and the mutilation of the limbs, for the purpose of
carrying off the gold and precious stones with which
w^omen and chikben are adorned. Violent murders
are more rare than poisonings, the latter mode of
revenge being more suited to a timid people. In
the Kandyan provinces crime is very unfrequent, and
the village police excellent.
Military. — The regular armed force maintained
in the island consists at present of four Queen's
regiments of infantry (the head- quarters of which
are stationed at Colombo, Kandy, and Trincomalee),
two companies of the Royal Foot Artillery, a mounted
body-guard for the Governor, and the 1st Ceylon
regiment, composed principally of Malays, nearly
2000 strong, and one of the finest regiments in Her
Majesty's service. I have never seen any native
troops on the continent of India to equal the 1st
Ceylon light infantry, either in appearance or
mancEuvring, and their conduct during the Kandyan
war proved them to be inferior to no light infantry
in the world. Their dress is dark green, and their
arms a compact rifle, with short strong sword
attachable instead of a bayonet. They are native
officered, as in the East India Company's sepoy
regiments, with European officers to each of the
sixteen companies, and their fidelity to their leaders
MILITARY FORCE.
97
has been evinced in every possible manner whenever
an opportunity presented itself. I have seen many
regiments of different nations under arms, but none
ever offered to my view such a striking coup d'oeil as
Her Majesty's 1st Ceylon rifle regiment.
Return of the Numbers and Distributions of the Effective
Force, Officers, Non-Commissioned Officers, and Rank and
File of the British Army, including Colonial Corps, in each
year since 1815, including Artillery and Engineers.
Officers present
, or on Detached
L
Duty at the Stations.
to
2
2 «■
M
05
53
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uj
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3
g
cs
S
"2
^=5
<u
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■A
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05
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£
O
fee
02
s
Q
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u
3
s
3
M
S
'5*
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5
5
4
to
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9
rt
CO !^
>>
o
25th Jan. 1816
1
5
6
41
59
37
5
445
121
6169
1817
1
5
y
46
75
49
4
5
5
5
9
442
12 i
6103
167
1818
2
4
6
44
85
48
4
5
5
4
9
39t
122
5943
158
1819
1
7
9
58
111
34
4
4
3
4
20
654
182
8219*
191
1820
5
C
41
66
29
4
5
5
3
6
425
118
3330
207
1821
6
7
46
68
40
6
6
6
4
6
363
136
6679
197
1822
7
6
35
55
29
5
5
4
5
4
333
113
6387
208
1823
5
C
27
40
26
1
2
3
3
4
270
85
5423
154
1824
7
35
40
25
2
2
3
3
4
268
80
5196
145
1825
3
6
34
37
21
2
4
3
4
S
268
80
4886
201
1826
4
6
37
40
21
4
3
4
4
2
281
73
4990
219
1827
7
4
41
60
17
5
5
4
3
6
308
83
5205
261
1828
7
4
39
64
20
4
5
4
3
7
304
83
5351
289
1829
8
5
45
63
30
4
5
5
4
6
304
82
5587
271
1830
7
6
41
61
30
4
5
5
5
6
305
80
5461
261
1831
7
7
42
60
29
5
5
5
6
7
306
81
5465
251
1st Jan. 1832
7
'6
41
57
25
4
5
5
4
6
304
81
5196
253
1833
7
6
39
62
26
4
5
5
4
6
277
81
4822
246
N.B. Ceylon Light Dragoon
s, an
d Gun and Pione(
;r La
scars are
included in the above numbers
, but
which are not born
e on
the Army
Estimates.
* Including a For
ce de
tached from Benga
1.
CEYLON, &C,
H
98 CEYLON.
Scale of Island allowances paid by the Colony.
Regimental. — Colonel, 45/. 95. per month ; Lieu-
tenant Colonel, 32/. 25. ; Major, 23/. 19^. ; Captain,
13/. 165. ; Lieutenant, 8/. 55.: Second Lieutenant
or Ensign, 6/. 65. ; Paymaster, 13/. I65. ; Surgeon,
17/. IO5. ; Assistant Sui'geon, 12/. IO5. ; Adjutant,
10/. 45. ; Quarter Master, 8/. 6s.
Additional allowances to officers in command of
corps. — Colonel, 5/. 45. per month ; Lieutenant
Colonel, 5/. 45. ; Major, 8/. 35. ; Captain, 10/. 45. ;
Lieutenant, 5/. II5.
Additional allowances to officers in command of gar-
risons, with the exception of Colombo, Trincomalee,
Kandy, and Galle. — Colonel, 29/. II5. ; Lieutenant
Colonel, 8/. I85. ; Major, 61. I4s. ; Captain, 3/.
1 95. 6d. ; Lieutenant, 21. I4s. ; Ensign, 2/. 6d.
The allowance for the commandants of Kandy and Trin-
comalee is fixed at 37/. 10s. each ; of Colombo at 29/. 1 Is. ; and
of Galle at 10s. a day.
General and Medical Staff. — Medical General on
the staff, 275/. I85. 4if/. ; Deputy Quarter- Master-
General, being Lieutenant-Colonel, 16/. I5. Qd. ;
Assistant Quarter-Master- General, Major, 11/. 195.
Qd.', Deputy Assistant Quarter-Master- General, Lieu-
tenant, 4/. 25. 6d. ; Deputy Adjutant-General,
Lieutenant-Colonel, 16/. IS5. ; Deputy Assistant
Adjutant-General, Captain, 6/. I85. ; Assistant Mili-
tary Secretary, ditto, 6/. I85.
In addition to regimental allowance being regulated where
the ranks of staff otficers do not correspond with the table, by
MILITARY ALLOWANCES, &C. 99
making the addition equal to one- half of the regimental
allowances to officers.
To aid-de-camp, if subaltern, the staff and island allowance
of a captain are granted ; being the difference of island
allowance between a surgeon and an assistant-surgeon.
The general as well as military reader will be
gratified by the following account of military allow-
ances, expenses, amusements, and annoyances, as
detailed in a letter from Ceylon, dated July, 1833: —
"The barracks in Colombo fort are small detached
ones, not holding more than a company, built by the
Dutch so immediately under the ramparts as to ex-
elude the breeze which is so necessary in this climate.
The mortality occasioned last year by the cholera
has attracted the attention of government to the
accommodation of the troops, and measures are now
in progress that will add considerably to their comforts.
The hospital is not good, the wards are not sufficient
to allow a classification of the diseases, and there is
not a proper place for convalescents. The officers
hire houses in the fort ; they seldom contain more
than four rooms, with accommodation for servants.
Bath and stabling, and very good quarters, may be
got for 2/. OS. per month, in some situations for
]/. IO5. ; in the principal street, where the houses
are very superior, 3/. los, to 61. is paid. Officers
find their own furniture, but that is of little im-
portance where all the articles for comfort or luxury
are to be bought on terms that would astonish a
London upholsterer. Six arm-chairs, with rattanned
seats, cost about 21. 5s. ; a pair of couches, 21. ;
H 2
100 CEYLON.
tables, varying from IO5. upwards, but a good one
to dine four, may be purchased for that price ; they
are all made of jack wood, which is handsome, and
takes a high polish. No European servants are
allowed, two natives are sufficient for a bachelor, —
a head servant at 1 1, per month, a boy at 95. ; if
you keep a horse, a servant to attend him, and ac-
company his master on foot when he goes out, will
cost 15s. a month. They support and clothe them-
selves. To meet these extra expenses the island
allowance monthly is, for lieutenant- colonel, 32/. ;
a major, 23/.; a captain, 13/. I65. ; a lieutenant,
8/. 5s. ; an ensign, 6/. ; a surgeon, 17/. ; assistant-
surgeon, 10/.; quarter-master and adjutant, 10/.;
5/. extra is allowed for the commandants of corps.
This is to cover all expenses of house rent, servants,
fuel, candles, and marching money. The allowance
of the subs should be 10/., to enable them to meet
the extra expenses they are put to by those who are
paid more liberally. Messing is about Is. a day,
but 6</. more may be added for contingent expenses.
The dinners, particularly in Colombo, are good ; —
every variety of poultry, excellent fish, venison,
and game, are to be bought reasonable. Madeira
and light French claret are the usual wines, and are
drunk at 3s. a bottle. Sherry is getting much in
vogue, but many of the messes on ?tranger-days
sport champagne, hock, and Carbonnel's or Sneyd's
best claret, to the great detriment of the finances of
the junior members. The duty in Colombo is a
subaltern's guard. The captains assist the field
REVENUE. 101
officers in doing the garrison duty. There is a
garrison field-day every Monday morning, and regi-
mental parades once a day. The society of Colombo
is composed of the families of the militaiy and the
gentlemen holding the civil situations under govern-
ment. It is sociable and agreeable ; there are
numerous private parties, and a public ball once a
month ; the messes frequently invite their friends to
evening parties. The style of living is good, and
combines more both of comfort and luxury than is
usually found in the same class of society in Europe.
" There is a subscription library, supplied with a
large assortment of newspapers and every publication
of interest, and standard works. Each regiment
(Colombo is the head- quarters of two European
regiments) has its own billiard-table ; it is very rare
indeed to hear of high play at them : they are a
source of amusement in a place where the heat will
not admit of exposure during the day, and, as it is
unattended with expense, has not been productive of
evil consequences."
Revenue. — The gross aggregate revenue of Ceylon
has for some years averaged somewhat more than
330,000/. per annum, but from the great expenses
attending the realization of some of the principal
branches of revenue, and from the changes which
are now taking place (the cinnamon monopoly, for
instance, being abolished) it is difficult to state the
net or even precise revenue of the last year ; it may
be averaged, however, at five shillings a head per
annum.
IUj; CEYLON.
The following Items formed the Revenue of Ceylon foi
1832.
Land Rents
£21,300
Cinnamon
147,549
Salt
24,053
Pearl Fishing
3.887
Fish Rents ;
6,986
Licences
29,179
Sea Customs
65,176
Land ditto
4,176
Lands and Houses
195
Steam-engine
1,127
Stamps
2,729
Judicial Receipts
10,401
Fines and Forfeitures
979
Commutation Tax
3,008
Premium on Bills
3,976
Post Offices
1,549
Stud of Horses' Sale
508
Auction Duty
215
Interest of various Monies
2,740
Tribute from Wedderate
104
Sale of Government Gazett<
3 . 437
Sundries
1,000
Receipts in aid of Revenue
25,234
Arrears of Revenue in form
er Years 12,346
Making an aggregate income of
370,000
The land assessment is trifling as regards the re-
ceipts of treasury, and collected under a bad system,
namely in kind, and by speculators who farm it
out from the government. The grain, when collected
by government, is stored for the use of the troops
and for sale. Every attempt at a permanent set-
tlement on the land has hitherto failed, and owing to
the quantity of waste land, and that held only by
EXPENDITURE. 103
service tenure, the difficulties in the way of such a
desirable measure have hitherto been found imprac-
ticable.
In the land-rents are included the duties levied on
cocoa-nut trees, and it affords a singular view of the
importance of that palm to the people, when we find
that while the tax on rice lands does not yield a
larger revenue than 21,000^., the revenue derived
from the cocoa-nut tree amounts to 35, 5 73/. ^
The premium upon bills drawn by the colonial
government upon its agent in London, amounting to
4800Z. a-year, is included in the colonial receipts,
though it can scarcely be considered a source of re-
venue. As the whole of the revenue system of Ceylon
is now under the consideration and modification of
the government, it would be unnecessary to particu-
larize further.
Expenditure. — From the time of our acquisition
of this island, its revenue has been inadequate to meet
the expenditure, whether wisely or unnecessarily in-
curred. Certainly much of the expenditure arose
from causes which now cease to operate, namely, in-
ternal war with the Kandyans, and in consequence
of hostilities in Europe or British India ; even at this
moment a larger military force is kept up at Ceylon
than is required for the mere protection of the island,
^ Schedule of duties levied on cocoa-nut plantations : —
Distilling of arrack jg3,644 Exports of jaghery d&162
Retail of ditto . 24,975 Ditto of copperas 1,539
Export of ditto . 3,13G Ditto of cocoa nuts 1,551
Ditto of coira or rope 153 Ditto of cocoa-nut oil 413
104 CEYLON.
in consequence of its being the Malta or Gibraltar of
our eastern possessions. The following abstract was
laid before the Finance Committee of Parliament in
1828M—
^ I found the following statement among the Marquess
Wellesley's papers : —
Receipts in Ceylon.
Pagodas.
1796-7 304,152
1797-8 about.... {3«8.708
842,860
Charges in Ceylon.
Pagodas.
1796.7 ... 5 ^'^23
"•^'^ ' I 42,394
1797-8 78,799
130,516
Pagodas.
1 795-6 about 9,000
Add amount of receipts 8 42,860
851,860
Deduct charges 130,516
Remains 721,344
Exclusive of the receipts for the pearl fishery since 30th
April, 1798.
The amount of the pearl fishery, since 30th April, 1798,
though not stated in the above extract of the account in gene-
ral, received from Mr. Webbe, has yielded to the Madras trea-
sury, according to the best information I could obtain, the sum
of 150,000 pagodas ; therefore,
Pagodas.
The amount of the pearl fishery, since 30th April,
1798 150,000
Added to the balance in favour of Ceylon, as above 721,344
Makes 871,344
As the above extract does not specify the particular charges,
it is probable that the greater part of the military disburse-
ments constitute no part of the charges.
NET REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE,
lOl
Net Revenue and Expenditure of Ceylon for Fourteen Years.
Years.
Net
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Excess of
Expenditure.
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
£
301758
271210
320806
352416
376757
344846
340020
359595
342375
404123
370497
313142
286862
297945
£
411249
370301
491776
409369
511434
450502
416491
454496
478940
476054
410126
369038
404480
393548
£
109491
99091
170070
56953
134677
105656
76471
94901
136565
71931
39629
55896
117618
95603
4652352
6047804
1362552
We perceive from the foregoing, that notwith-
standing the heavy expenses incurred by the Kandyan
war, and the necessity for occupying a large extent
of the interior, which for several years could not be
expected to meet the charges requisite for its main-
tenance and peace, yet the excess of expenditure in
the latter years had considerably diminished ; but a
more agreeable prospect of the finances of the colony
is presented to us in the Ceylon Almanac for 1834,
which gives the revenue and expenditure from 1821
to 1832 thus—
106
CEYLON REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
Years.
«3
=i
o
PS
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
Total
£
459699
473669
355406
387259
355320
278358
264785
305712
389534
403475
420170
369437
£
481854
458346
476242
441592
495529
394229
411648
339516
344757
347029
356565
338100
£
15328
44777
56446
73605
31337
£
22155
120836
54333
140209
115879
146913
38894
4362824
4885407
221493
639219
Under a recent revision of the government offices
and retrenchment, the following scale of salaries has
been established : —
Civil Offices, of the yearly Value of 300/. and above.
— Governor, 7000/. ; Colonial Secretary, 2000/. ;
Assistant ditto, and Clerk to the Executive and Le-
gislative Councils, 600/. ; Treasurer and Commis-
sioner of Stamps, 1500/. ; Auditor General and Comp-
troller of Revenue, 1500/. ; Civil Engineer and Sur-
veyor General, 800/. ; Postmaster General, 300/. ;
Harbour Master at Colombo, 700/. ; ditto Galle,
500/. ; Collector of Customs, 1000/. ; Government
Agent at Colombo, 1200/. ; Assistant ditto at ditto,
300/. ; ditto ditto at Caltura, 400/. ; Government
Agent at Galle, 1000/. ; Assistant to ditto at ]\Iatura,
400/. ; ditto at Batticaloa, 400/. ; Government Agent
at Trincomalee, 1000/. ; ditto at Jaffna, 1200/. ; As-
CIVIL AND JUDICIAL OFFICES. 107
sistant ditto at ditto, 300/. ; ditto at Manaar, 400/. ;
ditto at Chilaw, 400/. ; Government Agent at Kandy,
1200/. ; Assistant ditto at Kurunegalle, 400/. ; ditto
at Ratnapoora, 400/. ; — 24,900/, Being an average
decrease of 2233 per cent, upon the existing esta-
blishments, and 3887 per cent, including the offices
established.
Civil Offices of the yearly Value of 500/. and under,
per annum. — Superintendant General of Vaccination,
450/. ; Five Assistants at 90/. each, 450/. ; Harbour
Master of Trincomalee, 400/. : Assistant Engineer
and Surveyor, 300/. ; Superintendant of the Botani-
cal Gardens, 250/. ; Supervisor of the Pearl Banks,
500/. ; Assistant Agent at Badulla, 400/. ; ditto
Alipoot, 400/. ; ditto Ruanwelle, 400/. ; ditto Ma-
telle, 400/. ; ditto Fort King, 400/. ; ditto Madawa-
latenne, 400/. ; — 4750. Being an average increase
of 1463 per cent, exclusive of the six last mentioned
officers.
Judicial Offices of the yearly Value of 5001. and above.
— Chief Justice, 2500/. ; Senior Puisne ditto, 1500/.;
Queen's Advocate, 1200/.; Deputy ditto, 1000/.;
Registrar of the Supreme Court, 600/. ; District
Judge of Colombo, 1000/. ; ditto Galle, 1000/. ; ditto
Trincomalee, 1000/.; ditto Jaffiia, 1000/.; ditto
Chilaw and Putlam, 500/. ; ditto Kandy, 1000/. ;
ditto Ratnapoora, 150/. ; — total, 12,450/. Being an
average decrease of 2966 per cent.
Judicial Offices under 500/. per annum. — Fiscal of
the Western Province, 350/. ; Private Secretary to
the Chief Justice, 270/. ; ditto Senior Puisne ditto,
1 80/. ; District Judge of Batticaloa, 250/. ; ditto
108 CEYLOX.
Maiiaar, 200/. ; Sitting Magistrates of Caltura, 135/. ;
ditto Pantura, 225/. ; ditto Negombo, 225/. ; ditto
Amblangodde, 225/. ; ditto Matura, 225/. ; ditto
Hambantotte, 135/. ; ditto MuUetivoe, 225/. ; ditto
Point Pedro, 157/.; ditto Mallagam, 225/.; ditto
Kaits, 157/. ; ditto Chavagacherry, 225/. ; ditto Kur-
negalle, 150/.; ditto Badulla, 150/.; ditto Alipoot,
150/.; ditto Ruanwelle, 150/.; ditto Matele, 150/.;
Fort King, 150/.: Nuwera Ellia, 150/. ; — 4460.
Being an increase of 2676 per cent, exclusive of the
seven last-mentioned offices.
Offices newly created. — Civil. — Assistant Agent
at Negombo, 400/. ; ditto at Galle, 300/. ; ditto at
Hambantotte, 400/. ; ditto at Kandy, 300/.
Judicial. — Second Puisne Justice, 1500/.; Private
Secretary to ditto, 1 80/ ; District Judge of Nuwera
Ellia, 150/.
Ecclesiastical. — College Professor (deferred), 300/.
Total, 3530/.
These salaries are not high, compared with those
of the other functionaries of the island, nor in refe-
rence to the tropical nature of the climate, and the
necessity of paying dignitaries vested with high
authority salaries placing them above the reach of
temptation ; for no policy can be more short-sighted
than inadequately remunerating the servants of the
state. When the Dutch had Ceylon, for instance,
the salaries of their officers, from the governor down-
wards, were not one-fifth of our servants, but amends
were made by the former plundering the people in
every possible shape, and by the institution of trading
monopolies in the hands of government, from the
EDUCATION. 109
melancholy effects of which the island is still suffer-
ing. By an important document presented to Par-
liament near the close of the last session, showing a
reduction in colonial expenditure, prospective and
immediate, Ceylon is thus therein noted down : —
Charge when reduction commenced, 190,570/. ; im-
mediate saving, 30,732/. ; prospectivesaving, 27,378/. ;
total retrenchment, 58,110/.
There is a civil pension fund in Ceylon, by the
rules of which the subscribers are entitled to pensions
after twelve years actual service and subscription ;
the amount of pension being regulated according to
the salary received by the officer during the last two
years previous to his retirement. The pensions now
paid by the fund amount to 12,000/. a-year. It
would be well if Great Britain had a similar institu-
tion or institutions for the different departments of
the service, by which the future dead weight of the
expenditure would be materially relieved, and it would
be most desirable that every colony had a pension
fund formed after the plan of Ceylon.
Education. — According to Baldeeus, when the
Dutch obtained possession of this island, they pur-
sued the plan of enlightening its inhabitants by edu-
cation, as a means of christianizing the natives.
The following most interesting statement of the
churches and schools established in Jafnapatam and
Manaar in Ceylon, is given by Baldaeus, in his ac-
count of Malabar and Ceylon, printed at Amsterdam,
in 1672: —
Jelipole, August, 1658, church established.
110 CEYLON.
January IStli, 1661, sacrament first administered
to twelve communicants of the natives.
1665. 1,000 scholars, 2,000 auditors ; Mallagam,
200 scholars, 600 auditors ; Mayletti, 750 scholars,
1,600 auditors ; Achiavelli, 500 scholars, 2,000 au-
ditors ; Oudewill, 600 scholars, 1 ,000 auditors ; Bate-
cotte, 900 scholars, 2,000 auditors ; Paneteripore,
600 scholars, 1,300 auditors ; Changane, 700 scho-
lars, church filled ; Manipay, 560 scholars, 700 au-
ditors ; Yanarpone, 200 scholars, 600 auditors ; Na-
lour, 590 scholars (the people here still incline to
Paganism) ; Sundecouli, 450 scholars, 400 auditors.
Thus far of the Province Belligame and its
churches, unto which belong Copay and Pontour,
containing about 800 scholars and 2,000 souls.
The second Province of Jafnapatam is Tenmarache,
containing five churches and the villages thereto
belonging : —
1st, Navacouli, 400 scholars, 800 auditors; Cha-
vagatzery, 1 ,000 scholars, 2,500 auditors ; Cathay>
550 scholars, 1,200 auditors; Haranni, 800 scholars,
2,500 auditors; Illondi Matual, 650 scholars, 1,200
auditors.
The third province is called Waddemarache, hav-
ing three churches : —
1st, Catavelli, 600 scholars, 1,205 auditors; Ure-
putti, 690 scholars ; 900 auditors; Paretilure, 1,000
scholars, 3,000 auditors.
The last and furthermost Province called Palchia-
rapalle has four churches and as many schools : —
1st, Poelepolay, 300 scholars, 600 auditors ; Mo-
i
EDUCATION. Ill
gommale, 450 scholars, 500 auditors ; Jambamme,
500 scholars, 900 auditors ; Mulipatto, 215 scholars,
350 auditors.
Several of these schools continue ; others have
been discontinued, or have merged in similar estab-
lishments formed in their neighbourhood.
The government schools are in number about 100,
of which the far greater part are in the Singalese or
maritime districts ; they were originally established
by the Dutch , and, according to Colonel Cole-
brooke's report, the numbers educated have been as
follows : —
Protestants 83756 Mahomedans 14847
Roman Catholics . . 38155 Boodhists 78G02
Total .. 121911 Total .. 93449
The expenditure amounts to about 3600/. per an-
num ; and it is to be hoped it will be extended to
the Malabar and Kandyan districts. The school-
masters receive a small stipend of 61. 6s. per an-
num, and they derive further emolument from fees
received for registering native marriages, a duty
which the government are very properly careful in
attending to.
The following return for 1831 gives the statistics
of the state of education, of the churches, chapels,
and gaols in Ceylon.
112
CEYLON.
^ Q> X
^
CO
00
02
o
<:
o
ui sqiBaa JO -o^i
t
2885 j 14
P.. « 5i
•jBaA aii; 3uunp
ssaui{jis JO sasBQ
Number
of Persons
who usually
attend.
«5
•paXoiduiiun
sjauosuj JO '0^
CO
\-i
W
Ph
<
•jnoqei
pauH ;b jda^t
sjauosuj JO -o^I
©
00
00
X
Q
m
w
K
Number
of Persons
they are
capable of
containing.
o
o
00
oo
Total
Number of
Prisoners.
S
<a
C5
o
Number
of Places
of
Worship.
CO
CO
Pi
o
Total
Number of
Criminals.
in
CI
o
00
Expense
of
Schools.
Number con-
fined for
Felonies.
o
o
CO
.
"o
o
"o
VI
4J
i)
O
3
CO
o
H
Number con-
fined for Mis-
demeanours.
00
S
oo
li
©
to
o
H
Q
C5
Number of
Persons con-
fined lor Debt.
S
(M
Ci
Number
of
Schools.
in
»n
■SuniiKjuoj JO
ajqudBO ajB .{aqj
saauosijj jo -os^
1
CO
J
BaA
•suosuj
JO jaqumNj;
t^
EDUCATION. 113
A more detailed account of the present state and
progress of education is afforded by the following
tabular view of schools in 1831, separated into sta-
tions and establishments, &c. The number of mis-
sionary institutions (among which those of the Ame-
rican missionaries are highly deserving commendation)
will be examined with much gratification. I cannot
omit any opportunity of earnestly entreating all who
have the welfare of their fellow creatures at heart,
to support the efforts of Missionaries in our colonies ;
those only w^ho like myself have witnessed their
enthusiastic devotion to the ennobling pursuits which
occupy their whole lives, can adequately appreciate
the value of their labours. In Ceylon, education
and improved habits of society will be, I trust, the
prelude to the permanent establishment of Chris-
tianity. Let every thing be done in due order, not
too rapidly hastening on the good work ; but let the
soil be cleared of weeds ; the ground well ploughed
and harrowed, good seed sown, and providence will
complete all.
114
CEYLON.
Return of the Number of Scliocls in Ceylon in 1831.
Districts.
Divisions.
u o
Colombo'
Pt. de
Galle
Matura .
Chilaw
Kandyan
Provinces
4 Gravets of Co
lombo
Aloetkoer Korle
Salpitte Korle...
Hina Korle
HapitiganiKorle
Hewagam Korle
Raygam Korle ..
Pasdaem Korle.
Walalawitty
Korle
4 Gravets of
Galle
Walalawitty
Korle
GangeboddePat-
too
Talpe Pattoo
We llabodde Pat-
too
4 Gravets of
Matura
Belligam Korle
Moruwa Korle .
Girreway Pattoo
GangeboddePat-
too
5
Batticaloa
1
Trincomalee ....
Jaffna
2
1
Manar
Chilaw
1
CalpentjTi
Delft
1
Total
99
Kandy, &c
Kornegalle, &c..
Grand Total... 99
* Included in the Private Schools.
MISSIONS.
115
Church Mission. — Schools established in 1818,
and occupying four stations, has schools 53, contain-
ing 1554 boys, 254 girls, and 61 adults; total, 1869.
Employs 83 native teachers and assistants, and has
printing and bookbinding establishments at Cotta
and Nellore. The number of boys in the Cotta in-
stitution is 16, of whom 11 are Singalese, and 5
Tamulians.
Wesleyan Mission, established in 1814, and oc-
cupying 7 seven stations, has 65 schools in Singa-
lese, or southern, and 21 in Tamul, or northern
districts, thus : —
SINGALESE.
TAIMULIANS.
p
'3.
2
"a
02
Schools.
Boys.
CO
o
o
Colombo
7\ 3S4I 29
413
459
156
91?
638
583
30
3196
Jaffna
Point Pedro
Trincomalee
6
\
6
238
401
110
189
Xeo'ombo
12
6
16
11
13
1
65
376i 83
1521 4
806; 111
514; 124
548! 35
30' --
Seven Korles
Caltura
Gallee
Total
Matura
21
938
Morawa
Total
1
2810
386
The return for 1832 shows, in the South Ceylon
district, an aggregate of 69 schools, with 2896 boys,
427 girls, and 104 male and female teachers; in ad-
dition to which, the Wesleyans emplo}^ 15 salaried
catechists, who assist in the superintendence of the
schools, and conduct public worship on the Sabbath
days. The mission has had a printing establishment
and two presses at Colombo since its formation.
American Mission has five stations and a high
1 2
IIG CEYLON.
school or college at Batticaloa, containing 10 stu-
dents in Christian theology, and 110 students in
English and the elements of sciences, and 22 in
Tamul, all on the charity foundation, besides six day
scholars. A female central school at Oodooville, with
52 girls on the foundation, and 76 native free schools,
with 2200 boys and 400 girls.
Baptist Mission, instituted in 1812, has two sta-
tions and 16 schools, containing about 800 children,
instructed in English, Portuguese, Tamul, and Singa-
lese, bv 20 teachers : four are female schools ; the
annual expense of this mission (160/. per annum) is
almost exclusively borne by the parent society in
England.
Roman Catholic Mission, established in 1687,
occupies 12 stations, presided over by 12 pastors. Of
its schools or progress I could learn no information,
either in Ceylon or in England.
The Press. — Little can yet be said on this impor-
tant subject ; until lately there was only a govern-
ment gazette in the island ; recently, however, a
Colombo Observer has been added, and I trust it is
but a prelude to extended intelligence and public
spirit.
Commerce. — The trade, internal and maritime, of
this rich and beautiful island, has been materially
checked by the pernicious system of government mo-
nopolies, introduced originally by the Dutch gover-
nors, to enable them to make up the deficient salaries
allotted them by the home government ; that system
is now, however, in the course of total abolition ;
and Ceylon will doubtless again resume that position
among the commercial emporiums of the east, for
SHIPPING.
117
which nature seems so admirably to have fitted her.
There are no documents at the London Custom House
to show the extent and value of the trade of this
island, as given in my other volumes. The greater
part of the following returns I obtained in manuscript
from the Colonial Office. I proceed, therefore, to
show — 1st, the shipping employed in the trade of
Ceylon (it has no tonnage of its own worth mention-
ing) ; 2nd, value of the commerce carried on ; and,
3rd, the nature and quantity of the staple exports of
the island.
Shipping, Inwards and Outwards, of Ceylon
SHIPS INWARDS— FROM
13
Great
British
Foi-eign
Total
Britain.
Colonies.
States.
Inwards.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
1825
7
2631
779
26316
9
2579
795
31526
1826
12
4609
1119
32765
53
5528
1264
42898
1827
G
2336
1552
57427
164
12009
1722
71772
1828
23
8756
1137
41682
1.54
9631
1314
60069
1829
13
4857
988
56826
156
8229
1157
69912
1830
11
3911
878
60157
169
12962
1058
77030
1831
7
2547
1044
48339
171
12847
1222
63833
1832
13
4603
1186
47911
212
13514
1411
66096
5
HIPS OUTWA
RDS— TO
Great
British
Foreign
Total
Britain.
Colonies.
States.
Outwards.
No. Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
1825
8
3002
1643
54C68
10
2489
1661
60159
1826
9
3525
1096
33122
53
3176
1158
39823
1827
10
4182
1475
58756
47
3999
1532
66937
1828
9
3551
1048
41890
38
3185
1095
48626
1829
13
4869
1098
56936
36
2564
1147
64369
1830
11
3769
1176
63494
47
2624
1234
69887
1831
7
2429
1040
53149
28
2256
1075
57834
1832
14
4768
1259
66742
32
1807
1305
73317
118
CEYLON
Imports and Exports of Ceylon.
IMPORTS FROM
Great
British
Foreign
Total
Britain.
Colonies.
States.
Imports.
£
£
£
£
1825
23440
264499
3362
296301
1826
212C2
250219
38266
309747
1827
16800
299974
26535
343309
1828
29984
269518
24431
323933
1829
39290
272654
28256
340200
1830
40777
274576
34228
3495S1
1831
28599
227150
27278
2829SS
1832
47792
263372
40058
351223
1S33
60812
229932
30145
320891
03
EXPORTS TO
Great
British
Foreign
Total
Britain.
Colonies.
States.
Exports.
£
£
£
£
1825
97537
122956
3895
22438S
1826
177523
79408
6001
262922
1827
233452
82016
2225
317693
1828
149551
64189
1631
215371
1829
196558
88256
1330
286144
1830
168576
80675
1536
250787
1831
59903
60505
740
152293
1832
98526
54102
2839
15600S
1833
42403
55100
2966
132529
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
119
Return of the quantities of Cinnamon, Cocoa-nut Oil, Coffee,
Coir Rope, and Arrack, exported since 1827.
Years.
Cinnamon.
Cocoa-nut
Oil.
Coffee.
Coir Rope.
Arrack.
Bales.
Gallons.
cwts.
cwts.
Leaguers.
1827
45289
84588
16008
6775
3188
1828
48618
173420
7072
10064
4299
1829
25031
126491
20033
9198
4428
1830
15761
118511
16900
14520
4901
1831
80800
98803
23683
7804
1832
82600
137721
38127
12695
1833
77530
112671
4928
3256
Return of the Quantity of Grain, and estimated Value of Cloth,
imported since 1825, distinguishing the Cloth from the
Coast and from Great Britain.
1^
Grain in Quantities.
Cloth in "Value.
Rice.
Paddy.
Wheat.
Gram, and
sundry
dryGrains.
From
the
Coast.
i
From
Great
Britain.
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
Parrahs.
532421
592244
763179
492712
501915
667295
729409
803767
775593
Parrahs.
714396
696109
703246
535844
673303
940404
785072
958312
438617
Parrahs.
12G80
30620
13531
19416
35203
25423
27819
33255
34879
Parrahs.
11881
9965
13628
10145
10592
10588
13332
SS05
10108
i £
75953
106163
1 164405
! 143096
133283
1 117911
1 96626
97055
62619
£
4027
3207
562
4656
5409
5948
5226
13520
12575
Weights and Measures. — The Singalese, or dry
measure is 4 cut chundroons = 1 cut measure or
seer ; -I- = 1 coornie ; 2-^^ = 1 marcal ; 2 = 1
parrah ; 8 = 1 amuconam ; 9-| = 1 last.
The internal measure of a standard parrah is a
perfect cube of 11 .57.100 inches : the seer is a per-
120 CEYLON.
feet cylinder — depth 4.35 inches, diameter 4.35
inches ; the weight of the parrah measure, according
to the custom-house account is, for coffee, from 50
to 35 lbs. ; pepper, 27 to 30 lbs. ; salt 52 to 55 lbs.;
paddy (unhusked rice) 30 to 33 lbs. ; rice 42 to
46 lbs. : the candy or bahar = 500 lbs. avoirdupois,
or 461 lbs. Dutch troy weight.
Kandian Measure of Surface. — 8 lahas = 1
coornie (lO^^I square perches) 10 = 1 peyla (2
square roods, 29f square perches) 4 = 1 ammonam
(2 acres, 2 square roods, 37|- square perches). But
although the average extent of 1 ammonam is found
to be 2 acres, 2 roods, and 2 perches ; the measure-
ment of land is not calculated from the specific area,
but from the quantity of seed required to be sown on
it, and consequently according to its fertility.
Weights of ounces, pounds, &c. are used also
throughout the island, British standard. The bale of
cinnamon consists of nearlv 92^^ lbs.
Liquid Measure. — Gallons and their multiples
and sub-multiples : 150 gallon = 1 leaguer or
legger.
Monetary System. — The circulation of late is
pounds, shillings, and pence, as in England, and
accounts are becoming more generally kept in the
same : therixdollar is equal to Is. 6d. — it is divided
into 12 fanams (a thick copper coin) and each fanam
into 4 pice. There is a government bank at Co-
lombo, but I can obtain no returns of its circulation
or deposits ; notes are issued by government, but no
annual returns are published of the amount, nor is
there any information within the reach of the Colonial
MONETARY SYSTEM. 121
Office in Downing Street, as to the real state of the
paper and metallic circulation in the island. It is
proposed to establish a private bank at Colombo, of
which indeed the island stands much in need ; saving
banks are now in full operation.
It may readily be imagined how valuable the trade
of this island may become under a freedom from re-
striction within, and justice in England on its pro-
ducts. At present, its most valuable articles, sugar,
coffee, tobacco, pepper, &c. labour under the same dis-
advantages in the English markets as those of India.
The Cingalese might make cotton cloth enough for
their own consumption, but our present system of
colonial legislation compels them to receive the steam
wrought manufactures of Manchester and Glasgow at
five per cent, ad valorem duty. While we put a duty
on their sugar, when imported into England of one
hundred and fifty per cent. On their coffee, three hun-
dred per cent. On their pepper, four hundred per cent.
Oiit\\Q\T2iXY2ick one thousand {}.) &c. &c. Is this justice.''
In fine, this rich and beautiful isle of spices — so
thinly populated yet so capable of supporting twenty
times its present population, — so impoverished yet
so bountifully blessed by nature with every thing
which can conduce to the happiness of man, — so ad-
mirably situate at the extremity of the Asiatic Penin-
sula, from which it is separated yet connected, — and
so well adapted as an entrepot for eastern commerce,
requires only to be seen to be appreciated. I have
visited every quarter of the globe — but have seen no
place so lovely — romantic — so admirably situate —
whether as regards the poet, the painter, the mer-
122 CEYLON.
chant, or the statesman, as Ceylon ; — that its intrinsic
worth may be appreciated in England is the author's
fondest wish, not less on account of the fascinating
spot to which these remarks have reference, than for
the sake of England herself. A time will come (may
the day be distant) when Great Britain will cease to
hold her empire on the continent of India ^ and when
the nations of Europe will contend for maritime su-
periority in the east ; — we have before us the exam-
ples of the Portugese and Dutch, — thev neglected
Ceylon ; the one made it the cradle of idolatrous su-
perstitions, the other the temple of trading cupidity.
We are now in the fair course to shun both extremes;
our missionaries (the pioneers of civilization) are ex-
tending the beatitude of the gospel among the dark,
benighted heathen, — our merchants, freeing them-
selves from the pernicious shackles of monopolies, are
making peaceful Commerce, as she ought to be, the
companion of Religion ; under both these influences
Ceylon bids fair to be one of the most important co-
lonies of the British empire. That to England may
belong the glory of re-peopling, civilizing, and Chris-
tianizing this romantic isle, is earnestly hoped by
one whose earliest travelling days were spent in ex-
ploring paths where no white man's foot before trod
— and where the untutored savage and the destructive
beast of the forest nov/ dispute for pre-eminence.
^ It is on this account that I deem the insular possessions
of Britain of sucli great importance; for instance, an extensive
revolt throughout India, or its successful invasion by Russia,
inight annihilate our dominion on the continent, while our
possession of Ceylon would remain unshaken, and thus enable
us to preserve, at least, a portion of commerce. (See my Colo-
nial Policy.)
( 123 ) ^-'^
BOOK li.
PENANG, OR PRINCE OF WALES' ISLAND.
CHAPTER I.
PENANG, MALACCA, AND SINCAPORE.
LOCALITY, AREA, PHYSICAL ASPECT, HISTORY, POPULATION,
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE,
SOCIAL CONDITION, AND POLITICAL AND GENERAL ADVAN-
TAGES, &C.
This picturesque island (so well adapted for a com-
mercial entrepot) is situate on the west coast of the
Malayan peninsula, in latitude from 5° 15' to 5° 29'
north, and longitude 100° east; its greatest length
is sixteen statute miles from north to south, and its
greatest breadth twelve miles at the north, and de-
creasing to eight miles at the south, thus forming an
irregular four sided shape, with a range of lofty hills
in the centre, the whole computed to contain 160
'22i: PENANG.
square miles. The valley of Penang\ about three
miles in breadth, is the level part of the island on its
eastern side, extending- from the hills to the sea, of a
triangular shape, the ranges of mountains forming
the base and the apex, called Tanjong, jutting into
the harbour, and having George Town (the capital)
and the Fort of Penang built on it, on which, for
three miles in every direction from the point, private
houses extend. Almost the whole of the northern
shore is mountainous, and through the centre of the
island runs a range of hills, decreasing in height and
magnitude as they reach towards the south. On the
west and south of the mountains there is a consider-
able quantity of level ground of good quality for every
species of cultivation, as is now demonstrated by the
general culture thereof. Indeed two-thirds of Penang
is of level or gentle inclination. The east, owing to
its moistness, is covered with rice fields ; the south
and west valleys, though partly cultivated for the
same purpose, are chiefly laid out in pepper gardens
and spice plantations. Every where close to the
coast, as in Ceylon, runs an extensive belt of cocoa-
nut trees, and scattered over the island in various
groups appear groves of the graceful areca palm (or
Penang) from which the isle takes its Malay name.
The hills and low grounds, where not cultivated, are
thickly covered with wood. Vegetation is splendidly
luxuriant, and for miles and miles the eye rests on
one dense mass of mountain forest. Besides George
' Penang is the Malay term for the areca or betel nut, which
the Malays think tlie isle bears some i*esemblance to in shape.
PHYSICAL ASPECT. 125
Town (the capital) above alluded to, there is only
one large collection of houses entitled James Town,
situated on the sea shore, four miles to the south of
the capital, amidst a grove of the lovely palm tribe.
Numerous small villages and Malay topes are scat-
tered over the island, especially on the south side,
often beautifully and romantically situated on the
coast or amidst spice groves in the vales.
The hill called the " Highlands of Scotland" is 1428
feet above the sea, and, like the other stations, the
situation and climate of which are delightful. The
whole of the valley is of alluvial formation, and it
would appear that the sea once washed the base of
the mountains ; for on the opposite shore of Quedah,
successive deposits of alluvial matter have been traced
for several miles inland, indicating the gradual re-
tirement of the ocean, by ridges being seen running
parallel with the present line of coast'.
A recent visitor thus describes his ideas on ap-
proaching Penang. " The island, with the exception
of two plains of inconsiderable extent on the eastern
and western shores, consists of one range of lofty
hills, with towering peaks. The entrance to the har-
bour leading between the island and the Quedah
coast, on which side the view is arrested by a noble
chain of mountains, whose lofty summits terminate
in a majestic outline, is picturesque and beautiful ;
the neat bungalows ranged round the bay, close to
the water's edge, the fort projecting into the sea, the
^ Many interesting details of this picturesque island have
been printed by Dr. Ward of the Madras service, in the Singa-
pore Chronicle of July, 1833.
126 PENANG.
town lining the beach, and the distant islands shutting
the passage to the south, form a panoramic view of
great interest."
The harbour of George Town, the capital, is capa-
cious, with good anchorage, and well defended ; it is
formed by a strait about two miles wide, that sepa-
rates Penang from the opposite Quedah coast on the
Malayan peninsula, and the whole navy of Great
Britain might find shelter therein. The sea is placid
throughout the year, and the periodical effects of the
monsoons little felt, the winds partaking more of the
character of land and sea breezes.
When storms rage at sea the tides are affected by
being irregular in their flow through the islands,
sometimes running in one direction for several days
with great rapidity, and then changing to another.
The town is one of the neatest in India ; the streets
wide, straight, and at right angles ; the buildings are
respectable, and the Chinese shopkeepers (who are
the principal tradesmen) lay out their " godowns"
tastefully. The roads are among the finest in India,
their beauty being enhanced by the strength and
luxuriance of the vegetation, which continues the
whole year round.
History. — When first known to Europeans, the
island appeared quite untenanted, covered with forests,
and considered as a part of the possessions of the King
of Quedah on the contiguous coast. In 1785, Cap-
tain Light, the commander of a " country ship" in
India, having married the King of Quedah's daughter,
received a gift of the island as a marriage portion.
Captain Light transferred it to the East India Com-
7
CLIMATE. 127
panv, who having entered into a treaty with his
Quedah Majesty (which was to last as long as the
sun and moon gave light !) agreed to pay 6000 dol-
lars annually to the King, which in 1 800 was raised
to 10,000, in consideration of the Company receiving
the Wellesley province on the main land opposite
Penang, a territory extending thirty-five miles along
the coast, four miles inland from the south bank of
the Quaila Mudda to the north bank of the Krian
River, latitude 5° 20' north.
Climate.— J anuaiy and February are the dry and
hot months, and November and December the rainy
ones ; but excepting the two former, the island is
seldom a week without refreshing showers. The
thermometer on Flag-staff Hill (2248 feet high) never
rises beyond 78° Fah. (seldom to 74°), and falls to
66^; on the plain it ranges from 76° to 90"^. The
island is considered remarkably healthy. The climate
of the high land of Penang resembles that of Funchal
at Madeira, possessing the advantage of a very limited
range of thermometer, the greatest range in twenty-
four hours being 11°, and generally only three or
four. The lightness and purity of the atmosphere
elevate the spirits and render the step free and buoy-
ant, while the splendid and varied scenery, the island
itself with its hills and dales, the calm ocean around
studded with verdant isles, and the opposite coast of
Quedah with chains of mountains towering chain over
chain, combined with the health-inspiring breezes,
render a residence among the gardens of Penang of
much value to the invalid.
128 PENANG.
Geology. — The mountains are entirely composed
of fine gray granite, and the smaller hills are of the
same material, excepting some hills near the coast
formed of laterite, as is also Saddle Island, on the
south-west angle of Penang. A tin mine was worked
some years ago in the hills, and doubtless many
valuable minerals exist in the mountains, which are
probably equal in quality to. those of the contiguous
Malayan peninsula.
The soil is generally a light black mould mixed
with gravel and clay, and in some parts there is a
rich vegetable ground, formed by the decayed leaves
of the forest, with which the island had for ages been
covered : the coast soil is sandy but fertile.
Vegetable Kingdom. — The botany of the island
is rich and varied. On the mountains grow the poon,
bitanger, rangas, red poon, dammerlaut, wood oil
tree, the cypress, and some superb species of arbo-
rescent ferns. The caoutchouc or elastic gum winds
round all the trees in a spiral form. All the Malacca
fruits, with the exception of the duku, grow in great
abundance ; the sugar-cane and pepper- vine are ex-
tensively cultivated ; the quantity of pepper annually
produced averages 2,025,000 lbs. avoirdupois ; cloves
and nutmegs thrive well, the former cover the tops
of the cleared summits, the latter are found in every
part of the valley, one plantation alone occupying a
space of several square miles ; coffee yields abun-
dantly ; extensive fields of pine apples of delicious
gout are found at the foot of the mountains ; the tea
plant grows wild ; ginger, cinnamon, cotton, tobacco.
ZOOLOGY AND POPULATION. 129
and in fact every intertropical production is capable
of being- brought to the highest state of perfection.
Zoology, &c. — The Malayan elk {cei'vus equinus)
is found in the deep forests ; the mouse and spotted deer
are both very abundant ; monkeys, the lemur volans,
the wild cat, otter, and bat form the only indigenous
animals, and the snakes, as in all tropical isles, are
numerous ; a species of boa (the python of Cuvier)
eighteen to twenty feet long, is found in the hills.
Beef, mutton, and pork are of excellent flavour, and a
great variety of fish furnish the bazaar.
Population. — When the Company's establishment
was formed at Penang, in 1786, the only inhabitants
were a few miserable fishermen on the sea coast. In
consequence of the disturbances in the Malayan prin-
cipalities, and the encouragement given to settlers by
the East India Company, a native population of vari-
ous descriptions arose. The population of the set-
tlement, according to all the returns before me, has
been as follows, during the years —
1821 No. 38,057 1826 No. 55,116
1822 51,207 1827 57,986
1824 53,669 1828 60,551
The following official return^ shows the motley
population of Penang : —
^ This table, as also many others in the volume now pre-
sented, have never before been printed, either by the East India
Company or by Parliament ; and I am indebted for them to
the well known urbanity of the Court of Directors of the East
India Company.
CEYLON, &c. K
130
PENAN G.
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IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 131
Between October, 1828, and December, 1829, the
population had increased 3000. The number of
mouths may now be calculated at upwards of 60,000.
Commerce. — The trade of Penang is carried on
with Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, England, China,
Java, Ceylon, Siam, Tenasserim coast, Acheen, Delhi,
Quedah, and a few petty native ports. In ]Mr. Ful-
larton's elaborate paper on the trade of our eastern
islands, printed in the East India papers in 1833
(II. Trade, part 2, Commercial, page 878,) it appears
that the total value of imports into Penang were —
In 1828-9 . . . S. rupees 52,23,872
Exports from ditto . . . 36,00,900
Excess . 16,22,972
The imports and exports of specie for the same
year were —
Imports . . . S. rupees 8,32,232
Exports .... 7,19,876
Excess . 1,12,356
The value of imports in sicca rupees from Calcutta
was 10,94,986; from Madras, 16,95,850; Bombay,
2,65,290; England, 1,67,670; China, 2,18,440;
Siam, 1,77,610; Tenasserim,. 1,77,010; Acheen,
8,08,513 ; Delhi (a petty state on the Sumatra shore),
2,04,905 ; and Quedah, 2,21,200; the exports value
to the same places in succession were 3,57,126;
2,38,765; 2,30,146, 50,668; 9,65,834; 96,093;
1,55,152; 10,75,842; 1,58,930; and to Quedah,
1,35,930.
K 2
132 PENANG.
Of the imports, opium alone consists of upwards of
seven lac of rupees ; the other items are comprised of
the various produce of the Straits, or of India and
British goods, the trade being one of transit. Birds'
nests for Chinese soups is one of the most important
articles.
The value of Penang as a spice island is shown in
the following statement, which appeared in the Sin-
gapore Chronicle of August 28, 1834 : —
Penang has been a spice island from the period nearly of its
first settlement. Pepper engrossed the consideration of capi-
talists for many years, and until the price fell so low that the
returns no more than repaid the outlay. But previous to this
check another resource of gain opened by the introduction to
the island of the nutmeg and clove tree.
In 1798 a few spice plants were imported from the Dutch
spice islands ; but in the year 1800 there were brought from
Amboyna 5000 nutmeg and 15,000 clove plants. In 1802 a
further and larger number arrived, the collection of the govern-
ment agent, Mr. Hunter. This consisted of 25,026 seedling
nutmeg trees, and 175 plants of ages varying from four to seven
years.
Shortly before this last period a government spice garden
had been established, embracing 130 acres of land, lying on
the slopes which skirt the base of the hill near Amie's Mills, a
romantic spot, and well watered by a running stream now
called Ayer Putih. This plantation, in some respects a n>ere
nursery, contained, in the above year, the number of 19,628
nutmeg plants, varying from one up to four years old, 3459
being four years of age. There were also G259 clove trees, of
which 669 were above six and under seven years old.
In the same year, 1802, Mr. Smith, the Honourable Com-
pany's botanist, reported that he had imported in all to the
island at tliat date 71>266 nutmeg and 55,264 clove plants, out
of which a few were reserved for the botanical gardens at Kew,
Calcutta, and Madras. Most of the plantations now in a pro-
NUTMEG AND CLOVE TREES. 133
ductive state have been created by plants raised from nuts
yielded by trees of the original importations, and a number of
nutmeg trees which had been planted on the face of a hill and
abandoned, were, after a lapse of about four years, rescued from
thick jungle and found to be in a lively condition and in bear-
ing. The wild nutmeg tree is indigenous to Penang, being an
inhabitant of the hills. It is a tall forest tree, and bears a
more oval shaped fruit than the true nutmeg tree. Both the
nut and mace are less pungent and more astringent than the
true spice, yet the Chuliahs have been in the habit of gather-
ing them and selling them in the native bazaars.
There are several varieties of the cultivated nutmeg on
Penang, distinguished from other by the tinge of the leaf and
shape of the nut. In some the former is small and light in
colour, in others dark and large. In one the nut is oval or
egg-shaped, each nut hanging on a tendril of four or five inches
in length ; in another it resembles a small peach ; and in a
third it is small and nearly circular.
In 1805 there were only 23 bearing clove trees in the Com-
pany's gardens ; and in October, 18.34, these gardens were sold
for the trifling sum of 9G58 dollars. They contained then 5103
nutmeg trees, 1625 clove trees, and 1050 seedlings. The
whole being sold in lots, many of the trees were dug up and
transplanted to other quarters of the island, and thus dis-
persed ; numbers were lost from mismanagement.
In 1810 the total number of nutmeg trees on the island was
about 13,000. several hundreds of which only were in bearing,
and from such clove trees as were then bearing a supply of
20,000 plants was obtained.
The sale of the government plantations gave a temporary
stimulus to the private planter ; yet the continued ignorance
of the proper method of cultivating spices, necessarily followed
by tardy crops, seems to have at length induced such an apathy
regarding them, that they ran the risk of a speedy extinction.
The late David Brown, Esq. stood alone, in 1810, as a spice
planter on an extensive scale, and instead of finding encou-
ragement in the sympathy of those around him, he was incon-
134 PENANG.
siderately supposed by many to be in search of an El Dorado,
and no one ventured to follow his steps. Bold and provident
as was this attempt, its success was long retarded by the ob-
stacles which always oppose themselves to agricultural innova-
ters, and it might, even after a very great outlay of capital, have
been dou])tful on the decease of that gentleman, had not his
son, the late and lamented George Brown, Esq. managed the
estate with a spirit and judgment which finally overcame every
difficulty, and displayed for the first time after thirty years of
perilous trial the full value of the pursuit.
In 1818, the bearing nutmeg trees on the island were esti-
mated to be 6900. Since that period spices have been more
extensively cultivated. There are now upwards of thirty spice
plantations at this settlement, including Province Wellesley,
and these may be classed as follow : —
Five plantations containing from 4000 up to 20,000 trees.
Eight from 500 up to 10,000 trees.
Seventeen from 50 up to 2000, containing in the aggregate
about 80,000 trees, of which number 45,000 are estimated to
be in bearing. When Bencoolen was ceded to the Dutch, the
plantations there were estimated to contain 25,000 bearing
trees only.
The gross annual produce from the plantations may be
roughly estimated at 130,000 lbs., but young trees are yearly
coming into bearing to swell this quantity ; should the cultiva-
tion meet with no serious interruption, it may perhaps in time
supply the whole of the English market with spices.
Revenue and Expenditure. — The appendix to
the select report of the House of Lords, gives the
followhig- table of revenue and expenditure (exclusive
of commercial charges) for nineteen years ; it will
be observed that Singapore and Malacca are included
in the two last years ; the reductions ordered in the
Court of Directors' Dispatch, 7th April, 1829, will
ere long enable Penang to meet its expenditure with
its own revenues.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
135
CHARGES.
-^
ilitary
n the
1 the
mts.
S to
S'-^-i
Years.
>.
S;b s
^ 5
■^ n -- o
Civil.
-S
Idin
dF<
alio
Total
Charges.
u
i c; o 5-
S
Bui
an
tific
Pi
Exp
not i
Chai
Bei
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
1809-10
99494
15895
16428
131817
70372
61445
44509
1810-11
88299
16274
18447
123020
80440
42580
32822
1811-12
76974
13328
10815
101117
68557
32560
31212
1812-13
83630
16945
12740
113315
48891
64424
32414
1813-14
91091
16190
8478
115759
57075
58684
36604
1814-15
94503
16861
6347
117711
54316
63395
37385
1815-16
91399
19028
9257
119684*
53868
66660
33063
1816-17
86819
13451
9292
109562
54861
54701
28974
1817-18
72582
12659
15036
100277
56585
43692
34582
1818-19
66223
11073
4116
81412
57027
24385
27261
1819-20
66632
7728
2141
76501
49938
26563
33819
1820-21
71667
8235
1510
81412
52022
29390
25094
1821-22
68934
12754
\251
85939
41660
44279
23237
1822-23
72360
13389
3208
88957
44676
44881
24035
1823-24
81761
14478
2063
98302
35956
62346
24164
1824-25
98287
11835
3209
113331
38220
75111
24798
1825-26
113682
14543
7069
135294t
31422
104125
38375
1826-27
121168
23058
4991
§1492171
§55744
94745
37230
* In
terest on
debts, i
i844.
t Ditto £
253. 1
I Ditto £
1272.
§ Tl
le accoun
ts of Sir
icapore ai
\d Malac
ca are in
eluded ii
1 these
years ;
but for I
line moi
iths only
in the j
^ear 1826
-27, and
for the
whole
year in 1
827-28.
i
The sale of opium is a monopoly in the hands of
government, who derive a revenue from it of about
40,000 Spanish dollars a year ; land, licences, and
customs, are the remaining chief sources of revenue.
The government of Penang, Malacca, and Sin-
gapore, is subordinate to the presidency of Bengal,
and the civil establishment recently fixed as follows : —
Chief resident at Singapore, rupees 36,000 ; first
assistant, 24,000; second ditto, 7,200; deputy re.
sident at Malacca, 24,000 ; assistant, 7,200; deputy
resident, Prince of Wales's Island, 30,000 ; assistant,
136 PENANG.
7,200 ; assistant. Province Wellesley (exclusively of
military pay}, 3,600; one surgeon, 9,600, and three
assistant surgeons at 4,800, 14,400, 24,000; two
chaplains at 8,500 each, and one missionary 2,500,
20,000; office establishment, 12,000. Total sicca
rupees 1,95,200.
As a commercial and maritime station Penansr
has many advantages ; it serves as an entrepot for
the various produce of China, the eastern islands and
straits, the native merchants from which take back
in return British and India goods. It was at one
time contemplated to form an extensive arsenal and
ship-building depot at Penang, and indeed several
fine ships were built there, but the object was ulti-
mately abandoned. At present Penang serves as a
rendezvous for our naval squadron in the Indian
seas, for which its position, healthiness, and abun-
dance of provisions admirably qualify it ; during the
Burmese war Penang was found a most valuable
station, as it would again be in the event of renewed
hostilities. When, perhaps, the British dominion in
Hindostan shall have terminated, or if a violent con-
vulsion should occur to drive us temporarily from its
territorv, (circumstances which are not beyond the
range of possibilities,) the possession of such insular
stations as Penang, Ceylon, &c. will be found of in-
calculable worth. Their value now even is vast, and
it may be expected wiU be appreciated more and
more every day, as a spirit of enterprize leads our
fellow subjects to a more intimate connexion with
the fertile regions of the eastern hemisphere.
( 137 )
CHAPTER II.
MALACCA.
LOCALITY, AREA, HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPECT, CLIMATE —
NATURAL PRODUCTS, &C. POPULATION — GOVERNMENT
EDUCATION — COMxMERCE, &C.
Near the southern extremity of the long- Malayan
peninsula^ in latitude 2° 14' north longitude, 102°
12' east, is situated the British settlement of Malacca,
extending about forty miles along shore by thirty
inland, and containing an area of 800 square miles :
bounded on the north by Salengore at Cape Rochado,
on the south Johore, at the river Muar, on the east,
by the Rumbo country, and on the west, by the straits
of Malacca.
Physical Aspect. — The sea coast is rocky and
ban*en, with detached islets of cavernous rocks, which
the Chinese used as places of sepulture. The inte-
rior is mountainous (being a continuation of the Al-
pine chain, which runs from the Brahmaputra river
in Assam to the extremity of the peninsula) ; with
several picturesque valleys, the highest mountain
(named by the natives Lealdang, by the Portuguese
Mount OphirJ has an elevation of 4000 feet above
the sea. Colonel Farquhar was nearly six hours
ascending to the highest part of Mount Ophir, the
table surface on the top of which does not exceed
' The length of the Peninsula is 775 miles, with an average
breadth of 125 miles.
13S MALACCA.
forty yards square ; the whole mountain appears to
1)6 a solid block of granite, here and there thinly
covered with decayed vegeta,ble soil. Stunted firs
are found near the summit, and the vegetation of the
mountain was quite different from that met with on
the plains and valleys. The principal rivers are the
Muar and Lingtuah, and the small streams and rivu-
lets from the mountains are very numerous. The
extreme point of the peninsula is a cluster of small
islands ; the roadstead is safe, and in the south-west
monsoon vessels not drawing more than sixteen feet
of water are secure in a harbour under the lee of the
fort. Colonel Farquhar (who has made Malacca his
study) observes that violent tempests never occur at
its excellent anchoring ground, that the Sumatra
squalls, which are common to the straits, seldom last
above an hour or two, and that for upwards of twenty-
five years while the English had possession of the
place no ship had been lost.
History. — The Malayan peninsula, although the
great majority of the inhabifants are Malays (whence
it derives its name), is not the original country of
that active, restless, courageous, vindictive, and fero-
cious people.
The present possessors (or Malayan princes and
their subjects) emigrated in the thirteenth century,
from Palembang in Sumatra (the original country of
the Malays) about a. d. 1252, and founded the city of
Malacca. As tliey extended their colonization, the
aborigines of the country, w^ho are oriental negroes
with woolly hair, jet black skin (the Malays are cop-
per coloured), thick lips, and flat nose, like the
THE MALAYS. CLIMATE. 139
African, and of diminutive stature, were driven inland
to the mountains, where some of their unfortunate
posterity still exist.
The Malayan chiefs soon became involved in hos-
tilities with their neighbours, partly, perhaps, because
their sultan, Mohammed Shah, adopted the Mahomme-
dan religion from the Arabs, then the great traders
in the East. Although the Malacca people were able
to resist the attacks of the Siamese on their chief
city, they were compelled to yield to the conquering
Portuguese, who, in 1511, compelled Sultan Moham-
med Shah, the twelfth of his line, and the seventh of
the city of Malacca, to fly, after an obstinate resist-
ance, to the extremity of the peninsula, where he
founded the principality of Johore, which still exists.
The Portuguese held Malacca until 1 640, though with
great difficulty, against the repeated assaults of the
Sultans of Acheen, when it was assailed by the Dutch,
who captured it after six months' siege. In 1795 it
was seized by the British, but restored to the Dutch
at the peace of Amiens in 1801. Qn the breaking
out of the European war in 1807, it was again taken
by the English, but again restored at the peace of
1815 ; however, in 1825, it was received by England,
together with the Fort of Chinsurah on the river
Hooghly, 20 miles from Calcutta, in exchange for the
British settlements on the island of Sumatra.
Climate. — The climate is reckoned one of the
healthiest in India, the temperature being uniform,
the thermometer ranging from 72 to 85 the whole
year round. The mornings and evenings are cool
and refreshing, and the sultry nights of Hindostan
140
MALACCA.
rarely occur. There is no regular monsoon, but the
rainiest months are September, October, and Novem-
ber. The fluctuation of the barometer throughout
the year is trifling, the range being 30.3 to 29.83,
giving an annual variation of only one-fifth of an
inch. The average of casualties in the garrison for
seven years was two in 100, a fact which attests the
salubrity of the climate.
Population. — The population of the settlement of
Malacca', was in 1750, 1766, 1815, and 1817, thus,
[n the first street
1817.
1815.
1766.
1750.
1667
1006
2986
5263
6802
1903
1605
944
2946
5020
4397
1966
Christians 1668
Chinese... 1390
Moors ... 1023
Malays ... 3135
i
Christians 2339
Chinese... 2161
Moors .'.. 1520
Malays ... 3615
[n the second street
From Tranquerah to Con-
dor
Banda Hileer to Kassang
Bingho Rayo to Pankal-
lang Battoo
19627
16878
7216
9635
In 1822 the population was 22,000, and the fol-
lowing is the latest return at the India House.
^The inhabitants of Malacca, in 1830, came to a unanimous
resolution to liberate every slave in the settlement 31st De-
cember, 1841.
POPULATION.
141
■S331J}0J
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•sqBJV
en •—! <n i—i
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o to oa
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■— 1 1^ . .
C^ O M M
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3 3 o g
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tc^ - :5 if s
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142
MALACCA.
Abstract of the whole census of Malacca in 1826.
•S3[tjra9J
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HikS^Sc
NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. l43
Natural Productions. — The staple of the settle-
ment is tm mines (which are all within a circuit of
twenty- five miles round Malacca), which produce,
generally, 4,000 peculs (a pecul is 133 pounds avoir-
dupoise) a year. In the valleys vegetation is ex-
tremely luxuriant ; rice yields from 200 to 300 fold ;
the sugar cane is equal to any produced in any part
of the globe ; cofice, cotton, indigo, chocolate, pep-
per, and spices, have all been tried, and thrive re-
markably well. The spontaneous productions of the
soil are very numerous, consisting of an almost end-
less variety of the richest and most delicious fruits
and vegetables. The country is covered with very
fine and durable timber for ship and house building ;
the Murhon tree, which is nearly equal to teak, is ex-
tremely abundant. Canes and rattans form a con-
siderable branch of the exports ; the forests yield
gums, resins, and oils in great plenty ; the camphor
tree grows near the south-east extremity of the
peninsula ; a great variety of medicinal plants and
drugs are common in the woods ; the nutmeg grows
wild. If the gold and tin mines in the vicinity of
Malacca were scientifically worked, they would prove
of great value ; at present, the Malay and Chinese
miners seldom dig below six or ten feet, and, as the
veins become thin, remove from place to place. The
gold from Hoolo Pahang, 100 miles inland from
Malacca, is of the purest quality ; and there are
some small mines of gold at the foot of Mount Ophir,
called Battang Moring, about thirty- six miles from
Malacca.
Birds' nests, wax, cutch, dammeer, fish maws,
7
144 MALACCA.
and sharks' fins (for Chinese soups) rattans, camphor,
betelnuts, gold dust, sago, dragon's blood, ivory,
hides, aguilla and sappan woods, &c. are among the
principal productions. Captains of ships will be
glad to hear that fruit and vegetables of every
variety are abundant and low priced, and that
poultry, hogs, buffaloes, and fish are plentiful and
cheap. During the progress of the expedition against
Java in 1811, 30,000 troops, with their followers
were abundantly supplied with fresh provisions of
every variety daily.
Commerce. — Malacca, being situate between the
two great emporiums of trade in the eastern archi-
pelago, Penang, and Singapore, the one at the north-
west, and the other at the south-east of the straits,
has necessarily a trade limited to its own consump-
tion and produce. Before the establishment of the
two latter named settlements, and during the mono-
polizing sway of the Dutch there, it was a place of
considerable traffic.
Tin forms one of the principal items of export,
and as the free trade captains may perhaps enter
into the trade, it may be well to caution them of the
adulterations practised by the Chinese and Malay
miners. Lead is the metal usually alloyed with tin,
and in order to detect adulterations, buyers may
readily ascertain (with sufficient approximation to
correctness) the extent of fraud endeavoured to be
practised by melting a standard muster of pure tin
in a large sized bullet mould with a small orifice, and
then compare a mould of the tin under examination,
with that of the pure metal ; if the former be heavier.
TIN MINES. 145
the proportion of adulteration may readily be cal-
culated. Antimony has the effect of hardening the
admixture with lead, thereby increasing the difficulty
of detection, as regards external appearances.
The tin mines are thus described in the Singapore
Chronicle. The whole number of Chinamen con-
nected with the mines at Sungie Hujong is probably
600, divided into ten Kung Se's or companies. Thev
appeared more respectable, and have a greater com-
mand of capital, than those at Lookut. They are
much fettered by the rajah, and are not allowed to
sell an ounce of tin themselves ; but here there is no
such restriction. The mode of working the mines is
much alike in both places, except at Sungie Hujong
they, have the advantage of the Chinese chain-pump,
w^hich is used for raising the water out of the mine
pit. The apparatus is simple, consisting of a com-
mon water-wheel, a circular wooden chain about forty
feet in circumference, and a long square box or
trough, through which it runs in ascending. The
wheel and chain, I think, revolve on a common axis,
so that the motion of the former necessarily puts the
latter into action. The chain consists of square
wooden floats, a foot distant from each other, and
strung as it wete upon a continuous flexible axis,
having a moveable joint between each pair. As the
float-boards of the chain successivelv enter the lower
part of the box or trough (immersed in water), a
portion of water is constantly forced up by each, and
discharged at the top. At one of the mines we were
much struck with the simple but efficient mode of its
application. There were three distinct planes, or
L
146 MALACCA.
terraces, rising above each other. On the middle
one was the wheel ; the lower was the pit of the
mine : from the higher a stream of water fell and
turned the wheel, which, putting the whole machine
into motion, brought up another stream from the pit;
these two streams, from above and below, uniting on
the middle plane, run off in a sluice, by which the
ore was washed.
The total value of imports in 1828-29, was sicca
rupees 10,81,782, of exports, sicca rupees, 6,72,211.
The imports of specie amounted to sicca rupees,
4,19,717; and the exports amounted to sicca rupees,
2,65,239. The value of imports from Calcutta is
sicca rupees 1,12,565; from Madras 2,43,178; from
England 1,01,664 ; and from small native ports
2,98,591.
The accounts, however, of this government, as
stated by Mr. Fullerton are extremely defective.
Weights and Measures. — Throughout the Straits
of Malacca the common weights are the pecul,
catty, and tael. The Malay pecul, three of which
make a bahar, is heavier,than the common or Chi-
nese pecul, which is = 133|lbs. Rice and salt are
usually sold by the coyan of forty peculs nearly, and
gold dust by the bunkal = 832 grs. troy. The gan-
tang (by which grain, fruit, and liquids are sold)
= li English gallon is divided into two bamboos.
Twenty gantanes of rice make a bag, and forty bags
a coyan. Cloth is measured by the astah or covid
of eighteen inches nearly. Land, by the orlong of
twenty jumbas = 14 acre.
Currency. — The currency of the straits is Spanish
REVENUE. EDUCATION. 147
dollars divided into 100 cents. The Dutch rix dol-
lar and guilder (divided into fanams and doits) are
also used, chiefly at Malacca. One guilder =12
fanams = 120 doits. The rix dollar is a nominal
coin of about 20 fanams, 31 or 32 of which make
a Spanish dollar. The silver coins comprise dol-
lars of all descriptions, guilders and half guilders.
The copper, the cent, half and quarter cent ; there
are also doits, stivers, and wangs, including a great
variety of copper coins, of different countries.
Revenue. — When acquired by the British govern-
ment, the whole revenue of the settlement was but
20,000 dollars ; its revenue accounts are now in-
coq^orated with those of the other settlement (vide
Penang).
Education. — One of the most valuable British
institutions in the east, is the Anglo-Chinese college
at Malacca, established in 1818, by the joint efforts
of the late Rev. Drs. Morrison and Milne. The ob-
ject in view is the reciprocal cultivation of Chinese
and European literature, and the instruction of native
youths in the principles of Christianity. The native
Chinese students in the college generally average
from twenty-five to thirty, all of whom are on the
foundation of the college, receiving each a monthly
allowance. Several valuable and interesting trans-
lations have been made from Chinese books, and
English standard works have been translated into
Chinese : a foundry for types has been established,
paper manufactured, and a periodical commenced.
The college is indebted for existence to private con-
tribution, and it is to be hoped that so useful an in-
L 2
148 MALACCA.
stitution will not be allowed to languish for want of
support. Attached to the college at Malacca are
several schools, the whole of which are supported by
the London Missionary Society ; the Chinese schools
alone contain nearly 300 boys, and the Tamul schools
are increasing. The female schools at Malacca are
doing well, and three schools have been established
by the Malays for the instruction of their countrymen
in the English language. Schools are also esta-
blished at Tavoy, Moulmien, and Rangoon. At the
latter place, the head master is a Chinaman, who has
been brought up in the Anglo- Chinese college at
Malacca.
The following report of the London Missionary
Society, in 1835, relative to Malacca, will be accept-
able to every Christian : —
Malacca. — The report from this station, for 1833, which
was received a considerable time after the last anniversary,
contains much gratifying information. The directors learn
that
Preaching, which our brethren justly consider as the most
important, because divinely appointed means of effecting the
conversion of men, is assiduously attended to in this depart-
ment, in no less than four languages, viz. —
English, twice on the Sabbath, and once in the week, Wed-
nesday evening. The attendance is tolerably good. On Thurs-
day evening, Mr. Evans meets a Bible class, and there is,
besides, the monthly missionary prayer meeting. The Lord
has granted a blessing upon these labours.
Chinese. — Daily worship in the College. Extra services in
the same place on Monday and Thursday evenings, attended
by the students, the Chinese printers, and the boys and teachers
of the school in the College Compound. On Tuesday and Fri-
day evenings Mr. Evans has a Bible class for Chinese men,
between seven and eight o'clock, which consists of thirty per-
MISSIONARY REPORT. 149
sons and upwards : the number is increasing. It is held in
the College Hall. After reading, expounding, and questioning
upon the portion of Scripture under consideration, an exhorta-
tion is given, and the whole concluded with singing and prayer.
Sometimes one of the Chinese converts is called upon to engage
in prayer, who does it with much sincerity and simplicity.
Mr. Evans observes, " It is truly astonishing to hear how
well the Chinese begin to understand the word of God ; their
improvement is delightful." On Sabbath morning there is
preaching in the Mission Chapel.
Malay. — Daily worship in a room adjoining the College Hall,
attended by the domestics, letter-press printers, and others.
Preaching in the Mission Chapel every Sabbath evening, when
chiefly the servants of the Dutch inhabitants attend. The
average number is about forty,
Portuguese. — Preaching every Sabbath afternoon in the Mis-
sion Chapel. Average attendance fifty. Prayer meetings on
week day evenings, which are well attended.
In reference to the attendance on public worship, we subjoin
an extract from a letter from Mr. Evans, dated 20th October,
1834, where he writes thus : —
" My services, both on Sabbaths and week days, are all well
attended. It appears to me that the Lord is stirring up a
spirit of earnest inquiry among this immense population of the
human race, and that he will, ere long, shine into their souls,
and, by the gracious influences of His Holy Spirit, soften their
hard hearts."
When the report left Malacca, there were several individuals
in the English congregation who appeared to have received
salutary religious impressions, and also six Malays, who were
candidates for baptism.
Schools. — The number of schools and scholars were as fol-
lows, viz.: — Chinese boys, 4 schools, 180 scholars; girls, 3
schools, 90 scholars ; total, 270 Chinese. Malay boys and
girls, 6 schools, 200 scholars. Portuguese boys and girls, 4
schools, 120 scholars; Tamil boys and girls, 2 schools, 70
scholars; in all, 19 schools, 660 scholars.
The three Chinese girls' schools were formed after Mr.
150 MALACCA.
Evans's arrival at Malacca. The Portuguese and Tamil
schools are entirely supported by private subscriptions. The
children's progress is said to be encouraging ; and the teachers,
especially the Malay teachers, seem ready to afford the chil-
dren every facility in acquiring the knowledge of the Christian
religion.
Distrihution of Books. — The following is the amount of Scrip-
tures and tracts which have been issued from the depository at
Malacca, viz. —
Scriptures. Tracts.
To China . . .295 6485
Penang . . .100 1700
Singapore . . .400 9G0
Batavia . . .500 3310
And circulated in and about Malacca 600 4203
Total . 1895 16,658
Several missionary tours to the districts surrounding Ma-
lacca nave been made, for the purpose of distributing tracts
and Scriptures ; the people, both Chinese and Malays, wil-
lingly receive the books. It has been ascertained, that those
formerly distributed have been read, and their contents, in
many instances, fixed on the minds of the readers. The
Chinese carefully preserve the books that are given to them,
and it is gratifying to observe, that the Panghooloos, or chiefs
of the Malays, seem very favourable to the instruction of the
people. On this subject Mr. Evans thus speaks, in a recent
letter from Malacca : —
" The thirst of the Chinese for our religious books becomes
greater and greater every day. They come inquiring for them.
Though twelve men are constantly employed in the Chinese
printing department, yet pleasing, though painful to add, we
are not able to get books finished fast enough. The people
around are crying out for them. The brethren at other stations
are crying. There seems almost an universal cry among the
Chinese, which seems to indicate the dawn of a new era rapidly
advancing, and which will shine brighter and brighter, until
the perfect day."
MISSIONARY REPORT. 151
Printing. — In 1833, the following works were executed at
the Malacca press, viz. —
Copies.
Four of Dr. Milne's popular tracts, bound in I volume 3000
Commentary on the Ten Commandments . . 2200
Collie's Scripture Extracts
Ditto, in small sizes
Collie's Life of Christ, in poetry
Strait Gate
Three Character Classic .
Commentary on the Lord's Prayer
Catechism
Comparative Chronology .
400
400
500
1000
700
1500
100
1000
Total . 10,800
During the year that is past, the services of our brethren
have been continued. The morning service, in Chinese, held
in the College, is attended by seventy Chinese, and sometimes
a larger number. On Sabbath, the 4th of May last year, Mr.
Evans delivered his first sermon in Chinese, and is now able
to engage in all the branches of the Chinese department of the
mission. The hearts of the Chinese seem to be opening to the
truth, and they receive with eagerness the words of eternal
life, whether offered in books or by the living voice ; the mis-
sion wears a promising aspect, and the Lord is blessing his
work. Four native adults were baptized in July ; one of these
was a Chinese female, and the others a Malay and two Malay
females. There were then several more candidates, both
Chinese and Malays. The females are all instructed in their
catechism by Mr. Evans, who is much pleased with their pro-
gress.
Mr. Evans describes Leang-a-fa as a devoted Christian and
a useful man, willing to suffer for the Lord's sake. He now
acts as an Evangelist among the thousands of Chinese in and
about Malacca.
A number of young Chinese are pursuing a course of study
and training for missionary work.
152 MALACCA.
Anglo-Chinese College. — The report for 1832 and 1833
has but recently come to hand.
At the close of 1832 the number of students was 25. During
that year there were printed at the College press complete sets
of the Scriptures, 130; the four gospels, separately, 500 each,
2000 ; and various tracts, 5900 ; total, 8030.
At the beginning of 1833, the number of students was in-
creased to 40 ; but several of the elder students having left,
32 remained at the close of that year. A Chinese Bible class
was commenced in March, 1833, which is attended by the
Chinese schoolmasters, the Chinese teachers, and six of the
senior students.
The Bible Society and the Tract Society have respectively
afforded their constant and liberal aid towards the printing of
the Scriptural tracts.
The College library has been augmented by presents of se-
veral authors, and also from the Societe Asiatique at Paris.
General View. — The important geographical po-
sition of the settlement as commanding the straits
which form the direct passage from India to China,
&c. ; its healthiness, and cheapness, render it a fitting
place for the establishment of a seat of government
for the eastern settlements ; the advantage of which
would be more and more appreciated in our new
commercial arrangements with China. Both Singa-
pore and Malacca are too distant to be kept as mere
residences of Bengal ; and the Governor-general has
quite enough to do already without attending to
those places, although therefore a general control
might he kept up from the supreme government, it
would be better to make Malacca head quarters for
our stations in the eastern archipelago.
( 153 )
CHAPTER III.
SINGAPORE (SINGHAPURA.)
LOCALITY, AREA, PHYSICAL ASPECT, HISTORY, POPULATION,
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE,
SOCIAL CONDITION, AND POLITICAL AND GENERAL ADVAN-
TAGES, &C.
This rapidly rising emporium of trade, is situate on
the southern extremity of the peninsula of Malacca
just described, in latitude P 17^ 22" north ; longitude,
103° 51' 45'^ east^ ; of an elliptical form, about from
twenty-five to twenty-seven miles in its greatest
length from east to west ; to fifteen miles in its
gr.eatest breadth from north to south ; and contain-
ing an estimated area of 270 square miles, with about
fifty small desert isles within ten miles around it, in
the adjacent straits, whose area is about sixty miles ;
the w^hole settlement embracing a maritime and in-
sular dominion of about 100 miles in circumference.
Physical Aspect. — The island is on the north
separated from the main land of the Malayan penin •
sula, by a very small strait, which in its narrowest
part is not more than one quarter of a mile wide. On
the front, and distant about nine miles, is an exten-
sive chain of almost desert isles, the channel between
which and Singapore is the grand route of commerce
^ This is the position of the town.
154 SINGAPORE.
between east and west Asia. The aspect is low and
level, with an extensive chain of saline and fresh
water marshes, in several parts covered with lofty
timber and luxuriant vegetation : here and there,
low rounded sand hills interspersed with spots of level
ground, formed of a ferruginous clay with a sandy
substratum.
The town stands on the south coast, on a point of
land near the west end of a bay where there is a salt
creek or river navigable for lighters nearly a mile
from the sea ; on the east side of the town is a deep
inlet for the shelter of native boats. The town con-
sists generally of stone houses of two story high, but
in the suburbs called Campong-glam, Campong-Ma-
lacca, and Campong- China, bamboo huts are erected
on posts, most of them standing in the stagnant water.
On the east side of the harbour entei^prising British
merchants are erecting substantial and ornament^,!
houses fronting the sea, presenting a strange contrast
to the wretched tenements of the Malays. The
ground is generally raised three feet, and the man-
sions have a superb entrance by an ascent of granite
stairs, then an elegant portico supported by a mag-
nificent Grecian columns of every order of architec-
ture : the rooms are lofty, with Venetian windows
down to the floor, and furnished in a luxuriant man-
ner ; each tenement provided with its baths, billiard
tables, &c., while the grounds are tastily laid out with
shrubs of beautiful foliage, the tout ensemble affording
a most picturesque prospect from the shipping in the
roadstead.
Geology. — The principal rock is red sand-stone.
CLIMATE. 155
which changes in some parts to a breccia or conglo-
merate, containing large fragments and crystals of
quartz. The whole contiguous group of isles, about
thirty in number, as well as Singapore, are apparently
of a submarine origin, and their evulsion probably of
no very distant date.
Climate. — Notwithstanding its lowness, marshi-
ness, intertropical position and consequent high tem-
perature, with a rapid and constant evaporation by
a nearly vertical sun, from a rank and luxuriant ve-
getation, and a profusion of animal and vegetable
matter in every stage of putrefaction, Singapore has
hitherto proved exceedingly healthy, owung perhaps
to its maritime position. Being so near the equator
there is of course little variety of seasons, either
summer or winter : Fahrenheit ranges from 71°
to 89^ : the periodical rains are brief, indistinctly
marked, and extending over about 150 days of the
year.
156
SINGAPORE.
•K d Xlg
•UOO]^
•wv Xlg
•wd xrg
•noo^
•WT Xlg
•lid Xlg
•uoo^
•IfV Xlg
•KM Xlg
•uooj^
•WV Xlg
>.bi ; : : : i^^^l
JgS^ : : : it^SjiSg
HISTORY. POPULATION. 157
History. — The Malay annals relate that in a.d.
1252, Sri Iscandar Shah, the last Malay prince of
Singapore, being hard pressed by the king of Majo-
pahit, in Java, returned to the main land, where he
founded the city of Malacca. That the Dutch or
Portuguese may have settled on the island is probable
from the remains of religious buildings and other
structures, which indicate its having been once thickly
inhabited. On the design of Sir Stamford Raffles the
settlement of Singapore was first formed in February
1818, and its sovereignty in its present extent con-
firmed to Great Britain in 1825, by a convention
with the King of Holland and the Malay Princes of
Jehore \
Population. — When taken possession of by our
establishment in 1 820, it had been inhabited for eight
years by about one hundred and fifty Malays, half
fishermen and half pirates. Within the brief space
of time from 1820 to 1832, its population has thus
rapidly progressed (we have no correct data previous
to the end of 1823).
' There is, I believe, a pension of 24,000 Spanish dollars a
year paid by the East India Company to this Rajah, as an
equivalent for the cession.
15S
SINGAPORE.
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CS C -O Ci
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The following Census of the Population (with its
divisions) of the settlement has been furnished me
from the India House, and as it has not before been
published, its printing may now be useful.
POPULATION.
159
List of the Population at Singapore on the 1st of
January, 1829.
SINGAPORE TOWN.
Europeans
Native Christians
Malays
Chinese
Natives of Bengal
Ditto of the Coast of Coromandel
Arabs
Javanese
Total
GAMPONG GLAM.
Europeans
Native Christians
Malays
Chinese
Natives of Bengal ,
Ditto of the Coast of Coromandel
Buggies, Balanese, &c
Javanese
Total ,
ISLANDS.
Europeans
Native Christians
Malays
Chinese
Natives of Bengal
Buggies, Balanese, &c.
Javanese
Total
24
17
356
94
104
72
7
7
681
27
19
673
817
38
97
216
95
1982
1
6
562
45
4
127
1
746
2
7
304
8
3
1
1
9
335
16
10
797
22
7
7
67
84
1010
520
2
68
590
26
24
660
102
107
73
8
16
1016
43
29
1470
839
45
104
283
179
2992
1
6
1082
47
4
195
I
1336
(Continued.)
160
SINGAPORE.
CAMPONG CHINA.
Europeans ,
Armenians
Native Christians
Malays
Chinese
Natives of Bengal
Ditto of the Coast of Coromandel
Buggies, Balanese, &c
Javanese
Arabs
Total
COUNTRY
AND PLANTATIONS.
Europeans
Native Christians
Malays
Chinese
Natives of Bengal
Ditto of the Coast of Coromandel.
Buggies, Balanese, &c
Javanese
Total.
SUMMARY.
Singapore
Campong China
Campong Glam
Country and Plantations
Islands
Grand Total ...
33
18
80
382
4125
56
1150
2
82
22
5950
12
47
927
2082
179
104
446
276
4073
681
5950
1982
4073
746
4
6
71
452
341
17
4
69
55
1021
3
15
779
39
47
5
365
25
12/6
335
1021
1010
1276
590
37
24
151
834
4466
73
1154
71
137
24
6971
15
62
1704
2121
226
109
811
301
5349
1016
6971
2992
5349
1336
13132
4232
17664
POPULATION.
161
Census of Singapore, 1st January, 1833, shewing the pro-
portion of Males to Females.
Classes.
Europeans
Indo Britons
Native Christians
Armenians
Arabs
Natives of Coromandel and
Malabar
Ditto of Bengal and other
parts
Jews
Siamese
Buggies, Balinese, &c
Malays
Javanese
Chinese
Caifres
Total
Males.
91
56
167
27
96
1762
389
2
5
794
3763
361
7650
23
15181
Females.
28
40
133
8
57
11
2
932
3368
234
867
14
5797
Total.
119
96
300
35
96
1S19
400
2
7
1726
7131
595
8517
37
20978
To the foregoing must be added 553 convicts, and
military and their followers 600, making a grand
total of 22,000 mouths, where a few short years ago
there was not 109 ! The leading merchants, agents,
shopkeepers, and auctioneers are Englishmen. There
are several wealthy Chinese merchants, and the bulk
of the shopkeepers and most valuable part of the
citizens are Chinese, nearly 5,000 of whom arrive
annually from China by the yearly trading junks,
about 1,000 of whom remain at Singapore, and the
remainder disperse themselves over the neighbouring
islands. The Malays are chiefly fishermen, and the
natives of the Coromandel coast boat-men.
Society is divided as at Presidencies, into four
CEYLON, &c. M
162 SINGAPORE.
distinct castes — 1st, The civilians of the Company.
2d. The military. 3d. First class merchants. 4th.
Second class merchants, shopkeepers, &c. ; and, as
in all small communities, they are exclusive in their
coteries.
There is an American Missionary and two Roman
Catholic Priests in the island, but as yet no house of
worship. A Romish chapel is in progress, and near
its completion ; and some who would not give a far-
thing for their own religion, are liberal enough to
contribute handsomely in aid of a church for others.
The humbler classes are uneducated, but honest and
faithful to their employers.
Natural Productions. — From the foregoing de-
scription it will be seen that the island can as yet
have few indigenous productions ; it is in fact a com-
mercial emporium, and probably will never be much
more. Its chief staple is the agaragar of the Malays
(fucus saccharinusj , a plant like fern, which abounds
on the coral shoals around Singapore, and produces
in China from six to eight dollars per pecul, in its dry
bulky state. By the Chinese it is converted into
glue, paint, &c. &c., for glazing their cottons, and
sacrifice paper ; the finest portion is made into a rich
jelly, which makes a delicious sweetmeat when pre-
served in syrup. The harvest of this sea-weed is
from 6,000 to 12,000 peculs annually.
There are about ten sago manufactories at Singa-
pore, giving employment to 200 Chinese manufac-
turers ; the quantity of pearl sago exported from the
island during 1834 was — to England, peculs 17,030;
Calcutta, 1,700; Bombay, 970; China, 300; Cape,
COMMERCE.
163
150,' Hamburgh, 1,870; America, 300; Madras,
&c. 780;— total, 23,100 peculs. The sago is not
grown in the island, but brought in its rough state
from Borneo, &c.
Commerce. — No accounts of the trade of the is-
land were kept prior to 1 824, since then the value of
the imports and exports have been as follows :
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
Both.
1824
£
1455509
1323917
1361978
1488599
1961120
2121559
1875350
1780994
£
1390268
1228786
1388306
1387201
1804660
1876250
1826634
1565157
£
2845717
2552703
2750284
2875800
3765780
3997809
3701984
3346151
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
The account of its trade with different countries
will be seen by the following return of the compara-
tive statement of the trade of Singapore (imports and
exports) with the different countries in 1830-31 and
1831-32, &c.
M 2
164
SINGAPORE.
Comparative statement of the Imports and Exports of Singa-
pore for 1830-31 and 1831-32.
Countries.
Imports.
Exports.
1830-31.
1831-32.
1830-31.
1831-32.
England Sp. D.
Foreign Europe
1161945
75301
31563
5897
1215958
48733
105625
2857505
1135025
84915
200007
37717
12724
77
187398
375595
40424
234346
244176
71H2
204153
17638
110871
1514664
81302
6016
7068
1072852
141049
91575
2433959
978978
92216
243980
126402
7341
35290
151589
320271
27904
173917
209637
53471
40303
9055
118135
3535576
99637
18484
1061636
135714
193125
899305
542389
61648
149449
40778
14849
725
167511
410693
30583
258924
192229
102829
164700
14624
175875
3037926
20976
12661
879559
148576
172501
735412
359693
75039
212180
223405
165285
310145
24044
167716
178016
52596
33328
7700
124784
South America
Mauritius, &'c
Calcutta
^ladras
Bombay
China
Java
Rhio
Siam
Cochin China
Ceylon
Acheen and N. Pepp. Ports
Sumatra
E. C. Peninsula
Straits
Celebes
Borneo
Bally
Manilla
Camboja
Other Ports, &c
Total Sp. D...
Difference
8458731
7936974
7936974
8271223
6941542
0941542
521757
1329681
Imports from'
Malacca. ..Square Rigged, V. Sp. D. 88,186
Ditto Native Craft 81,978
Penang ...Square Rigged 318,267
Ditto Native Craft 35,378
Exports to
Square Rigged, 104,755
Native Craft ... 81,999
Square Rigged 236,720
Native Craft ... 70,411
The number of vessels under each flag is thus shewn : — in
1833-34 — Import Tonnage 1833-34, by square-rigged Vessels;
under what Flags. — From Great Britain, 28 vessels under
British Flag; Continental Europe, 2 French, 2 Hamburgh, 2
SHIPPING. 1 65
Danish, 1 Portuguese; Isle of France, 2 British, 1 French ;
China, 42 British, 1 Hamburgh, 1 Danish, 4 Dutch, 9 Portu-
guese ; Manilla, 15 British, 1 Danish, 4 Spanish ; Calcutta, 38
British, 2 Portuguese ; Madras and Coast, 9 British, 1 French ;
Bombay and CoaM, 41 British, 1 French, 9 Portuguese ; Arabia,
2 Arab ; Moulmein, 1 British ; Ceylon, 4 British ; Malacca, 56
British, 8 Portuguese ; Penang, 43 British, 1 Danish, 1 Portu-
guese, 1 Malay ; Java, 3 British, 1 Hambourg, 67 Dutch, 2
Cochin Chinese ; Sumatra, 8 British, 1 Hambourg, 1 Danish,
5 Dutch, 2 Malay; Rhio, 4 British, 1 French, 1 American;
Siam, 5 British; Borneo, 5 British, 7 Dutch; Cochin China, 1
French, 2 Cochin Chinese ; Tringanu, 6 British, 1 Dutch ; New
South Wales, 15 British ; Bali and Eastern Islands, \ Portu-
guese : Bourbon, 2 French ; United States America, 2 American.
Totals — 325 under British flag, 9 French, 5 Hamburgh, 6
Danish, 3 American, 92 Dutch, 23 Portuguese, 4 Spanish, 2
Arab, 4 Cochin Chinese, 3 Malay. Grand Total — 475 vessels,
tonnage, 137,298.
Native craft. — Statement of the number and ton-
nage of native vessels, prahus, and junks, which have
impoi'ted into and exported from Singapore during
the official year 1833-34 :—
Imports. — China 27 vessels, 4642 tons; Cochinchina and
Camboja49, 3010; Siam 24, 3792; East side of the Peninsula
72, 1689; Borneo 138, 3096; Celebes 55, 1345; Bal]y63, 1566;
Java 72, 2986; Sumatra 514, 3744; Penang 8, 420; Malacca
60, 2608; West side of the Peninsula 46, 341; Rhio 251,
3613; Neighbour Islands 220, 2075.
Exports. — China 9 vessels, 1447 tons ; Cochinchina and
Camboja 27, 1966; Siam 17, 2537; East side of the Peninsula
76, 1565 ; Borneo 148, 3231 ; Celebes 102, 2041 ; Bally 73,
2043; Java 44, 2120; Sumatra 397, 3309; Penang 5, 447;
Malacca 68, 3003; West side of the Peninsula 36, 250; Rhio
264, 3863 ; Neighbour Islands 214, 2055.
Gold forms one of the most valuable imports of
Singapore. The principal portion is from Pahang on
166 SINGAPORE.
the coast of the peninsula, and it is considered su-
perior to the metal brought from other places. The
various places whence this important product is
shipped from Singapore will be seen by the returns
for 1831.
From Ports on East Coast of Peninsula :
Pahang — bunkals — 4,285. Calantan— ditto— 300.
From Borneo :
Papes — ditto — 58.
Bintoola — ditto — 20.
Banjar, &c. 32.
Lambas — bunkals — 1,508.
Pontiana — ditto — 633.
Soongai Rayoe 417.
Sumatra — Jambie — bunkals — 104. Campar — ditto — 1G9.
Celebes island ditto 560. Other islands 31.
Total— 8,103.
Or Catties >— 405— bunkals— 3.
The greater part of this immense quantity is sent to
Calcutta for opium, &c.
General View, — As, a commercial mart, and key
to the na\'igation of the seas, in which it is situate,
this settlement is of incalculable importance ; we have
seen by the foregoing accounts, that it has sprung up
within the short space of ten or twelve years from a
desert isle to a rich and flourishing settlement, ex-
porting annually 3,000,000/. worth of goods. It has
two periodical journals w^ell conducted ; its inhabi-
tants are imbued with a manly and independent spirit,
and its trade is as yet but in its infancy. The open-
ing of the Chinese market will not diminish its resort,
but on the contrary, increase it ; situate as it is in the
^ A cattie is 1 lb. and 1 .3d avoirdupois.
GENERAL VIEW. 167
centre of myriads of active and industrious nations,
inhabiting rich and fertile lands, abounding in every
species of tropical produce, of which Europe, America,
or China has need, ready to receive in return the
manufactures of Britain to an almost illimitable ex-
tent, and being unmolested in its progress by harbour
duties, dues, or charges of any description, it requires
nothing but a withdrawal of England from her nar-
row minded and miserable commercial policy of ex-
cluding eastern produce, to make our trade with the
Asiatic Archipelago (of which Singapore is now the
entrepot) one of the most valuable branches of our
mercantile connexions.
While on this subject, I would urgently recom-
mend the formation of a mercantile colony at Formosa,
as a means of securing our China trade and opening
new branches of commerce with Japan, the Leuchoo
islands, &c. We want also a permanent footing in
the China seas in a maritime point of view, and if
Government do not undertake such, it would pay
well a Joint Stock Company to form an entrepot on
this highly valuable island. My plan for such a
Colony may be seen at the Office of the Colonial
Secretary in London.
BRITISH POSSESSIONS
IX THE
ATLANTIC OCEAN;
COMPRISING
THE FALKLAND ISLANDS, ST. HELENA, ASCEN
SIGN, SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA,
CAPE COAST CASTLE, &c. &c.
SEAL OF SIERRA LEONE.
BOOK III.
THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.
CHAPTER IV.
LOCALITY — EXTENT — CLIMATE SOIL — HARBOURS — PRO-
DUCTIONS, AND ADVANTAGES TO GREAT BRITAIN.
The Falkland islands, between the parallels of 51"
10' and 52'' 30' south, and the meridian 58° and 62°
west, contiguous to the Straits of Magellan, so ad-
vantageously situated as a refreshing port for our
numerous ships doubling Cape Horn, and as a cruis-
ing station for our ships of war in the Pacific, were
first discovered by Sir Richard Hawkins during the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, in the year 1594, or, as
some think, by Captain Davis, in 1592, an English
navigator under Sir Thomas Cavendish ; they were
subsequently visited by a ship belonging to St. Ma-
loes, from which they were called by the French,
' the ]\Ialouins ;' and also subsequently, by the Spa-
172 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.
niards, ' the Malvinas.' Little, however, was known
of them until Commodore Byron, when on a voyage
of discovery to the South Seas, visited them in Ja-
nuary, 1765, and formally took possession of them
for his Majesty Geo. III. under the title of ' the
Falkland Islands,' though others say this name had
been previously given them by an English navigator
named Strong, in 1689. After being there about
fourteen days, he left Port Egmont on Sunday, 27th
January, and described it as being the finest harbour
in the world, capacious enough to hold all the navy
of England in fuU security. Geese, ducks, snipes,
and other fowl w^ere found in such abundance, that
the sailors were quite tired with eating them ; and in
every part there was a plentiful supply of water.
When the French lost the Canadas, a colony of
farmers was transported thither by M. de Bougain-
ville, and about the same time a British colony was
established at Port Egmont by Capt. M 'Bride ; but
their right being disputed by the Spaniards, M. de
Bougainville surrendered the possession of his part
to the latter in April, 1767. Great Britain, however,
by virtue of her original discovery, claimed the so-
vereignty, which led to a rupture with Spain in the
year 1770, and the point was warmly and strongly
contested for a considerable period. Spain, however,
finally conceded our right to the islands.
The two largest of the islands are about 70 leagues
in circumference, and divided by a channel 12
leagues in length, and from 1 to 3 in breadth. The
harbours are large, and well defended by small islands,
most happily disposed. The smallest vessels may
EARLY HISTORY. 1 73
ride in safety ; fresh water is easily to be obtained ;
there is seldom any thunder or lightning, nor is the
weather hot or cold to any extraordinary degree.
Throughout the year the nights are in general se-
rene and fair ; and, upon the whole, the climate is
favourable to the constitution. The depth of the
soil in the valleys is more than sufficient for the pur-
pose of ploughing.
Since 1767 they fell into comparative insignifi-
cance ; and, for many years past, little notice has
been taken of them by our government. Ships of
war, on their passage round Cape Horn, have oc-
casionally touched there for supplies of water, &c.
and South Sea whalers and other merchant vessels ;
but the navigation being little known, they have not,
until lately, been much frequented, although very
nearly in the track of ships homeward-bound from
thQ Pacific.
Latterly, however, circumstances arose which in-
duced the last commander-in-chief on the South
American station (Sir Thomas Baker), to send down
a ship of war for the purpose of reclaiming that pos-
session, which lapse of time seemed to have rendered
almost absolutely abandoned. The Buenos Ayrean
Government have, however, endeavoured to set up a
claim to the islands ^ .
In the month of December, 1832, Commander
Onslow, in H.M.S. Clio, proceeded to Port Egmont,
and found on Saunders' Island the ruins of our for-
^ The Spaniards had formerly used the islands as a prison
for South American delinquents.
174 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.
mer establishment. The town stood on the south
side of a mountain not less than 600 feet high. The
settlers had extended their gardens to the westward,
the remains of which are still perceptible. Not find-
ing any inhabitants, an inscription was left there, at-
tached to a signal staff, on a spot which appeared to
be Fort George, stating, * That these islands had
been visited by his Britannic Majesty's ship Clio, for
the purpose of exercising the rights of sovereignty,
23d December, 1832 ^'
During their stay of ten days, the boats were em-
ployed in examining Brett's Harbour, Byron's Sound,
Keppel's Sound, and to the westward to Point Bay,
a distance of sixty miles from the Clio's anchorage.
At Port Louis, on East Falkland Island, a Buenos
Ayrean schooner of war was lying, and a small party
of soldiers under the same flag occupied the shore,
where there was an inconsiderable settlement of fo-
reign persons, chiefly Buenos Ayreans, who w^ere en-
gaged in catching wild cattle, &c. for the supply of
such ships as occasionally touched there.
Port Louis, at the head of Berkeley Sound, is ad-
mirably adapted for vessels to refit at, under any cir-
cumstances, it is well sheltered, and has an inner
harbour for vessels drawing fourteen feet of water,
where they may heave down with safety if requisite.
Water is also good and plentiful ; and, reflecting on
the number of vessels passing and repassing Cape
Horn, and the accidents they are liable to, from the
' Lieut. H. Smyth, of H. M. ship Tyne, was subsequently
sent down with a boat's crew to settle on the islands.
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOM. 175
tempestuous weather frequently experienced off that
Cape, the advantages of a port of refuge becomes
apparent.
Vegetable Productions and Fruits. — The generality
of the surface of these islands is covered with a turf, or
black peat, found chiefly above a yellow clayey soil,
and formed of roots of plants in marshy situations ;
there are however spacious meadows, abundantly
watered, and producing excellent grasses, much re-
lished by cattle. The most curious of the vegetable
productions is a resinous plant, or rather excrescence,
for it grows from the earth without stalk, branch, or
leaves, called the resinous gum plant. It is fre-
quently six feet in diameter, and eighteen inches
high, and so strong as to bear the weight of a man.
Its surface ejects drops of a tough resinous matter, of
a vellow colour, and about the size of peas, having a
strong odour like turpentine. Great quantities of
water cresses, sorrel, and wild parsley, are found in
every direction, as well as a small shrub of the na-
ture of spruce, which, being made into beer by the
help of molasses, has proved an excellent antiscorbu-
tic to seamen afflicted with scurvy after a long voyage
on salt provisions. Scarcely any fruits are found,
indeed only two fit for use, which grow upon creeping
plants, and are similar to the mulberry of Europe,
and the lucet of North America. Though there are
numerous flowering plants, only one, which had a
smell like that of a rose, appeared to yield any per-
fume. No trees have been met with.
Animals. — Only one species of animal was found
in the island, a kind of wolf-fox, which B\Ton de-
176 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.
scribes as extremely fierce, running from a great
distance to attack the sailors when they landed, and
even pursuing them into the boat. It is about the
size of a shepherd's dog, and kennels under ground,
subsisting on the seals and birds, which it catches
along the shore. Sea lions, wallrusses, and seals,
are abundant about the coast, many of them of great
size, and very fierce. Swans, wild green ducks,
teal, and all kinds of sea-fowl, are found in great
numbers, and so tame were some of the birds when
the first settlers landed there, that they would suff'er
themselves to be caught by the hand, and often
perch upon the heads of the people. There is a bird,
called the grele, of beautiful plumage, and a kind of
gentle note, whose flesh is much esteemed, and which
suffers itself to be approached so as to be knocked
down with a stick ; there are also falcons, snipes,
owls, curlews, herons, thrushes, &c. Fish are not
so plentiful, but they consist of mullet, pike, sardini,
gradlaw ; and in the fresh water, a green trout,
without scales ; all sorts of small shell-fish are found
around the coast, but it is difficult to get at them, or
indeed for a boat to land, on account of the prodi-
gious quantity of sea- weed with which the shore is
loaded. The tides produce a curious phenomenon,
they do not rise at the settled calculated periods,
but, just before high water the sea rises and falls
three times ; and this motion is always more violent
during the fequinoxes and full moons, at which time
several coralines, the finest mother-of-pearl, and the
most delicate sponges are thrown up with it ; and
amongst other shells, a curious bivalve, called la
ADVANTAGES. 1/7
poulette, found no where else but in a fossil
state.
In addition to numerous hogs, wild fowl, and
rabbits, there are several thousand head of wild
cattle and horses, roaming over a large expanse of
delicious pasturage.
As it appears likely that more attention will in
future be paid to these islands by our Government ^
I subjoin, for the information of navigators espe-
cially, the following account of East (it was on the
West island at Port Egmont the British settlement
was when forcibly broken up by the Spaniards in
1770) Falkland Island, drawn up by M. Vernet
(who had an establishment at Berkeley Sound, ad-
joining the ruins of that founded by M. de Bougain-
ville previous to 1767, near Port Louis), for W.
Parish, Esq., and read before the Royal Geographical
Society, 14th January, 1833.
East Falkland Island possesses large and secure
harbours for first-rate ships of war, with facilities for
exercising the crews on shore without the risk of
losing them, and with abundance of wild cattle,
antiscorbutic herbs, and fish, for their support.
The country, in the northern part of the island, is
rather mountainous. The highest part was called
San Simon, at no great distance from the bottom of
Berkeley Sound. The tops of the mountains are
thickly strewn with large boulders, or detached
^ Within the last few years numerous whalers — English,
American, and French, have been cruising off and refitting in
the Falkland Isles.
N
178 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.
stones, of which quantities have fallen, in some
places, in lines along their sides, looking like rivers
of stones ; these are alternated with extensive tracts
of marshy ground, descending from the very tops of
the mountains, where many large fresh-water ponds
are found, from one to two feet deep. The best
ground is at the foot of the mountains, and of this
there is abundance fit for cultivation, in plains stretch-
ing from five to fifteen miles along the margin of the
sea. In the southern peninsula there is hardly a
rising ground that can be called a hill. Excellent
fresh water is found everywhere, and may be pro-
cured either by digging, or from the rivulets, which
flow from the interior towards the sea, through
valleys covered with a rich vegetation.
The Climate on the island is, on the whole, tem-
perate. The temperature never falls belows 26°
Fahrenheit in the coldest winter, nor rises above
75° in the hottest summer ; its general range is
from 30° to 50° in winter, 50° to 75° in summer.
The weather is rather unsettled, particularly in
winter ; but the showers, whether of rain, snow, or
hail, are generally of short duration, and their
effects are never long visible on the surface of the
ground. Thus floods are unknown ; snow disap-
pears in few hours, unless on the tops of the moun-
tains ; and ice is seldom found above an inch thick.
Thunder and lightning are of rare occurrence ; fogs
are frequent, especially in autumn and spring, but
they usually dissipate towards noon. The winter is
rather longer than the summer, but the diflerence is
not above a month, and the long warm days of
MINERALS AND SOIL. 179
summer, with occasional showers, produce a rapid
vegetation in that season.
The wind blows commonly from the north-west in
summer, south-west in winter, and seldom long from
the eastward in either season. The finest weather in
winter is when the wind draws from the west or
north-west, and in summer when it stands at north-
west or north-east. A north wind almost alwavs
brings rain, especially in summer, and east and south-
e£Lst winds are constantly accompanied by thick and
wet weather. Snow squalls generally come from the
south- south- east, south, or south-south-west. Storms
are most frequent at the changes of the seasons, and
blow commonly from south- south- west to west-south-
west; but they seldom last above twenty-four hours.
Minerals. — There are marks of copper ore with
some pyrites, and the rocks are chiefly quartz. Ores
of difl'erent colours are common, and red and gray
slate is plentiful, but no mines or metals have been
ever discovered.
The soil of East Falkland Island has been found
well adapted to cultivation, consisting generally of
from six to eight inches of black vegetable mould,
below which is either gravel or clay. Wheat and
flax W'Cre both raised of quality equal, if not superior,
to the seed sown, which was procured from Buenos
Ayres ; and potatoes, cabbage, turnips, and other
kinds of vegetables produced largely, and of excel-
lent quality. Fruit trees were not tried, the plants
sent from Buenos Ayres having perished before
they arrived.
The soil also produces diflerent kinds of vegetables
N 2
180 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.
wild, as celery, cresses, &c., and many other esculent
plants, the proper names of which were not known
to the settlers, but their palatable taste and valuable
anti- scorbutic properties were abundantly ascertained
by them. Among others is one which they called
the tea-plant, growing close to the ground, and pro-
ducing a berry of the size of a large pea, white with
a tinge of rose-colour, and of exquisite flavour. A
decoction of its leaves is a good substitute for tea,
whence its name. It is very abundant.
No trees grow on the island, but wood for building
was obtained tolerably easily from the adjoining Straits
of Magellan. For fuel, besides peat and turf, which
are abundant in many places, and may be procured
dry out of the penguins' holes, three kinds of bushes
are found, called fachinal, matajo, and gruillera. The
first of these grows straight, from two to five feet
high, and the stem, in proportion to the height, is
from half an inch to one inch and a half in diameter :
small woods of this are found in all the valleys, and
form good cover ; it bears no fruit. The second is
more abundant in the southern than in the northern
part of the island ; its trunk is nearly the thickness
of a man's arm, very crooked, never higher than
three feet, and bears no fruit. The gruillera is the
smallest of the three, growing close to the ground,
and abundant all over the island; being easily
ignited, it was chiefly used as fuel when the people
were away from the settlement, and to light the peat
fires in the houses. It bears a small dark red berry
of the size of a large pea, of an insipid taste.
Herds of wild horned cattle exist on the island.
GAME, &C. 181
sufficient to maintain a great many settlers ; and wild
hogs are abundant in the northern peninsula. Wild
horses are also found there of small size, but very
hardy, which, when broken in, as some were without
difficulty, were found of great service to the settle-
ment. Rabbits are in great numbers, of a large size
and fine fur. Foxes, too, are found, but diflering
considerably from those of Europe, having a thick
head and coarse fur ; they live chiefly on geese and
other fowl, which they catch at night when asleep.
Game is extremely common, especially wild geese
and ducks ; of the former two kinds were distin-
guished, the lowland or kelp-geese, and the upland
geese ; the latter were much superior in flavour, the
former being of a fishy taste, living chiefly on muscles,
shrimps, and kelp. Both were very tame, and the
upland geese were easily domesticated. They are
finest eating in autumn, being then plump, in conse-
quence of the abundance at that season of tea-ber-
ries, of which they are very fond; the rest of the
year they live on the short grass. They have a white
neck and breast, with the rest of the body speckled
of a fine brown marbled colour. The lowland gander
is quite white, and the goose dark, with a speckled
breast.
Of ducks there are several kinds. The logger-
headed are the largest, and almost of the size of the
geese ; their flesh is tough and fishy ; they cannot
fly, and when cut off^ from the water are easily caught.
The next size is also of inferior quality, tough and
fishy; but the smaller kinds, which are not larger
than young pigeons, are deliciously good, and are
182 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.
found in large flocks along the rivulets and fresh
water ponds. Snipes are found so tame that they
were often killed by throwing ramroads at them. In
addition to these, a great variety of sea birds frequent
the shores, of which the most valuable to sailors and
settlers, from the quantity of eggs they deposit, are
the gulls and penguins. These birds have their
fixed rookeries, to which they resort in numerous
flocks every spring ; the gulls generally in green
places near the shore, or on the small islands in the
bay ; the penguins chiefly along the steep rocky
shores of the sea. The eggs of both are eatable
even with relish, after long confinement on board
ship, the penguin's being, however, the best, and less
strong than those of the gull. So numerous are these
eggs, that on one occasion eight men gathered 60,000
in four or five days, and could easily have doubled
that number had they stopped a few days longer.
Both gulls and penguins will lay six or eight each, if
removed, otherwise they only lay two and hatch
them. The gulls come first to their hatching places*
the penguins a little later.
Fish abounds in all the bays and inlets, especially
in spring, when they come to spawn at the mouths of
the fresh water rivulets. They generally enter and
retire twice every day, at half- flood and half-ebb, and
are in such numbers that ten or twelve men could
always catch and salt about sixty tons in less than
a month. Tliey were usually caught by a sweeping-
net, but they also took the hook, being of a kind be-
tween the mullet and salmon. Their flavour was
excellent, and when salted, thev were considered
FISH, SEALS, &C. 183
superior to the cod. Many shiploads might be pro-
cured annually.
Of shell-fish there are only muscles and clams ;
they are very abundant, and easily gathered on the
beach at low water.
Seals are found on the island, or rather on the
rocks close to it, and hair-seals (sea lions and ele-
phants) abound along its shores. Many black whales
have been also caught in its neighbourhood ; in con-
sequence of which the island has of late years been
much resorted to by fishing vessels, English, Ame-
rican, and French. Of these, eighty-nine touched at
it between 1826 and 1831.
East Falkland Island is singularly cut into by the sea,
forming various good harbours of easy access for ves-
sels of almost any burthen. A commandant with a
few marines and a small vessel manned from the
South American squadron should be placed at these
(to us particularly) valuable islands.
BOOK IV.
ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
LOCALITY — AREA — HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPECT, CLIMATE,
GEOLOGY, AND SOIL VEGETATION — POPULATION — PRO-
DUCE — REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, SHIPPING, &C.
St. Helena Island, celebrated as the prison and
grave of the most extraordinary human being that
ever tenanted this earth, is situate in the Southern
Atlantic, within the limit of the south east trade
winds ; in latitude 15° 15' south, longitude 5° 49' 45"
west, 1200 miles from the coast of Africa, 2,000
from that of America, and 600 from the Island of
Ascension : its area being 30,300 acres, its extreme
length being lO^miles, its breadth 6~, and its cir-
cumference about 28 miles.
History. — St. Helena was discovered by the
Portuguese navigator, Juan De Nova Castella, on
HISTORY. 185
the 21st May, 1502, and named by him, in honour
of the day of its discovery, after Saint Helena.
When first visited, the island was uninhabited,
covered by one entire forest, and its shores abounding
with turtles, seals, sea-lions, and various sorts of
wild fowl ; its settlement, and early improvement in
1513, are attributed to the debarkation of a Portu-
guese nobleman, who had been mutilated by Al-
buquerque for crime committed in India, and sent
home in disgrace. This gentleman, Fernandez Lopez
by name, prevailed on the captain to set him on
shore, in preference to the life of ignominy he was
destined to lead in Portugal, and his wishes being
complied with, and abundant supplies forwarded to
him by his commiserating friends, he quickly brought
some spots under cultivation, and imported hogs,
goats, domestic poultry, partridges, and wild fowl,
besides various sorts of fruits and vegetables, all of
which increased and throve exceedingly, such as figs,
oranges, lemons, peach-trees, &c. Fernandez was
removed from his voluntary exile by orders of the
Portuguese government in about four years, and the
next inhabitants appear to have been four slaves of
different sexes, who escaped from a ship, and multi-
plied to the number of 20 ; these people subsisted
on the live stock and fruits which had increased
prodigiously ; but the Portuguese being jealous of
their consuming what was required for the refresh-
ment of the ships, which touched here on their
passage from India, finally succeeded in hunting them
out, and destroying them. Tavernier informs us
that a Franciscan friar had also taken up his abode
186 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
on the island and led an austere life for 14 years,
when he died ; though other accounts say, he was
removed in consequence of the great destruction he
committed among the goats, for the sake of traffick-
ing in their skins.
The Portuguese mariners preserved the secret of
the existence of St. Helena from other nations until
1588, when it was discovered by Capt. Cavendish,
on his return from a circumnavigating voyage. He
gives the state of the island very circumstantially,
from which it appears, that the Portuguese had built
a town and a church : he found abundance of goats,
pigs, and poultry, Avith game, wild fowl, and various
kinds of fruits and vegetables. The settlement was
afterwards frequently visited by English, Dutch,
Spanish, and Portuguese ships ; the salubrity of
air, and the abundance of fresh provisions invigorat-
ing their exhausted crews.
It sometimes happened that ships of nations at
war with each other visited St. Helena at the same
time — accordingly we have accounts of various sea
fights between the Dutch and Spaniards at the
anchorage, who are, moreover, accused of wantonly
destroying the plantations, lest succeeding visitors
should profit by the supplies which had proved so
beneficial to them. From all these causes the island
was deserted by the Portuguese, when they acquired
possession of settlements on the eastern shores of
Africa, and for some time continued desolate, owing
to the wanton excesses which had been committed :
however, about the year 1643, two Portuguese ves-
sels being wrecked, their crews got safe to land, and
HISTORY. 1 87
once more stocked the island with cattle, goats,
hogs, poultry, &c. In 1645 the Dutch took formal
possession of St. Helena, and established a colony ;
but they also abandoned it, when settling at the
Cape of Good Hope in 1651.
The homeward bound English East India fleet
calling at the island at this period, took possession
of St. Helena, and the East India Company obtained
a charter for its possession from Charles II. ten years
after. Under the superintendence in 1658 of Capt.
Button, the first English Governor, a fort was
erected, and called Fort James, in compliment to the
Duke of York, the king's brother. Settlers were
encouraged to emigrate thither, and slaves were
imported from Madagascar to work in the planta-
tions. It is reported to have been captured by the
Dutch in 1665, but of this event the accounts are
vague and doubtful, and the wTiter of Rennefort's
voyage, who visited the island in 1666, makes no
mention of such occurrence, but eulogizes Governor
Stringer, and his family, for the attentions he re-
ceived, and describes the settlement as thriving,
being then composed of about 50 Englishmen, 20
women, and some negroes. Its population was
shortly after increased by many, who had been
reduced by the great fire of London, seeking relief
in the island.
From 1658 until 1672 various laws and regula-
tions were made by the Company at home, or the
Governors of the island, of whom there appears to
have been, viz. — Dutton, Stringer, Swallow, Coney,
Bennett and Beale : in the latter part of 1672, the
7
1 88 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
Dutch, through the treachery of a planter, succeeded
in landing in the night 500 men from an expedition
which had been repulsed the same day ; the fort
being thus attacked in the rear, the Governor
thought prudent to abandon it, and retired, with his
garrison and principal effects, on board some ships
in the roads, taking, however, the precaution of
placing a sloop to cruise to windward of St. Helena
to warn British vessels of its capture, and a squadron
arriving soon after (in May, 1673), under Captain
Munden, he succeeded in recapturing the island,
and, by keeping the Dutch flag flying after he got
possession of the forts, decoyed six Dutch East
Indiamen, as well as a ship from Europe, having a
Governor and reinforcements for the garrison on
board, into the roads where they were captured.
Having formed a British garrison by detachments
from the ships, Captain Munden sailed for England
with his prizes, and was knighted.
The king having renewed the charter of the East
India Company, they lost no time in sending out
reinforcements to St. Helena — appointed Capt. G.
Field, governor, with a council of four to assist him,
and held out great encouragement for the old settlers
to remain, and also to induce new ones to repair thi-
ther. The Company at home, and the Governor of
the island, now passed some local laws for the allot-
ment of land, and the management of the plantations,
and assigned the service which each individual was
bound to perform for the defence of the settlement
when called upon : the number of soldiers was
shortly afterwards reduced to 50, and several English
HISTORY. 189
settlers having arrived a militia was organized, to
whom the defence of the island was to be principally
entrusted. Fortifications were raised, and lines
drawn for the security of the town, which was re-
quired to be built on a preconcerted plan ; but, up-
wards of a century elapsed before advantage was
taken of placing cannon on the heights, which were
only occupied for look-out stations.
In 1676, Dr. Halley, the celebrated astronomer,
arrived at St. Helena for the purpose of completing
some celestial observations ; his instruments were
erected on the hill which now bears his name,
when he observed the transit of Mercury over the
sun's disc.
Many taxes having been imposed on the settlers,
and particularly an impost laid on the w^ood required
to distil spirits from potatoes, discontent began again
to assume a formidable aspect, and a mutinous dispo-
sition spreading amongst the soldiers, it broke out at
various times in open rebellion on various pretences,
on many of which occasions blood was shed ; in 1 684,
two of the mutineers were hanged, and others trans-
ported, as an example to the rest : this did not, how-
ever, check the disturbances, for constant insurrec-
tions occurred, in which more than one of the Go-
vernors perished, until at length in 1700, all the
spirit- stills were suppressed by order from England,
and by the vigorous measures of Governor Roberts,
from 1708 to 1714, the island was tranquillized.
Various plants, shrubs, fruit, and timber trees,
were now introduced ; but only the apple, mulberry,
and peach, have become established, although it is
IDO ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
certain the cocoa nut, cypress, and others, may be
propagated with a little attention. The Scotch fir
and spruce were introduced about the year 1749, also
acorns from which timber has been produced, which
now measures from 9 to 11 feet in circumference, in
the most sheltered parts of the island, although they
do not succeed when exposed to the trade winds.
Provisions became so plentiful that a clause wa?
inserted in the charter party of the Company's ships,
obliging them to purchase a certain quantity of beef,
at 1 6s. per cwt.
Governor Brooke, who succeeded Corneille in
1 787, by his firm conduct and judicious arrangements,
soon subdued the mutinous disposition hitherto so
prevalent; and during his government (from 1787 to
1800) St. Helena was made a depot for training re-
cruits for the Company's army in India, to the num-
ber of upwards of 12,000 soldiers. Brooke also im-
proved the buildings, and strengthened the fortifica-
tions, established a code of signals, and rendered the
settlement extremely valuable at the commencement
of war with the Dutch in 1795 ; by his energetic
conduct in fitting out an expedition destined to sur-
prise the Cape, but that object having been anti-
cipated from home, the St. Helena squadron was
afterwards employed in capturing the Dutch home-
ward-bound Indiamen.
Governor Brooke was succeeded by Col. Patten,
in 1801-2, who carried on the plans of his prede-
cessor, and greatly improved the fortifications of the
place, particularly in rendering the guns on the
heights more effective, and also in encouraging a
GOVERNORS. 191
better mode of agriculture. In 1807, the island was
visited with a calamity which had nearly destroyed
the whole population — a most inveterate species of
the measels was introduced by the homeward-bound
fleet from the Cape, so fatal in its effects that, be-
sides prostrating the strength of nearly the whole
population, so as to render them almost incapable of
assisting each other, it carried off in two months
nearly 200 persons. The visitation of this calamity
alarmed the inhabitants respecting the small pox,
which, although it had appeared, or had been intro-
duced by persons from England or the Cape, had
never proved infectious, and it was supposed that
something existed in the climate of St. Helena inimical
to its contagiousness. To allay their apprehensions
the Governor took measures to introduce vaccina-
tion, and also to appoint a gentleman as vaccinating
surgeon, and we believe no case of small pox has
since been known. In 1807, Governor Patten being
obliged to retire to England, on account of ill health,
was succeeded the following year by Governor Beat-
son — to whose history of the island I am indebted
for much information.
In May, 1810, 50 Chinese labourers were im-
ported into St. Helena, and were found so useful,
that shortly afterwards 150 more were obtained :
some husbandmen from England were also sent out
with a view to improving the agriculture of the
settlement ; this produced a beneficial effect in ex-
tending greatly the amount of land under cultiva-
tion. Still, owing to some measures ordered by the
government at home, the price of provisions was
192 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
enhanced greatly — salt provisions from the Com-
pany's stores, which in 1810 were delivered at 4d.
per lb. reaching I'Sd. in 1813, which, with the strict
abolition of the importation, or manufacture of ardent
spirits, gave rise to discontent. A brewery was
therefore established, and cheap wines imported
from the Cape in abundance, and served out in
rations at 6d. per pint. At the close of 1811 these
discontents broke out into open mutiny, as had
several times before been the case ; by the firm
conduct of the Governor, however, it was speedily
suppressed, nine of the ringleaders brought to sum-
mary Court Martial, condemned, and six of them
executed, after which order was restored, and the
worst characters sent off the island.
In 1813, Governor Beatson was superseded, at his
own request, by Colonel Mark Wilks, but he re-
mained for several months to induct his successor in
the plans he had in progress for the improvement of
the settlement.
In 1815, it was resolved to appropriate St. Helena
as a prison for Napoleon Buonaparte, — on the loth
Oct. 1815, he arrived in the island in his Majesty's
ship Northumberland, and- continued there a prisoner
at large until his death, on the 6th May, 1821. It
would be foreign to my purpose, and beyond my
limits to enter into any disquisition on the question
of the imprisonment of Napoleon at St. Helena ;
whether England had a moral right to detain him
there is, by no means, a settled point ; still less so is
the far more important question, whether Napoleon's
actions were calculated to benefit, or to injure man-
15
CHARACTER AND FATE OF NAPOLEON. 1D3
kind ; — granted, even, that Napoleon was a despot :
let it, however, be remembered, that he warred
against tyrants who endeavoured to hold millions in
bondage to the few, or against imbeciles who desired
to retain the mass of their fellow-beings in slavish sub-
jection to alleged hereditary rights ; — if he be accused
of usurping sovereign power, let those who can ap-
preciate his genius reflect, that he was endowed with
a capacity of soul for which this world was too
limited, and that his towering mind could acknow-
ledge no chief; nor let any man of talent forget that
moral, mental, physical energy was never exhibited
before Napoleon in vain — he elicited, encouraged,
rewarded the brave, the high-spirited, the eloquent,
and the studious ; his presence was a stimulus to
some of the greatest enterprises that man has ever
undertaken, and thousands of gallant heroes cheer-
fully shed their precious blood in the hope of re-
ceiving the approving smile of Napoleon : — yet,
more, let not the truly British patriot forget that.
Napoleon too idolized his country ; his very exist-
ence was centered in extending the glory and hap-
piness of his adored France, whom he cherished as
the most ardent lover does the first object of his
choice. I am not blind to the faults of Napoleon,
they were many, and deep ; — he would have been
more or less than mortal were it otherwise. I look
upon his meteoric career as one of those extraordi-
nary dispensations of Providence, whose purport is,
to us, inscrutable ; and when I contemplate the lofty
pinnacle of grandeur on which he was exalted — with
kings, princes, and nobles for his servitors — thrones
CEYLON, &C. O
194 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
for his gifts — and empires for his sway, — when I
contrast this summit of Napoleon's earthly glory
with his narrow and cheerless prison-house, in the
midst of the Atlantic — when I compare the gorgeous
Tuilleries with the silent, nameless, and desolate
charnel- vault of St. Helena — I witness the most
forcible illustration of the instability of mere human
greatness that ever was presented for the guidance
of mankind, and I read in it a conclusive confirma-
tion of those striking lessons with which the page of
scripture abounds — which teach that the race is not
to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, and that he
who giveth not praise and glory to Him to whom
praise and glory are alone due, is like unto a reed
shaken by every blast of wind, — or, as the flower of
the field, which groweth up and is cut down, and no
man knoweth its place. Reader, excuse this digres-
sion, which I could not well avoid, and return with
me unto a dry detail of facts which, though less
congenial to my mind, is of far more utility to the
object I have in view — the welfare of my countrv.
During the residence of Napoleon on St. Helena,
in order to prevent his escape ^ a large garrison of
^ Several projects were made to carry off Napoleon from
St. Helena. The following (as it appears tome) impracticable
scheme was devised by Johnson, the smuggler, who says — ' I
constructed two submarine vessels, the Eagle and Etna. The
Eagle was of the burthen of 114 tons, 84 feet in length, and
18 feet beam, propelled by two steam-engines of 40 horse
power. The Etna, the smaller ship, was 40 feet long, and 10
feet beam ; burthen 23 tons. These two vessels would be
propelled, the large one with two engines of 20 horse power
PLAN FOR LIBERATING NAPOLEON. 195
king's troops, and a considerable squadron was main-
tained at the island, which the East India Company
each, the small one with one engine of 10 horse power, high
pressure, well arranged, equipped with warlike stores, and 30
well- chosen seamen, with four engineers. They were also to
take 20 torpedos, a number equal to the destruction of 20
ships, ready for action in case of meeting with any opposition
from the ships of war on the station. These two ships were
to be stationed at a convenient distance from the rock (at St.
Helena), abreast of Longwood House, the highest point of the
island, being 2,000 feet above the level of the sea, and, because
deemed inaccessible, of course unsuspected. All the accessible
points were well fortified and guarded. In this position the
two vessels were to lay at anchor, at a cable's length from
each other, the smaller one close to the rock, well fortified
with cork fenders, in order to guard against any injury which
might be apprehended from the friction of beating against the
rock, which could at all times be prevented by hauling off or
on, as occasion required. This smaller ship would be pro-
vided with a mechanical chair, capable of containing one per-
son on the seat, and a standing foot-board at the back, so that
the person at the back could regulate the ascent or descent at
pleasure. Attached to this chair would be a patent whale-line,
2.050 feet long, with all the necessary apparatus ready when
called for. Thus far arranged, the vessels were to remain
submerged during the day, and at night approach the surface.
Every thing being perfectly in order, I should then go on
shore, provided with some other small articles, such as a ball
of strong twine, an iron bolt with a block, which I would sink
into the ground at the top of the rock, opposite Longwood
House, and abreast of the submarine ships. I should then
obtain my introduction to his Imperial Majesty, and com-
municate my plan. The residence of the Emperor being sur-
rounded by a chevaux-de-frise, and the stables being outside,
the servants only had access to the house. I proposed that
the coachman should go into the house, at a certain hour
o 2
196 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
placed under the government of the Crown : in 1822,
the whole of the king's troops were removed and St.
which should be fixed, and that his Majesty should be provided
with a similar livery, as well as myself, the one in the charac-
ter of a coachman, the other as a groom; and that, thus dis-
guised, we should pass into the coach-house, and there remain,
unnoticed and unperceived. We should then watch our op-
portunity, to avoid the eye of the frigate guard, who seldom
looked out in the direction of the highest point in the Island ;
and on our arriving at the spot where our blocks, &c. were de-
posited, I should make fast one end of my ball of twine to the
ring, and heave the ball down to my confidential men, then on
the look-out below, who would make the other end fast to the
fall belonging to the mechanical chair, by which means I
should be able to haul up the end of the fall, which I should
run through the block, and then haul up the mechanical chair
to the top. I should then place his Majesty in the chair, while
I took my station at the back, and lowered away with a cor-
responding weight on the other side, until we arrived safe at
the bottom. Embarked on board the Etna, into which we
should have lowered, as it lay close under the rock, I should
then cast off our moorings, and haul alongside the Eagle, and
remain there during the day; in the evening prepare our
steam, and get under weigh as soon as it became dark. In this
position, I should propel by steam until I had given the island
a good berth, and then ship our mast and make sail, steering
for the United States. I calculated that no hostile ship or
ships could impede our progress, so as to offer any very
serious obstruction, as, in the event of an attack, I should
haul our sails and strike yards and masts, which would only
occupy about 40 minutes, and then submerge. Under water
we should await the approach of the enemy, and then, by the
aid of the little Etna, attaching the torpedo to her bottom,
effect her destruction in 15 minutes. On my arrival at a secure
and convenient spot on the coast of the United States, I should
communicate with his Majesty's Government, through the
medium of my friend and patron, the ever-to-be- lamented
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ISLAND. 197
Helena reverted to the possession of the East India
Company.
In March, 1823, Brigadier General Walker arrived
from England as governor : under his administration
many judicious plans for the improvement of the set-
tlement were persevered in, particularly the abolition
of slavery (previously begun) , the establishment of
schools, &c.; he also encouraged agricultural societies
and fairs, giving prizes for the best cattle, ploughing,
and crops. The houses which had been occupied by
Buonaparte and his staff were converted into offices
for the Company's farm at Longwood \ and the
amount of cultivated land extended. He also in-
creased the supply of water for shipping, by bringing
the contents of another spring to the reservoir, by
which means there is now procurable 300 tons of
pure water in the twenty-four hours, which can be
further increased if necessary. St. Helena remained
as the property of the East India Company until
the non-renewal of the Company's commercial charter
Duke of York, to negociate for a more suitable and honour-
able asylum for his Imperial Majesty. Should my negociations,
as I anticipated, fail, I should then address his Imperial Ma-
jesty, and propose his return to France, where he would
meet with a very favourable reception. The whole of the
negociations were carried on through O'Meara. The vessels
were laid down to be coppered, when news arrived of the
exile's death.'
[Johnson forgot to state how he was to ascend the inacces-
sible precipice.]
1 When I visited them in 1830, Napoleon's bed-room was a
cattle-stall, and sheep and goats sheltered themselves in the
ex-emperor's saloon.
,198 ST, HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
in 1833, when the Directors declined to continue
burthened with the expense of the island, which it
had retained solely for the benefit and protection of
its shipping ; St. Helena is now, therefore, one of the
crown colonies ; Commissioners have been sent out
to make the necessary inquiries and alterations for
the transfer — the East India Company's troops, here-
tofore garrisoning the forts, will be removed to India,
and their place occupied by the head- quarters of the
60th rifles, with a governor appointed by the Queen.
' Chronological account of Governors of St. Helena : — Sir
Richard Munden and Captain R. Kegwin, 1G73; Captain G.
Field, 1G74; Major J. Blackmore, 1678; Captain J. Johnson,
1690; Captain R. Keelinge, 1693; Captain S. Poirier, 1697;
Captain T. Goodwin, I707 ; Captain J. Roberts, I7O8 ; Captain
B. Boucher, I7II ; Captain M. Bazett, (actg.) Captain J. Pyke,
1714; E. Johnson, Esq. 1719; E. Byfield, (actg.); Captain
J. Smith, 1723; Captain J. Pyke, 1731; J. Goodwin, Esq.
1738; D. Crisp, 1739; R. Jenkins, Esq. 1740; Major T.
Lambert, 1741 ; G. G. Powel, Esq. 1742 ; Col. D. Dunl)ar,
1743; C. Hutchinson, Esq. 1747; J. Skottowe, Esq. 1764;
D. Corneille, Esq. 1782; Colonel R. Brooke, 1787; Lieu-
tenant Colonel F. Robson, 1801; Colonel R. Patten, 1802;
Lieutenant Colonel W. Lane, 1807 ; Major General A. Beat-
son, 1808; Colonel M. Wilks, 1813; Lieutenant General Sir
Hudson Lowe, 1816; T. H. Brooke, Esq. (actg.) 1821;
Brigadier General A. Walker, 1823 ; T. H. Brooke, Esq.
(2nd actg.) 1828; Brigadier General C. Dallas, 1828.
Physical Aspect. — The island of St. Helena,
when first seen at sea, presents the appearance of a
small barren rock, nearly perpendicular on its northern
side, but gradually shelving to the south. On ap-
proaching, its eminences appear more broken, and
the central ones covered with verdure ; on a near
PHYSICAL ASPECT. 1 P9
approach this view is again shut out by the rugged
and barren appearance of the shore, which is almost
perpendicular, forming a girdle of inaccessible pre-
cipices of basaltic rocks, some of them rent to the
bases, exhibiting extensive chasms, and all the
most fantastic shapes that can be imagined. On
rounding Munden's Point to the only anchorage that
exists, James' Valley Bay on the north-west, or
leeward side of the island, the eye is suddenly
relieved by a view of the town and fortifications.
James' Town is situate in a narrow valley between
two lofty mountains, and presents a pleasant and
refreshing appearance, from the trees being generally
in full leaf — a species of the banian of India, called
in Bengal the peepul tree.
Tliere is good anchorage in from eight to twenty-
five fathoms ; the tide rising to the height of five feet
at times ; the surf upon the shore is generally strong,
but about Christmas tremendous. The principal in-
lets by which the island can be approached are Lemon
Valley, James' Town, and Rupert's Bay on the north-
west side, and Sandy Bay on the south-east ; all these,
however, are strongly fortified. Even the small ra-
vines, where it might be possible to effect a landing,
are also fortified.
Throughout the whole length of the island there
are only two plains, the largest that of Longwood,
comprising 1,500 acres of fertile land, sloping to the
south-west. The island is divided by a ridge of
hills, running nearly east and west, but bending in a
curved direction to the south, at each extremity,
and from this chain innumerable valleys and ridges
200 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
branch off, generally at right angles. The highest
point of land in the island is Diana's Peak, which
rises 2,700 feet above the level of the sea, and is
situated towards the eastern extremity. From the
summit of this peak the whole island lies under the
view, no point intercepting the horizon : on the same
ridge are Cuckold's Point, 2,672 feet, and Halley's
Mount, 2,467 feet, which from their extreme altitude,
are often enveloped in clouds. The other remarkable
eminences, the altitude of w^hich have been ascer-
tained by Major Rennell, are Flag Staff, 2,272, and
BarnsclifF, 2,215 feet, nearer the coast and overhang-
ing the sea ; Alarm House, 1 ,260 feet, in the centre of
the island; High Knoll, 1,903 feet, to the southward
of Ladder Hill, and the official countiy residence of the
Governor, Longwood House, 1,762 do.; most of the
central eminences are covered with timber and shrubs,
consisting of the cabbage tree, redwood, stringwood,
dogw^ood, &c., and formerly the greenwood was to be
found in great abundance, but, at present, few of
these trees are to be seen, except about 1,500 acres
of an irregular forest at Longwood, preserved by
order of the East India Company.
St. Helena is plentifully watered by clear and
wholesome springs, abundant in every direction :
those issuing from the sides of the hills frequently
form picturesque cascades. Roads have been formed
in a zig-zag direction, with incredible labour, which
now give easy access to the interior of the island.
For the space of a couple of miles from James Town,
all appears baiTen, but the sight is soon gratified by
the appearance of verdure, with wooded hills, culti-
^RIAL PHENOMENON. 201
vated lawns and valleys, and handsome country resi-
dences. Many beautiful views are obtained from the
summits : besides the indigenous plants of the island,
the coffee of Arabia, the banian and bamboo of India,
the aloe of Africa, and the apple, peach, and mul-
berry of Europe are found to thrive in the cultivated
inclosures. At Longwood there is about 1500 acres
of excellent meadow^ land, capable of great fertility
when supplied with water. From Sandy Bay the
view is also pleasing, the country consisting of alter-
nate ridges and valleys, converging towards the sea,
amongst w^hich are interspersed the houses and plan-
tations of the settlers, the prospect closing with the
distant ocean.
Many of the hills are naked to the summit ; occa-
sionally the sides are partially clothed with a stunted
brushwood (as is the case in the lonesome and deso-
late looking valley where Napoleon's grave is situate '),
^ The temperament of Napoleon is evinced in the melan-
choly-looking spot chosen by himself as his last resting place.
The valley is small, verdant, and completely shut out (except
by one winding path) from the other parts of the island by two
towering, brown, and barren mountains, leaving no other ob-
ject visible, save the purple ether and the light fleecy clouds
which hover about like aerial messengers. The appearance
which the clouds assume here is extremely beautiful and sin-
gular, as the following anecdote will evince. In ] 830, I was
a passenger in a French ship from India, bound for Havre de
Grace. We had sutFered severe gales off the Cape, and being
without a good chronometer, lost our reckoning, and were
cruising about for several foggy days, looking for St. Helena.
During this time, a very large bird, resembling an eagle, but
Which no one had seen any thing like, kept hovering about
202 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
making the scene more dreary. Yet there are many
sweet spots on this rock of the ocean, and those who
have been born in St. Helena admire its beauties, and
are strongly attached to their wild -looking and rug-
ged home.
The Climate of this island is not ill adapted to
the European constitution ; indeed it has been found
congenial to the crews of vessels that have been kept
for a long space of time on salt provisions, and with-
out vegetables. The thermometer seldom rises above
80° in James Town, and the heat is only excessive
when it is reflected from the sides of the valley in
calm weather ; in the interior of the island the tem-
perature is more even, never so cold as in England,
and scarcely so hot. The average temperature
our ship. Several of the French officers endeavoured to shoot
it; but, although they were excellent shots, and the bird came
close to us, in a steady flight, it escaped injury. On the third
day, while anxiously looking out at noon, I perceived in the
clouds the exact figure of an eagle, in a halt-inclined flying
attitude, the fleecy wings beautifully tinged with the hidden
sun's rays. Under the influence of the thoughts then passing
in my mind, I involuntarily exclaimed, ' Voila Vesprit de Napo-
leon!' The idea was electric to the Frenchmen around me ;
and an old officer of Napoleon's guard threw himself on his
knees, in the attitude of prayer. Never shall I forget the
countenances of the young and old, as they soon after beheld
the eagle-like cloud slowly resolve itself into thin air; while
beneath, and close to our bark, the lofty peaks of St. Helena
frowned in dark and gloomy grandeui'. On looking round,
the bird which, for three days, had hovered about us, (and but
a few moments before visible) was no where to be seen, and
we proceeded beneath the embattled cliffs in thoughtful silence.
GEOLOGY AND SOIL.
203
throughout the whole year has been found to be at
Longwood from 56 to 68, at James Town from 66
to 78, and at Plantation House from 61 to 73
Fahrenheit.
State of the Thermometer (Farenheit) at Deadwood, St.
Helena, taken by Dr. Short, physician to the forces, from 1st
September, 1820, to 31st August, 1822.
Months.
Range.
State of the Wind.
Max.
Med.
Min.
Moi
Ave
ofl
nion
January
76
76
76
74
72
70
71
68
66
68
72
72
70
70
71
70
68
65
66
64
64
65
66
66
68
67
67
66
64
57
57
62
62
62
61
61
m
71
70
68
64
64^
64§
64
65
66i
66J
South-east.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Dito ; 1 day -n-est.
Ditto ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto,
Ditto.
Ditto ; 6 days west.
Ditto.
1
I
1
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Yearly average
71 67
62
Thunder and lightning are rare, and the rains,
which fall most abundantly in February, are for the
other months more regular than in other tropical si-
tuations. The higher peaks and their vicinity from
their approximation to the clouds, are generally visited
with a shower daily, and cloudy days are more fre-
quent than scorching sunny ones. The atmosphere
is, however, generally so clear that a vessel may be
descried at a distance of sixty miles.
Geology and Soil. — St. Helena is probably of
volcanic origin, perhaps like the Mauritius, the re-
204 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
suit of a submarine convulsion ; or it is the lofty
peak of some vast range of mountains whose base is
beneath the ocean. Limestone is plentiful in some
situations, as well as iron ore, but the scarcity of
fuel prevents the latter being made available. There
have been appearances of gold and copper, but not
to the extent to encourage mining. There is a sub-
stance called terra puzzolana, found in considerable
quantities, which in conjunction with lime makes an
excellent cement, and is therefore used in forming
aqueducts, as it sets hard, and is retentive of water,
though subject to become speedily foul by vegetable
substances adhering to its surface.
The Vegetable Kingdom is not much varied.
A vast quantity of furze, produced from seed origin-
ally brought from England covers the sides of the
interior hills ; there are three kinds of gum tree, all
evergreens and indigenous, — the common, the bas-
tard, and the dwarf; all of them emit an aromatic
gum, which renders the wood pleasant as fuel, for
which purpose it is used, and from the trunks of the
trees the inhabitants obtain in abundance a sweet
fluid which they call toddy. The other native timber
or shrubs are dog-wood, red-wood or ebony, string-
wood and the cabbage tree, of which the last is used
in building. The oak, pinaster, and cypress thrive
very well where they have been planted. The myr-
tle grows to the height of thirty feet, and the cotton
tree flourishes to perfection. The fern is extremely
beautiful, growing to the height of twenty feet, with
leaves five feet in length. There is a shrub which
has been named sapphire, which the natives burn in
VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 205
large quantities, its ashes producing- an alkali for the
manufacture of soap. All sorts of grasses thrive
well ; the wire grass or dwarf heing the most abund-
ant ; it is nutritious and suffers little from drought.
Lucerne has also been successfully introduced : in
short the soil is favourable to the production of any
European plant if sheltered from the sea.
Most kinds of tropical or European fruits ripen,
more particularly in the sheltered valleys. Vines,
oranges, citrons, lemons, figs, pomegranates, mul-
berries, tamarinds, mangoes, cocoa-nuts, sugar cane,
pine apples, &c. thrive well : apples have succeeded
tolerably, but the climate is not congenial to cherries,
currants, or gooseberries. The common blackberry
increased to such an extent after its introduction in
1780, as to cause an order for its extirpation.
Three successive crops of potatoes are often pro-
duced in the year, and garden vegetables, such as
cabbages, beans, peas, &c. are raised on every farm
in great abundance. As the principal object of the
settlement is to provide fresh meat and vegetables
for the refreshment of the homeward bound ships, the
cultivation of corn and pulse has not been encouraged,
neither is the climate congenial to their production on
account of droughts. The provisions exported and
brought to market in James Town, and solely grown
on the island during the last five years, were —
Potatoes, bags, exported 7650, consumed 1960;
cabbages, ew. 7470, c. 16250; vegetables, bunches,
ex. 33,800, c. 42,030 ; pumpkins, ex. 3800, c. 570 ;
hay, cwts. ex. 380, c. 2880; fowls, ex. 21,100, c.
20,240; ducks, ex. 4,100, c. 4,000; bullocks, ex.
206 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
260, c. 560; calves, ex. 30, c. 460; sheep, ex. 220,
c. 1230; pigs, ex. 870, c. 390; the total value of the
exports of the above was 20,400/. of the consump-
tion, 24,500/.
Animals. — Cattle produced from English stock
are not numerous, owing to the great demand of
passing ships ; poultry is plentiful and well tasted ;
and in some parts of the island rabbits abound. The
stock in the island consists of horses 300, horned
cattle 1500, sheep and goats 3000.
Birds. — The shores abound with many varieties of
sea fowl, which breed amongst the cliffs. Pheasants,
partridges, and guinea fow^ls, being strictly preserved,
are at this time numerous ; as are also the Java spar-
rows, which cause great destruction to the farmers'
crops, canary birds and red linnets, the latter build
two nests, in the upper one of which the male bird
sits and serenades the female in her incubation.
Fish are numerous, and more than seventy different
kinds have been caught on the coast. Amongst the
most prized are the coal fish, which is very delicate
but scarce : those commonly taken are jacks, congers,
soldiers, mackarel, albicore, bulls' eyes, &c. When
lying in St. Helena rcadstead, I have pulled up fish
so fast as to be weary in catching them : in general
they are excellent eating. Whales are sometimes
taken when they approach the roads. The flying
fish often drop on the rocks when pursued by the
dolphin, &c. In December and March turtle are
frequently taken, and shell fish are very abundant,
particularly the rock oyster.
The number of fish caught near the island during
1
POPULATION. 207
the last five years were as follow: — mackarel, 1 15,300
bulls' eyes, 2500 ; jacks, 35,900 ; congers, 24,000
old wives, 72,000 ; soldiers, 8,400 ; sandspeer, 6000
cavelliers, 6000 ; deep-water bulls' eyes, 3520 ; yel-
low-tail, 350 , coal fish, 30 ; cod-fish, 40 ; silver
fish, 7050 ; stumps, 4600 ; long-legs, 35 ; bear fish,
35 ; turtle, 40 ; five fingers, 490 ; sword fish, 80
(weighing 10 to 80 lbs. each); barracootta, 50; al-
bicore, 8300 (10 to 80 lbs).
The Population is estimated at 5000, of whom
about 2200 are whites, and the remainder either
people of colour, Chinese, or Africans, whom the
East India Company's government have for several
years liberally and generously aided to purchase
their freedom. The total number of paupers in the
island is twenty-eight, principally old and blind
people. Those who are born in the island evince
considerable quickness and talent. The baptisms and
burials at St. Helena, from the 30th September, 1820,
to the 30th September, 1833, were as follow : —
Bps.
Bis.
Bps.
Brs.
Bps.
Brs.
1821
140
90
182G
129
83
1831
239
73
1822
113
70
1827
180
99
1832
229
89
1823
118
57
1828
159
96
1833
201
70
1824
101
90
1829
156
65
1825
154
125
1830
204
68
Total baptisms, 2123— burials, 1076.
The bill of mortality, ending December, 1833, was
80 ; of whom 1 6 died under 1 year ; 5 under 5
years; 5 under 10 years; 4 from 10 to 20; 23
from 20 to 40 ; 18 from 40 to 70 ; and 9 above 70
years of age.
208 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
Government. — During the East India Company's
sway, the chief authority was vested in a governor,
aided by a council, composed of the principal and
senior civic servants, how it will in future stand is
not yet known.
The Military has hitherto been composed of one
regiment of Em'opean troops, and a strong artillery,
in the service of the East India Company. The
head quarters of the 2nd battalion 60th Rifles will, I
hear, form the new garrison, with, I suppose, a
detachment of the Roval Artillery. The island is so
well fortified that properly defended it may be con-
sidered impregnable. It has forty-three stations,
protected by mounted ordnance.
The guns mounted and ready for action are, —
brass mortars, howitzers, and guns, 9 three-tenths
inch mortar, 1 ; 8 inch howitzers, 2 ; b\ ditto,
8; 6 pounders, 14; 3 ditto, 10. — Iro7i, 13 inch
mortar, 8; 8 inch ditto, 2; 32 pounders, 19; 24
ditto, 16; 18 ditto, 36; 12 ditto, 35; 9 ditto, 11;
6 ditto, 17; 4 ditto, 2; 3 ditto, 4; swivels, 3;
Carronades, 68 pounders, 4 ; 24 ditto, 22 ; 18 ditto,
24; 12 ditto, 1.
Revenue and Expenditure. — Hitherto the charge
for St. Helena has been large, unless it be considered
in the important view of an invaluable naval station.
The revenue derived from a few licenses and fines is
small, but increasing in amount. The following is a
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
209
Statement of the Revenue and Charges of St. Helena.
Years.
CHARGES.
Civil.
Military.
Buildings
and Fortifi-
Total
! Charges.
^ ^ OJ ..^
e!^ <" -
> N Oj fH
1809-10
1810-11
1811-12
1812-13
1813-14
1814-15
1815-16
1816-17
1817-18
1818-19
1819-20 i
1820-21 I
1821-22
1822-23
1823-24
1824-25
1825-26
1826-27
1827-28
1828-29
1829-30+
1830 31
1831-32
1832-33
1833-34
£
12503
14626
17452
17272
20209
26278
23623
49075
49634
61411
33019
54641
47314
29475
35122
28432
28319
27172
46808
44507
33288
28378
28285
28581
26398
£
69926
64783
61845
62880
70701
66015
178289
222225
192498
215870
128562
218774
157527
87083
77581
77538
80616
87297
75172
69072
60359
56324
56356
58020
56287
£
2824
3240
3989
4536
6029
1666
2207
11482
14875
19504
7872
2139
5242
5395
3494
5295
4493
3974
1989
2058
957
1721
1842
1734
1721
£
85253
82649
83286
84688
96939
93959
204119*
282782*
257007*
296785*
169453*
275554*
210083*
121953
116197
111265
113428
118443
123969
115637
94608
86423
86483
88335
84406
£
1432
1429
1432
1696
1685
1872
2371
3038
1438
2693
175
989
2045
1860
3929
1816
3015
3943
3398
2583
1600
379
3260
3050
2931
£
83821
81220
81854
82992
95254
92087
201748
279744
255569
294092
169278
274565
208038
120093
112268
109449
110413
114500
120571
113654
93004
86044
83223
85285
81475
* The Company have since been repaid by Her Majesty's Govern-
ment apart of these charges, credit for the amount having been al-
lowed to them in their account with Government, settled by the Act
3d Geo. IV. c. 93.
t Add to this sundry expenses paid in England— 1829-30, 11,389/.
—1830-31, 14-213/.— 1831-32, 10,929/.— 1832-33, 10,268/.— 1833-34,
10,166/.
Number of vessels that received supplies at the island in
1833 : British, 1 56 ships, 58 barques, 79 brigs, and 7 schooners,
total 300 ; tonnage 131,974, guns 16GG, men 11,459 ; American
vessels 93, tonnage 26,275, guns 158, men 1801 ; French 51.
210 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS.
tonnage 17,47^, guns 139, men 1191 ; Dutch 23, tonnage
9995, guns 142, men 589 ; Portuguese 3, tonnage 883, guns 14,
men 71; Swedish 2, tonnage G08, guns 10, men 40 ; German
2, tonnage 541, guns 8, men 31; Danish 1, tonnage 145,
men 14. Total, vessels 475, tonnage 187,899, guns 2134, men
15,19G ; and 162 vessels sighted the island. Of British vessels
touching at St. Helena 7 were from Algoa Bay, 9 Batavia,
42 Bombay, 69 Calcutta, 30 Cape of Good Hope, 7 Ceylon, 23
China, 5 London, 17 Madras, 9 Manilla, 51 Mauritius, 2 New
South Wales, 1 Rio Janeiro, 14 Singapore, 2 Van Diemen's
Land, and 12 from whaling voyages ; of the above 300 vessels,
189 were bound to London, and 51 to Liverpool, the remainder
to different ports in the United Kingdom. Ifwe value the
property vested and embarked in 131,974 tons of British ship-
ping at 30Z. pound per ton, we shall have nearly four millions
annually (3,959,220/.) indebted for its better security to our
possession of St. Helena.
Prices of stock and provisions at St. Helena, in 1834: —
horned cattle, from England, 15/. to 20/. ; from the Cape of
Good Hope, 71. 10s. to 10/. ; sheep, Cape, 1/. ; goats, ditto 10*. ;
pigs, weighing lOOlbs 1/. 10*.; turkeys lOs. ; geese, 75. ; fowls,
25.; horses, 20/.; flour per lb. 2^d. ; biscuits, ll2]bs. 1/.
English; I65. Cape ; oats, per muid. Cape, 12.9.66?.; barley,
ditto, II5. Gd. ; hops, pocket, 305. ; malt, per hogshead, 4/. IO5. ;
rice, bag of 1651bs. 125. ; English salt, per lb. Id. ; salt fish,
per cwt. 1/. ; fresh beef, mutton, &c. Gd. to 4d. per lb. ; ditto,
salt ditto, 3d. to 4d. ; sugar, 2d. to 3d. per lb. ; coffee, 5d. to
Sd. ; tea, Is. 3d. to 25. Gd. per lb. ; wine, Cape, I5. Gd. to 25.
per gallon; foreign wine, 125, to 1/. per dozen; brandy and
gin, 1/. per gallon ; English beer, 95. per dozen ; Island ditto, 25.
per gallon ; servants' wages, 10.?. to 155. per month with board,
or I5. Gd. per day without board ; women, IO5. to 205. per
month, with food.
The foregoing will convey a sufficiently distinct
idea of St. Helena, which as a maritime station is of
incalculable value to a commercial nation : it is not
the barren rock that has been supposed, nor are
ASCENSION. 211
there wanting the finer elements of social life ;
slavery has been for several years in the course of
abolition ; public schools have been established (eight
schools, with about 500 children) ; an excellent ob-
servatory, provided with every scientific instrument ;
and every effort made to promote religious instruc-
tion. As a watering and refreshing station for our
homeward-bound eastern vessels, St. Helena, even in
peace time, is of great utility ; and it is well situate
as a cruising station for our ships of war — as is also
Ascension — contiguous to St. Helena, in latitude
7° 57' south, longitude 14° 28' west ; it is a small
island of volcanic production, the coast consisting of
barren rock, relieved, however, in some places by the
verdure on the declivity of the Green Mountain.
The island has been of late years well fortified at
every accessible part (the sea breaks on the island
with tremendous violence), and garrisoned by a de-
tachment of marines and marine artillery, who, aided
by artificers, have erected a neat establishment for
their location. A shaft has been sunk in one of the
mountains, and abundance of excellent water con-
veyed to the anchorage by iron pipes and hoses ; and
a good soil was found two feet under the lava
on which an abundant supply of vegetables may
be reared. The beach, at first thought to be com-
posed of sand, was found to consist of very small
fragments of shells, in some places firmly compacted
together. These slabs were formed of several layers,
of which the size of the fragments differs in each
layer ; they are used for tombstones, steps of doors,
and are broken and burned for lime. Red volcanic
p 2
212 ASCENSION ISLAND.
ashes prevail, several hills entirely exhibiting that
appearance. Of the vegetable kingdora, the euphorbia
only is found growing in small tufts, distributed not
very abundantly about the rugged lava, — a beautiful
object among such barren scenes. Sea fowl are very
numerous, and there are three species of butterflies
on the island, of handsome colours.
Ponds are kept stocked wdth turtle, w'eighing from
200 to 800 lbs. each, which may be bought for 50
shillings. Abundance of fish and marine birds are
obtainable. At a place called ' The Fair,' the birds
named sea-swallows, as well as numerous other
aquatic birds, congregate ; the eggs of the sea-
swallows, which are of a dirty w^hite with dark red
spots, and about the size of a crow's egg, are col-
lected at certain seasons of the year in thousands,
and considered delicate aud excellent eating \
Moorings are laid down in the roads, and vessels
in w^ant of water and vegetables can be supplied at
a moderate price.
During war, these islands in the possession of an
enemy would, as outlying picquets, be a means of
serious injury to our commerce ; during peace they
are refreshing stations, enabling our seamen to have
at all times a friendlv haven under their lee.
1 When at Algoa Bay, in 1825, I used to collect thousands
of sea fowl eggs at the contiguous bird islands, and they
furnished our mess with omelets of a peculiar but rather
pleasing flavour, for several weeks. When boiled, the white
of the egg is perfectly transparent.
Fo Montgom •> Mmims H sto t ol the BmUsli CoLomes A£at
BOOK V.
BRITISH SETTLEMENTS IN WESTERN AFRICA,
INCLUDING SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, AND
CAPE COAST CASTLE.
CHAPTER I.
LOCALITY — AREA — HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPFXT^RIVERS —
GEOLOGY CLIMATE — VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOMS
POPULATION GOVERNMENT — FINANCES — COMMERCE
SOCIAL STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS, &C. &C.
None of the colonies of England have been mis-
represented more than those situate on the western
coast of Africa ; few surpass them in moral, commer-
cial, and political interest. Unfortunately my limits
compel brevity ; but I trust before these pages be
concluded, the reader will agree with me, that our
possessions on the shores of Western Africa are an
important and essential link in the maritime empire
of Britain.
The trade between Western Africa and Europe
commenced about the middle of the fifteenth century,
BOOK V.
BRITISH SETTLEMENTS IN WESTERN AFRICA,
INCLUDING SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, AND
CAPE COAST CASTLE.
CHAPTER I.
LOCALITY AREA — HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPECT — RIVERS —
GEOLOGY CLIMATE — VEGETABLE AND AMMAL KINGDOMS
POPULATION GOVERNMENT — FINANCES — COMMERCE
SOCIAL STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS, &C. &C.
None of the colonies of England have been mis-
represented more than those situate on the western
coast of Africa ; few surpass them in moral, commer-
cial, and political interest. Unfortunately my limits
compel brevity ; but I trust before these pages be
concluded, the reader will agree with me, that our
possessions on the shores of Western Africa are an
important and essential link in the maritime empire
of Britain.
The trade between Western Africa and Europe
commenced about the middle of the fifteenth century,
214 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
for we learn that in 1455, Prince Henry of Portugal
built a fort on the island of Arguin. At the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century, the English, Spaniards,
French, Danes, and Dutch had begun to send private
ships to trade on this coast ; but during the middle
of this century the commerce of each nation was orga-
nized under the management of chartered companies,
who formed estabUshments on different parts of the
coast, built forts at the mouths of several rivers, and
prosecuted an active trade, the greater part of which
(as stated in my West India volume) was for slaves.
The English settled chiefly at Cape Coast Castle ; the
French at the mouth of the Senegal and at Goree
Island ; the Dutch on the Gambia ; the Portuguese
at St. George del Mina ; the Danes at Christianborg,
&c. Each of these strong fortresses, mounting from
fifty to sixty pieces of cannon, had subordinate posts
and stations, several of which continue to this day.
At the present moment our settlements are situate at
Bathurst, on the Gambia, at Sierra Leone, Cape
Coast Castle, and Accra, and a brief description of
the sea coast, followed by a succinct account of each
settlement, will be therefore necessary.
Physical Aspect, Description, and History. —
In general the coast of Western Africa, extending
for 4000 miles along the Atlantic, with an average
breadth of 300 miles, is along the ocean boundary a
flat country, backed by ranges of lofty mountains,
which in some places approach the sea, and as at
Cape Verd, project in bold headlands. The great
coast chain runs parallel to the coast from west to
east, where, afi'ording a passage for the disemboguing
RIVERS. 215
waters of the Nun, one of the mouths of the Niger,
tends towards the north-east to join or form the
Gebel el Kumri, or Mountains of the Moon ; some of
the peaks of this range (those of Cameranca, near
Benin) are said to be 13,000 feet in elevation. It is
only, however, about the estuaries of the great rivers
and along their banks that the country can be said to
be flat, in other places it consists of gentle undulations
and rising eminences, giving considerable beauty to
the landscape, the most conspicuous feature of which
are the numerous rivers that disembogue into the
ocean, most of them arising in the chain of moun-
tains above described, and running a tortuous course
to the coast.
Among the principal rivers are the Senegal, Gam-
bia, Rio Grande, Rio Nunez, Rokelle, Cameranca
Mesurado, Nun or Niger, Congo and Coauzo. Be-
ginning with the most northerly, the Senegal appears
to rise in the Kong range of mountains (heights of
Foota Jalloo), in nearly 10° north latitude, and 10°
west longitude, where the Niger is thought to rise ;
the Senegal, about 15° north latitude, is joined by
several ti'ibutary streams, viz. the Woolery, Faleme,
Neriko, &c., and after passing Galam and the falls of
Felu, makes a circuitous bend to the north-west along
the borders of the desert, and falls into the Atlantic
at Fort Louis, its course being 950 miles.
The Gambia has its source in the same mountain
range as the Senegal, near the Faleme, one of the
tributaries of the latter named river, and rolls a power-
ful and rapid stream, at first to the north-west and
then westerly, falling into the Atlantic, after a course
216 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
of 700 miles, about 13° 13' north latitude. The
country between the rivers Senegal and Gambia is
called by the French the Sen-Gambia. The Rio
Grande is, as far as we know\ a large stream, nor is
any river equal to the Gambia met v;ith until we
arrive at the Bight or Gulf of Benin, where, for the
space of above 200 miles, there is a succession of
large estuaries, now ascertained (through the perse-
vering enterprize of the Landers) to be the mouths
of the long- sought Niger, whose origin we are still
ignorant of, and whose course and embouchures are
still to a great extent unexplored ; the delta of this
mighty stream stretching into the interior of Western
Africa for more than 170 miles, occupies, it is sup-
posed, a space of more than 300 miles along the
coast, thus forming a surface of more than 25,000
square miles, being a considerably larger area than is
embraced in all Ireland. Further south the Congo
or Zaire pours its ample volume of waters into the
broad Atlantic, 400 miles having been navigated
during Captain Tuckey's unfortunate expedition, leav-
ing its further course and source still involved in
mystery. Of the Coauzo, though a large river, we
^ Captain Belcher, who surveyed the coast line here in
1830-32, in the Etna and Raven, says, that he thinks the whole
of the s})ace between the Nunez and Rio Grande is one great
archipelago, and navigable, at high water, for vessels of foar or
five feet draught, and it is generally believed that canoes can
navigate from Isles de Los to the Gambia, within the islands
of this (supposed) huge archipelago. It is probable that a
large river will yet be found here. The Compome, as fer as
exi)lored, is a very extensive stream.
FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. 2J7
are not yet in possession of sufficient information to
speak positively. With a knowledge of the foregoing"
leading physical features, we proceed to examine the
coast more in detail as regards its social as well as
geographical divisions, beginning on the north with
the river Senegal, w^here the French established
themselves upwards of a century since.
Fort St. Louis, the capital, is situated on an island
in the river, a mere sandbank, without any water
which can be drunk without being filtered, and de-
pendent entirely for provisions on the southern coast,
which, however, vields them in abundance. St.
Louis never became a large settlement ; Golberry, in
1 786, reckons not above sixty Europeans settled
there for the purposes of trade. The military and
civil servants of government amounted to 600, the
natives to 2400. The French lost St. Louis during
the revolutionary war, but we restored it to them on
the friendly peace which succeeded in 1814, under a
treaty that Portendick was always to be open to us
for the trade in gum ; but which treaty the French
violated \ The disastrous fate, however, of the ex-
pedition sent out in the Medusa frigate has been un-
favourable to any attempt to restore and extend the
prosperity of the colony. It is said, however, to
have experienced an increase within the last few
^ The French recently took umbrage at one of the chiefs of
the Trazars, brought him a prisoner down to Port Louis, tried
him by a drum-head court martial, and shot him. The natives,
of course, declared war against the French ; the latter to force
the natives into a compliance, contrary to the letter and spirit
of our treaty, blockaded Portendick.
218 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
years, and to contain now about 600 inhabitants.
The original hopes of its greatness were founded on
the supposed identity of the Senegal with the Niger,
and on the prospect of a communication by it with
the inmost regions of Africa. All the efforts founded
upon this erroneous theory proved of course abor-
tive, and the commercial advantages of the colony
(the procuring of slaves not included) have been con-
fined to the gum trade ^ and the gold trade of Bam-
bouk.
^ The gum which, from this river and settlement, is called
Gum Senegal, is the produce of some scattered oases, or ver-
dant spots, that occur in the vast desert of sand to the north of
the Senegal. The species of acacia from which it exudes has
every appearance of a stunted and desert tree : its aspect is
crooked and rough, its branches are thorny, its leaves of a dry
or dirty green. The mere blowing of the harmattan causes the
bark to crack in numberless places, and the gum to flow in
large transparent drops, which remain attached to the surface.
The harvest of the gum is in December, when the Moorish
tribes, of whom the Trazars are the most powerful, break up
from their usual camps, their kings and princes at their head,
and proceed in a confused and tumultuous crowd to the forests,
of which each claims one or more. After six weeks spent in
collecting the gum, they put it in large leathern sacks, with
which they load their camels, and proceed in the same tumul-
tuous array to the spot fixed on for the gum market, between
Fort Louis and Podor. This plain, which is one of the most
desolate spots in nature, is suddenly covered with an innume-
rable multitude of people enveloped in clouds of dust. The
kings appear mounted on beautiful horses, their wives seated
in baskets on the backs of camels, the crowd on foot ; the air
resounds with the cries of men, women, children, and animals.
A cannon is fired as the signal for commencing the trade. A
dreadful scene of wrangling and higgling immediately ensues.
THE KINGDOM OF BAMBOUK. 219
The kingdom of Bambouk, situate near the head of
the river, and so enclosed between its main stream
and the great branches of the Kokoro and the Faleme,
as to form almost a complete island, is the next object
of commercial importance to the French on the Sene-
gal. It is almost entirely a country of mountains,
whence flow numerous streams, almost all of which
roll over golden sands ; but the main depositaries,
where the metal is traced as it were to its source, are
two mountains, Natakon and Semayla. The former
composes almost an entire mass of gold, united with
earth, iron, or emery. The first four feet of depth
consists of fat earth, from which the grains of gold
are extracted by agitation with water in a calabash ;
afterwards the precious metal begins to appear in
small grains or spangles, and at twenty feet in small
lumps of from two to ten grains. The pieces become
always larger as the work descends ; but as the natives
have no means of propping up the sides, they often
fall in and bury the workmen. Semayla, a mountain
200 feet high, presents a difierent structure. The
gold is here embedded in hard sandstone, which must
The French accuse the Africans of most dishonest arts in order
to enhance the value of their commodity. They themselves, it
appears, are not far behind, since they have not scrupled to
adopt tlie policy of insensibly augmenting the size of the cantar
by which the gum is measured, a change which escapes the
notice of their rude antagonists. The French take off annually
about 1200 tons of gum, which sells in Europe at from 70/. to
90/. per ton. The returns are taken almost exclusively in
East India cotton cloths dyed blue, which are called pieces of
Guinea, and for which it has been in vain attempted to sub-
stitute the manufacture of Europe.
220 SIERRA. LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
be reduced to powder before the extrication can be
effected. Part of it also is found in red marble, a
substance which to the natives is perfectly unmanage-
able. Bambouk is said to have been early conquered
by a Mahometan force, and afterwards by the Portu-
guese. Both have been driven out, and the French
never made any serious attempt to establish them-
selves in it.
The point at which the French attempted to carry
on the commerce of the Upper Senegal is at Fort St.
Joseph, in the kingdom of Galam or Kajaaga. A
voyage thither was reckoned to produce cent, per
cent. ; but the unhealthiness of the climate, the diffi-
culties of the navigation, and the constant hazard of
being plundered by a succession of barbarous chiefs
who occupy the banks, rendered it a very precarious
speculation. At present the fort is abandoned and in
ruins ; but the Serawoolies, who inhabit this fine
countrv, are amons: the most industrious of the Afri-
can tribes, and have engrossed the trade of Bambouk,
Manding, and most of the upper countries on the
Senegal and Niger.
In descending the Senegal, there are several popu-
lous and powerful states, among which is that of
Foota Torra, extending considerably both to the south
and north of the river, but of which the interior has
not been explored by Europeans. The king is a
zealous Mahometan, and, under pretext of making
converts, has endeavoured to subdue the almost pagan
Daniel or Burb of the Jalofs. The latter, however,
by the strength of his country and a prudent system
of warfare, has been able to baffle his attempt. On
THE SEN-GAMBIA TERRITORY. 221
the middle Senegal, the most important personage is
the Siratic, who holds his court at Ghiorel, consider-
ably to the north of the river. Nearer the sea is the
kingdom of Hoval, governed by a petty prince, called
the Greak Brak, w^hich, in the language of the coun-
try, signifies King of Kings \
The coast between the Gambia and Senegal is
chiefly occupied by the kingdom of Kayor. It is
stated, by Golberry, to extend 750 miles in length,
and to contain 180,000 inhabitants, who are Jalofs.
At the little island of Goree, on this coast, the French
have established the capital of all their African settle-
ments. Its advantages consist solely in its almost
inaccessible ^dtuation on a rock, three sides of which
are perpendicular, and the fourth very steep. The
rock is fortified, but not, it is said, in the most skil-
ful manner. The town contains 7000 inhabitants, and
presents a very bustling scene, being the entrepot of
all the trade with the opposite coast, and also a place
of refreshment for French ships on their way to India.
It lies on the southern side of the peninsula, which
terminates in Cape Verde, the most westerly point
of the African continent. Though the soil be sandy,
it bears a number of those immense trees called Bao-
bab, which give to the Cape that verdant aspect
whence it derives its name. On the northern side,
two hills, 600 feet high, mark this striking geogra-
phical position, and serve as a guide to mariners.
* I give these and several other details on the authority of
Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography, who, however, does not
state his authority ; it appears to he derived from Golberry.
IMy object is to stimulate to further investigation.
222 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
The Gambia is almost entirely an English river,
the attempts to form settlements upon it having, for
nearly two centuries, been confined to our own na-
tion. Our settlements on the Gambia will be found
subsequently detailed.
The Gambia is bordered on its north bank by seve-
ral flourishing little kingdoms. That immediately on
the sea is Barra, said to contain 200,000 inhabitants.
The capital is Barra Inding ; but the chief place of
trade is Jillifrey. In the kingdom of Barra there are
seven principal towns, with a family entitled to the
crown in each, who succeed to the cap or throne al-
ternately. Boor Salum is a still more extensive king-
dom, situated on a small river that falls into the
Gambia, and containing, it is said, 300,000 inhabi-
tants. Above it occur successively the two smaller
kingdoms of Yani and Woolli. The territory of all
these states is flat and fertile, abounding in rice,
grain, and other provisions. The inhabitants are
chiefly of the Mandingo race, and carry on a con-
siderable trade into the interior. At Barraconda,
al)out 400 miles up the river, are falls, or rather
rapids, above which sandbanks and flats soon render
the navigation diflicult.
To the south of the Gambia nothing of great im-
portance occurs, till we come to the alluvial estuaries
of the Rio Grande, a river supposed, as its name
imports, to be of some magnitude ; but Captain Owen
found it a mere inlet, receiving some inconsiderable
streams. At its mouth occur a number of islands,
which, with a group opposite to them in the open
sea, form what is called the Archipelago of the Bis-
THE RIO GRANDE COUNTRY. 223
sagos. The inhabitants of the same name, called
also Bijugas, are a tall, robust, warlike people, who
hcive driven out the peaceable race of the Biafaras,
the original tenants, and have compelled them to
confine themselves to the continent and the banks of
the Rio Grande. Bissao, the largest of these islands,
is inhabited by the Papels, also warlike and enter-
prising. In 1792, an association was formed in
England, with a view to planting a settlement in the
island of Bularaa ; but, though no opposition was
made in the first instance, the difficulty of establish-
ing a new colony under circumstances so unfavour-
able, and especially amidst the hostility of these rude
neighbours, obliged us to desist \
Along the heads of the Rio Grande lies the impor-
tant kingdom of Foota Jallo, said to extend about 350
miles in length, and 200 in breadth. It appears to
be the most improved of all the states in this part of
Africa. The inhabitants are Foulahs, and of the
Mahometan faith, but not bigots, and their marabouts
are held in high reputation for learning. They ma-
nufacture cloths of considerable fineness ; they work
in iron dug from extensive mines in the country, also
in silver, wood, and leather, and they conduct large
caravans into the interior, as far even as Timbuctoo
and Cassina. Here, where they are the ruling
people, they by no means display that pacific charac-
ter which distinguishes the tribes on the Gambia and
Senegal. They can bring into the field 16,000 men.
^ The Portuguese have lately made a settlement upon this
island despite the remonstrances of Colonel Findlay, the late
governor of the Gambia.
224 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
Timbo, or Teembo, the capital, is said to contain
7000 souls, and Laby 5000.
To the south of Foota Jallo is Soolimana, also war-
like and considerable. It borders on the Niger in
the highest part of its course, though the sources of
that river are placed in the hostile territory of the
Kissi. The king is at present Mahometan, but the
bulk of the nation pagan. They are a gay, thought-
less, stirring race. On the eastern side of the Niger
is the country of Sangara, still more extensive and
more warlike ; the people of which would, it is sup-
posed, have by this time conquered Foota Jallo, had
they been united among themselves. At present,
whenever the Soolimas are inclined to go to war,
they can easily command 10,000 auxiliaries from
bevond the Niger.
In returning to the coast, we pass through the
Koorango country, inhabited by the Man dingoes,
who, as usual, are gay, thoughtless, hospitable, and
enterprising. Farther down are the Timmanees, a
more depraved race, who were the chief agents in
the slave trade. They are described as treach-
erous, and avaricious. Cay)tain Laing met a woman
who accused her two children of witchcraft, and on
that ground offered to sell them to him at a low
price. Their agriculture is peculiarly rude, and the
cloths of their manufacture very coarse. They abuse
the English as having deprived them of almost their
onlv source of wealth, which consisted in the sale of
slaves. This people are oppressed by a singular asso-
ciation called Purrah, who, united by a bond and
always supporting each other, have become almost
THE TIMMANEE COUNTRY. 225
masters of the country, and often exercise their power
in a very tyrannical manner.
The country of the Timmanees horders on that part
of the coast where Britain, with the most philanthropic
views, has founded the colony of Sierra Leone. Its
principal seat at Freetown is on the south side of the
bay, which receives the river formerly called by the
same name, but now more usually the Rokelle, and
which rises in the Soolimana country ; it will be
found subsequently described.
The space from Sierra Leone to the commencement
of the grain coast of Guinea, an extent of about 200
miles, is chiefly marked by the entrance into the sea
of the considerable rivers of Sherbro and Mesurado.
The former is navigable twenty leagues up, and has a
tolerably large island at its mouth. On the banks is
found a species of pearl oyster. The Mesurado is a
still larger stream, and very rapid \ According to
the natives, it requires three months' navigation to
reach its source, which would appear to be in the
^ The Americans, in 1820, formed a setdement on this coast,
which was called Liberia ; while its capital, on an island at the
mouth of the Mesurado, was named Monrovia. The object was
to ol)tain an asylum for liberated negroes, who, notwithstanding
their emancipation, are, by the prejudices of the Americans,
regarded as beings of an inferior order. In spite of disastrous
events, which obstructed its progress, it had attained, in 1830,
a population of 1500. The population of Monrovia amounted
to about 700, the rest were distributed in eight different stations
along 150 miles of coast from Cape Mount to Tradetown. The
territory is healthy and fertile ; but I regret to hear that the
colony has been badly managed, and is now in a wretched
state.
CEYLON, &c. Q
226 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
mountains of Kong, not very far from that of the
Niger. The banks are described as finely wooded,
fertile, and, in many places, very well cultivated.
The states here are entirely negro in religion and
manners, none of the Mahometan institutions having
penetrated so far. Travellers enumerate the king-
doms of Bulm, Quoja, Monon, and Folga, which they
sometimes even dignify with the title of empires.
The sovereigns are, in general, absolute, and their
obsequies are celebrated with human sacrifices, though
not to the same frightful extent as in some of the
countries to the west.
From the Mesurado to Cape Palmas extends what
is commonly called the Grain or Malaghetta Coast of
Guinea^. The two rivers of Sesters^ and Sangwin,
near the centre of the coast, are rather considerable,
and their banks are said to be fertile and populous.
The state of society seems to be nearly the same as in
the countries last described ; the sovereigns absolute,
human sacrifices prevalent to a certain extent, and also
self-immolation.
^ The species of pepper to which it owes its name is pro-
duced from a small parasitical plant, with beautiful green
leaves, and the fruit of which, resembling a fig, presents, when
opened, aromatic grains, forming the valuable part. At its
first introduction into Europe, where such articles were little
known, it received the flattering appellation of * grains of
paradise.' After the diffusion, however, of the fine species of
India, it fell into total disrepute, and this coast, producing no
other articles of export, has been the least frequented of any
part of Guinea.
2 A settlement, called St. George's, has recently been made
at this river by Captain Spence.
THE IVORY COAST, WESTERN AFRICA. 227
Great sway is in the hands of a peculiar priest-
hood, called the belli. The youthful candidate for a
place in this body, must qualify himself by a long
initiation, during which he is withdrawn from all
his friends, and lodged in the depth of a sacred
forest, where, it is said, he is kept in a state of
entire nudity. Among the tests of his proficiency is
the performance of songs and dances, of a very ex-
travagant and often indecent nature ; but peculiar
knowledge is also supposed to be communicated on
various high points ; and those who have gone
through the course with success, and are called the
"marked of the belli," look upon all the rest of thecom-
munity as quolga, or idiots. They not only administer
all the concerns of religion, but conduct the judicial
proceedings ; most of which are made dependent on
some form of ordeal. Although the Portuguese have
lost all their settlements in this part of Africa, con-
siderable numbers of their posterity reside there,
mixed with the natives, by whom they are treated
with some degree of respect.
Beyond Cape Palmas, tending to the north-east,
and reaching as far as Cape Apollonia, is called the
Ivory Coast. The name is evidently derived from the
quantities of that valuable product, obtained from the
numerous elephants on the sea shore, and in the
interior. The teeth are of good quality, and un-
commonly large, weighing sometimes not less than
200 lbs. Towards the east, at Assinoe and Apollonia,
a considerable quantity of gold is brought down from
the countries behind the Gold Coast. There is also
a good deal of ivory at the ports of Cape Lahoo, and
Q 2
228 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
Great and Little Bassam. There are no European
settlements upon the coast, except an English fort at
ApoUonia, which perhaps belongs rather to the Gold
Coast. Navigation along this, as well as the Grain
Coast, requires much caution, as the shore is flat and
destitute of any conspicuous land marks, while a heavy
surf, borne in from the whole breadth of the Atlantic,
breaks continually against it. Early navigators de-
scribe the natives as the most violent and intractable
race on the whole African coast. The teeth filed to
a point, the nails long, while their harsh and guttural
language, almost resembling the cry of wild beasts,
inspired disgust ; they have been accused of can-
nibalism ; and their suspicion of Europeans is usually
said to be so great, that nothing can induce them to
go on board a vessel. Captain Adams, however, the
most recent visitor, gives a much more favourable
account : he even says, that almost all the business
is transacted on board European ships, though, when
he did go on shore, he was hospitably received.
From Apollonia to the Rio Volta extends what is
called the Gold Coast of Africa. It was long the
most frequented by European traders, particularly
English and Dutch, both for that highly-prized com-
modity which its name indicates, and for slaves,
while so nefarious a commerce was permitted. The
coast presents the appearance of an immense thick
forest, only detached spots of which are cleared and
cultivated. The soil near the sea, being light and
sandy, is scarcely fit for any important tropical
product, except cotton ; but six or seven miles inland
it improves greatly, and might be made to produce
BRITISH SETTLEMENTS AT CAPE COAST CASTLE. 229
sugar, and others of the richest West India products,
if the profits of industry were secured to the inha-
hitants. Maize is the grain principally cultivated.
The gold, which forms the staple commodity, is
chiefly brought down from mountainous districts far
in the interior. The natives understand the process
of smelting the golden ore, but the pure metal is
found in such large quantities close to the surface as
to require the exercise of little ingenuity. In many
places, however, even upon the coast, a small quantity
may be extracted from the earth by mere agitation
with water in a calabash. Little or no ivory is ex-
ported. The ruling people on the coast are the
Fantees, a clever, stirring, turbulent race. They
exert more ingenuity in the construction of their
dwellings, and canoes, than the nations to the west.
The form of government is republican, and each
village has a large public hall, roofed, but open at
the sides, where an assembly is held, and public
affairs are debated. The pynins, or elders, possess
considerable authority, and the administration of
justice is chiefly in their hands.
The capital of the British settlements is at Cape
Coast Castle, subsequently described. To the west
of Cape Coast, we have Dix Cove and Succondee, in
the Ahanta country, a very fertile tract, and to
which purer gold is brought than to any other part
the coast. The inhabitants are also peaceable and
tractable, and the chances of improvement, as Mr.
Meredith conceives, are on the whole favourable.
The British station at Anamaboe was formerly the
great mart of the slave trade. The fort is compact
230 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
and regular ; and in 1807 it withstood, with a
garrison of twelve men, the attack of 15,000 Ashan-
tees. Winnebah, in the Agoona country, though in
an agreeable situation, has been abandoned ; but
Fort James, at Accra, would, in peaceable times,
afford great convenience for trade, as no other place
on the coast has such extensive intercourse with the
interior. Cape Coast Castle and Accra are now the
only places vvhere any garrison is maintained.
The capital of the Dutch settlements, in this part
of Africa, is El Mina, or the Castle ; first founded
by the Portuguese, and taken from them in 1637. It
is about nine miles w^est of Cape Coast Castle, in an
open country, close to a large dirty town of 1 1 ,000
inhabitants. The fort is w^ell built, on a high situa-
tion, and vessels of 100 tons can come close to the
walls ; but its strength has been doubted. The
Dutch maintain here a garrison of 100 men, and
keep their establishment, on the whole, upon a more
reputable scale than the British. Their forts along
the coast are numerous, but none now are garrisoned
except Elmina and Axim. The Danes have a re-
spectable fort near Accra, called Christianborg Castle,
and also one at Ningo, near the eastern extremity of
the coast.
The country behind the Gold Coast, when first
known to Europeans, was divided among a number
of considerable kingdoms, Dinkira, Akim, Warsaw,
and Aquamboe ; but all these have now sunk beneath
the overwhelming sway of the Ashantees. This
warlike power has also reduced the interior countries
of Gaman, Inta, Dagwumba, and others, of which
THE SLAVE COAST, WESTERN AFRICA. 231
some are more extensive and populous than itself.
Ashantee Proper is estimated to contain 14,000
square miles, and about a million of people ; but this
last number would be more than quadrupled, if we
were to include all its subjects, and vassals. The
character of the Ashantees is detailed under the head
of Population.
On the eastern side of the Rio Volta commences
what Europeans have called the Slave Coast, because
slaves, were there procured of the most docile and
tractable character. It consisted originally of the two
kingdoms of Whydah and Ardrah, forming the most
populous and the best cultivated part of the African
coast. The vast and impenetrable forests which
cover so much of the continent had here been cut
down, leaving only what was requisite for ornament
and convenience. The whole country is said to have
been like a garden, covered with fruits and grain
of every description. Amid this abundance, the
Whydans, having become luxurious and effeminate,
were unable to make head against the warlike
power of Dahomney, in the interior, which invaded
and conquered them at the last century. The first
ravages were dreadful, and rendered their country
almost a desert, nor has its peaceful submission ever
allowed it to regain its former prosperity.
Dahomey, which is thus predominant both over
the coast and over the interior, to a depth of about
200 miles, is governed upon the same system as
Ashantee, and with all its deformities, which it
carries to a still more violent excess. The bloody
customs take place on a still greater scale ; and the
7
232 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
bodies of the victims, instead of being- interred, are
hung upon the walls and allowed to putrefy. Human
skulls make the favourite ornament of the palaces
and temples, and the king is said to have his sleeping
apartment paved with them. His wives are kept up
to an equal number with those of the king of
Ashantee. All the female sex are considered as at
the king's disposal, and an annual assemblage takes
place, when, having made a large selection for him-
self, he distributes the refuse among his grandees,
who are bound to receive them with the humblest
gratitude : in short, this ferocious race allow them-
selves to be domineered over in a manner of which
there is no example among the most timid and
polished nations. The greatest lords in approaching
he king throw themselves flat on the ground, laying
their heads in the dust ; and the belief is instilled
into them, that their life belongs entirely to their
sovereign, and that they ought never to hesitate a
moment to sacrifice it in his service. The king of
Dahomey has been lately worsted in his wars with
Eyeo, by whom he is now held in a species of
vassalage. His country consists of an extensive and
fertile plain, rising from the sea by a gradual ascent.
The soil is a reddish clay mixed with sand, and no-
where contains a stone of the size of a walnut.
Though capable of every species of tropical culture,
little is actually produced from it that is fitted for a
foreign market ; so that since the abolition of the
slave trade, small advantage has accrued from con-
tinuing the intercourse with it, and the English fort
at Whvdah has been abandoned.
THE KINGDOM OF DAHOMEY. 233
Whydah,now commonly called Griwhee, maybe con-
sidered the port of Dahomey, from which a route of
about 100 miles reaches through Favies and Toro to
Abomey, the capital. Griwhee is situated in a fertile
country, still highly cultivated, and is plentifully
supplied with all the necessaries and conveniences of
African life. Captain Adams, whose estimates on
this point are unusually low, represents it as contain-
ing about 7,000 inhabitants. The despotic and
capricious manner, however, in which foreign resi-
dents are treated by the tyrant of Dahomey, has
gradually induced the different European powers to
withdraw their factories. Ardrah is still larger and
more flourishing ; containing, according to the same
authority, 10,000 inhabitants. It is situated about
25 miles inland, on a long and beautiful lake or
lagoon, running parallel to the sea, with which it
becomes connected at its eastern extremity by the
river of Lagos. The Ardranese are industrious in
the manufacture of cotton, interwoven with silk :
they make also soap, baskets, and earthenware, and
are skilful in working iron. Their market is the
best regulated of any on the coast, and exhibits the
manufactures of India and Europe, tobacco from
Brazil, cloth from Eyeo and Houssa, and every other
article that is here in demand. Though so close to
Dahomey, the people appear to enjoy a republican
form of government. A considerable number of
Mahometan residents have made their way hither,
and have introduced the management of horses, and
the use of milk, to both of which the negroes in
general are strangers. Badagry, though it has
234 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
suffered by recent contests with Lagos, appears by
Lander's report, to be still a large and populous
place, situated in a fine plain, and divided into four
districts, each governed by a chief, who assumes the
title of king. Lagos is built upon a small island, or
rather the bank at the point where the channel com-
municates with the sea on one side, and on the other
with the Cradoo Lake, a parallel piece of water.
The town is scarcely a foot above the lake, and is
over-run by water rats from it. It has 5000 inha-
bitants, with a good deal of stir and trade. Its
petty despot assumes all the airs of the greatest
African monarchs, never allowing his courtiers to
approach him unless crawling on the ground. Some
barbarous customs prevail, such as impaling alive a
young female, to propitiate the goddess who presides
over rain, and hanging the heads of malefactors to
some large trees at the end of the town. The cur-
rency here consists of cowries, which are imported in
large quantities, and transmitted into Houssa and
other interior countries, w^here they form the univer-
sal circulating medium.
At the termination of the Cradoo Lake commences
a large tract of coast, of a peculiar character, which,
from the principal state, receives the name of Benin.
It extends upwards of 200 miles, and presents a suc-
cession of broad estuaries, now discovered to be all
branches of the Niger, of which this country forms
the delta. They communicate with each other by
creeks, and, frequently overflowing their banks, ren-
der the shore for 20 or 30 miles inland, a vast allu-
vial wooded morass. The natives, having thus very
BENIN — warre'. 235
extended water comnmnications, are the most active
traders anywhere in Africa ; but, except slaves, the
commodities in which they deal are entirely changed.
Gold has disappeared ; ivory is again found in con-
siderable plenty ; but palm oil is the great staple of
the eastern districts. A great quantity of salt is
made at the mouths of the rivers, both for consump-
tion at home and in the interior.
The first leading feature is the River Formosa,
two miles wide at its mouth ; on a creek tributary
to it lies the capital of Benin. This city appeared to
Captain Adams the largest he had seen on the coast
of Africa; he, therefore, probably under-rates its
population at 15,000; being irregularly built, and
consisting of detached houses, it occupies an im-
mense space of ground. The surrounding territory
is well cultivated, though not so thoroughly cleared
of wood as that round Ardrah and Whydah. The
king is not only absolute, but ' fetiche^ or a god, in
the eyes of his subjects ; and all offences against him
are punished in the most cruel and summary manner,
not only as treason, but impiety. Gatto, about 50
miles below, is the port of Benin ; accessible to ves-
sels of 60 tons. The trade on this river has greatly
declined.
Warre, or Owarri, is another state and city, situated
on another creek, communicating with the Formosa,
on its opposite side. It consists of a somewhat
elevated and beautiful island, appearing as if dropped
from the clouds amidst the vast woods and swamps
by which it is surrounded. Here, too, the king is
236 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
absolute, and carries polygamy to a very great ex-
tent. A recent traveller, happening to get a peep into
the seraglio, saw about 50 queens, busied in various
employments from the toilette to the washing-tub.
New Town, on the Formosa, is the port of Warre.
After doubling Cape Formosa, and passing several
estuaries, we come to that of the Brass River, called
by the Portuguese, the River of Nun. Though not
the largest estuary of the Niger, yet, being most
directly in the line of the main stream, and that by
which Lander entered the Atlantic, it at present en-
joys the reputation of being the principal channel.
It is divided into two branches ; but the navigation
is greatly impeded, and the trade limited, by a dan-
gerous bar at its mouth. Brass Town is built not
on either branch, but on one of the numerous creeks
connected with both, and in a country overgrown
with impenetrable thickets of mangrove. It is a poor
place, divided by a lagoon into two parts, each of
which contains about J ,000 inhabitants. Bonny
River forms the next important estuary having on its
opposite sides the towns of Bonny and New Calabar.
Being only a few miles up, they are in the midst of
the morasses which overspread all this country. The
people support themselves by the manufacture of
salt, and they trade in slaves, and palm oil. Bonny,
in particular, is become the great mart for these last
commodities, and is supposed to export annually
about 20,000 slaves ! The dealers go in large canoes
two or three days' sail to El)oe, the great interior
market. The king is absolute, and more barbarous
OLD CALABAR RIVER. i37
than the rest of his brethren on this coast. He
boasts of having twice destroyed New Calabar, and
ornaments his fetiche house with the skulls of enemies
taken in battle.
To the eastward of Bonny is the estuary of Old
Calabar River, the broadest of all and navigable for
large vessels 60 miles up to Ephraim Town, governed
by a chief, who assumes the title of duke. It ap-
pears to contain about 6,000 inhabitants, carrying on
a considerable trade ; and the duke has a large house
filled with European manufactures and ornaments of
every kind, received by him in presents. This river
is followed by that of Rio del Rey, and then by the
Rio Cameroons. The country yields a good deal of
ivory and palm oil. The continuity of that vast
wooded flat, which has extended along the coast for
more than 200 miles, is now broken by some very
lofty mountains, the principal of which is supposed
to reach the height of 13,000 feet.
Several islands lie in the Bight of Biafra. Fer-
nando Po, in 3^ 28' north latitude and 8"" 40' \o'
east longitude, is a fine large island, lately occupied
only by a lawless race, composed of slaves, or male-
factors, escaped from the neighbouring coast. The
British government, formed, in 1827, a settlement at
this island, the mountainous and picturesque aspect of
which afibrded hopes of a healthy station ; the settle-
ment is, I believe, abandoned by government, but I
think prematurely, for as the island became cleared,
its insalubrity would have diminished ; and it would
be an extremely valuable colony to Great Britain,
238 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
from its vicinity to the mouths of the Niger. Prince's
Island, situate also in the Bight of Benin, 9j miles
long by 6 broad, is high (the loftiest peak, 4,000
feet), and wooded. St. Thomas is large and fertile ;
towards its south extremity it presents a mass of
steep elevations, with abrupt craggy faces, and two
or three pinnacles, resembling gigantic nine-pins :
one half the island is mountainous. The pretty little
Isle of Annabona is inhabited by a simple native
race, to the number of 3,000 ; it is near 3,000 feet
high, but its length does not exceed four, nor its
breadth two miles : its heights are rounded like
those of Fernando Po rather than peaked and pointed
like Prince's Island. These islands run in a chain to
the south west from the Rio Calabar ; and the last
three are in nominal subjection to the Cro^Yn of
Portugal.
The next division of Western Africa consists of
Congo and Loango, the coast of which is generally
named Angola. The principal feature is the Zaire,
or Congo, a powerful and rapid river, which rushes
by a single channel into the Atlantic. Its course was
traced upwards by Captain Tuckey, in his unfor-
tunate expedition, about 400 miles, yet nothing w^as
ascertained as to its origin and early course ; though
the hypothesis of its forming the termination of the
Niger is now completely refuted. The population
along the river is said to be small ; the largest
villages, Cooloo, Embomma, and Inga, containing
only from 300 to 600 inhabitants. The interior
capital of Congowar, however, mentioned as the
THE CONGO COUNTRY AND BENGUELA. 239
residence of the Blindy North Conge, to whom all
the chiefs pay a species of vassalage, is probably
what the Portuguese called St. Salvador : and where,
according to Mr. Bowdich, they still maintain a mis-
sion ; but no recent details have been obtained
respecting it. There is regular distinction of ranks,
the Chenoo, or chief, hereditary in the female line ;
the Mafoots, or collectors of the revenue ; the Foo-
moos, or cultivators ; and the domestic slaves, which
latter are not numerous.
The slave trade, for which alone this part of Africa
is now frequented, is chiefly carried on at Malemba
and Cabenda, on the North side of the river. Malemba
has been called the Montpelier of Africa. It stands
on a hill about 100 feet high, commanding a beautiful
prospect of the windings of the Loango Louisa,
through an extensive plain. Its dry and elevated
situation preserves it from those deadly influences
which operate so fatally on the health of mariners.
Cabenda, near the mouth of the river of that name,
also a beautiful city, is situated at the foot of a
conical wooded mountain, and has been called the
Paradise of the Coast. It is a great mart for slaves,
who are brought from the opposite territory of
Sogno.
The country to the South of Congo is called Ben-
guela, and its commerce is still almost entirely in the
hands of the Portuguese. They frequent the bay
and river of Ambriz, in which there is a tolerable
roadstead ; but their great settlement is at St. Paul
de Loanda, a large town in an elevated situation.
It is said to export annually 1 8,000 or 20,000 slaves.
240 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMIilA, &C.
chiefly to BraziP. S. Felipe de Benguela, in a
marshy and unhealthy site, is now considerably de-
clined ; and its ])opulation does not exceed 3,000,
mostly free negroes and slaves. There is also a
smaller port, called Nova Redondo. The Portuguese
claim a certain jurisdiction over the native states
for several hundred miles in the interior, obtain-
ing presents and purchasing slaves. Further inland
is the country of Jaga Cassanga. The Jagas are
celebrated by the writers of travels, two centuries
ago, as a formidable devastating tribe, addicted to
the most ferocious habits ; and no change is since
asserted to have taken place in their character. Be-
hind them, and in about the centre of the continent,
the nation of the Molouas are represented as more
numerous, more intelligent, and possessing a higher
degree of industry and civilization than any other in
Africa, under this latitude. Of the remainder of the
coast, towards our own territories, in Southern Africa,
little is known.
Portugal at first claimed the whole of the coast
just described, but was driven from it by the Dutch,
who took El Mina in lo43 ; the latter were in turn
compelled to retreat by the English, in 1661, who
took Cape Coast Castle, and having formed an
African Company, commenced the establishment of
forts for the protection of trade.
The settlements at present belonging to England
in Western Africa are as follows :
' It is a disgrace to England to permit the continuance of
this infamous iralhc.
FORMATION OF SIERRA LEONE COLONY. 241
Sierra Leone. — The first settlers here were the
Portuguese ; shortly afterwards, the English esta-
blished themselves upon Bance Island, in the middle
of the river. At the suggestion of Dr. Smeathmane
the negroes discharged from the army and navy after
the American war, to the amount of about 400, with
60 whites, were conveyed to Sierra Leone, furnished
with all things necessary to establish a colony, in the
\ear 1787 ; and a piece of ground 20 miles square
having been purchased from one of the native chiefs,
a town, called Freetown, was founded. A dreadful
mortality shortly afterwards reduced the colonists to
one-half, and a native chief, taking advantage of
their weakness, plundered the settlement in 1789,
and drove the colonists to seek for shelter in Bance
Island. In 1791 and the following year, the African
Association having become incorporated and obtained
a charter ^ conveyed thither a number of settlers,
among whom were the Maroon negroes, who had
been sent from Jamaica to Nova Scotia. Freetown
was plundered by the French in 1794, and so great
was the disaster, and so destitute the condition of the
settlers, that the company entered into an arrange-
ment with the government to place the colony under
His Majesty's jurisdiction.
It was subsequently placed by the British Govern-
^ A charter was granted in 1802 to the Sierra Leone Com-
pany ; it was subsequently revised and (with some aherations)
confirmed, first in 1808, when the settlement was transferred
to the Crown, and, finally, in 1821, when the forts and posses-
sions of the late African Company on the Gold Coast were
annexed to Sierra Leone.
242 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
ment under the management of the African Institu-
tion, estabhshed for the improvement of the Western
part of Africa ; and its population was recruited by
sending- thither all slaves captured in vessels engaged
in that traffic. Since the dissolution of the African Com-
pany, Sierra Leone has been again placed under the
control of the crown. (See section on Government.)
The boundaries of the settlement are difficult to
define; in 1787 a tract of the peninsula of Sierra
Leone was ceded to England by the native chiefs ex-
tending fifteen miles from north to south by four from
east to west : — the western boundary subsequently
advanced to the sea as far as the point of land called
False Cape. In the charters gi'anted to the Sierra
Leone Company in 1800, 1809, and 1821, the colony
is described as the peninsula of Sierra Leone, bound-
ed on the north by the river of that name ; on the
south by the Camaranca River ; on the east by the
River Bunce ; and on the west by the sea. The
peninsula, as at present known, is bounded on the
north by the Sierra Leone river ; on the south and
west by the sea at Calmont Creek, and on the east by
a line up the Calmont to the Watslod Creek, and
down this last to the Bunce (which is in fact part of
the Sierra Leone River) constituting a tract, eighteen
miles from north to south and twelve from east to west.
By a convention in 1819 between Sir C. M'Carthy
and a Timmanee Chief, named Ka Konka, possessing
country on the boundary of the peninsula, that chief
ceded to Great Britain the unlimited sovereignty of
the lands, known by the name of Mar Ports, and
Roe Boness, situate on the banks of the Bunce
PHYSICAL ASPECT OF SIERRA LEONE. 243
River. In 1824, Ba Mauro, King of the North
Balloms, ceded to Great Britain the islands of Bance,
Tasso, Tombo, and all the other islands on the north
side of Sierra Leone, between Zogrine Point, and Ka
Keeper Creek ; as well as the north banks of the
river for one mile inland from the river Conray Bay,
on the West to the Ka Keeper Creek, on the east ;
with a right and title to the navigation of the River
Sierra Leone, &c. On the North the boundaries
touch the River Memgo or Little Learciss, in 8° 50'
north ; on the south as far as the line which separates
the King of Sherboro's territory from that of the
Gallinos, in latitude 70° north embracing the estuary
of the Sherboro and its tributaries ; on the west the
Atlantic, as far north as Sierra Leone River ; and on
the east an imaginary line, imperfectly defined.
Our possessions at Sierra Leone ^ extend over a
mountainous tract of country, formed by two rivers,
which nearly intersect it. The general appearance
of this Sierra presents an outline of an irregular
congeries of conical mountains, with valleys and
prairies in their interstices ; the mountains are
covered to their summits with lofty forests, giving
to the distant scenery a beautiful, rich, and romantic
appearance ; the territory on the north side of the
river is however low and flat. Many streams of
water descend from the hills, and are concentrated in
a large basin, called the Bay of Franca, which is
^ So called from the district having been the favourite re-
sort of lions.
R 2
244 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
considered the best watering place along the whole
line of coast.
The river called Sierra Leone is more properly
speaking an estuary, about twenty miles in length, and
varying in breath from ten at its entrance, between
Leopard's Island and Cape Sierra Leone, to about
four miles at the island Tombo, where it terminates :
it has several arms, which extend themselves in dif-
ferent directions ; the Rokell River is, however, the
only one which offers the advantage of water com-
munication for any considerable distance ijito the
interior ; its source being stated to be within 30
miles of Fallaba, and "200 from Sierra Leone ; falls or
rapids intercept its course at Rocon, 50 or 60 miles
from Freetown. The Kates River, 25 miles from
Freetown, is navigable for boats upwards of 70
miles.
Freetown, the capital, is built upon the south side
of the SieiTa Leone River, and at the north extremit\'
of the peninsula. It is five miles from Cape Sierra
Leone, which is considered to mark on the south as
Leopard Island does on the north the entrance of the
river, to which the access is easy and safe. Imme-
diatelv in front of the town, the river forms a bav,
where there is good and commodious anchorage for
vessels of all classes, and timber ships, of 400 or 500
tons' burden go with facility nearly 20 miles higher
up the stream for the purpose of taking in their
cargoes.
The settlement has the advantage of a modern
plan for its formation ; it occupies a large space of
FREETOWN. 245
ground, extending in a very gentle ascent from the
banks of the river, and is about three-quarters of a
mile long, with spacious streets, intersecting each
other at right angles. Most of the houses were at
first built of mud or wood, not however without
taste, but many of the natives are now constructing
storehouses.
The town is open to the river on the north, but on
the south-east and west completely hemmed in by a
semicircular range of mountains, from 12 to 1500
feet high, and wooded to the summit. The distance
between the town and the base of these mountains
varies from three-quarters to a mile and a half, the
intervening space broken by numerous undulations,
the outline exhibiting the appearance of a sylvan
theatre, replete with highly picturesque scenery.
With the exception of the cultivated spots the hills
are thickly clothed to their summit with wood, and
ascend almost in regular gradation towards Leicester
Mountain, above which the Sugar-loaf is seen to rise
at some distance in the rear. The amphitheatre
includes, from east to west, a space, the semi-diame-
ter of which is nearly a mile, embracing the town,
the Tower Hill, and a small portion of land, called
' King: Tom's Point.' The Tower Hill is nearlv in
the centre of this amphitheatre, and Freetown
stretches from the water- side towards its base ;
about half way up its sides are situate the fort, the
barracks, hospital, and a Martello tower, the whole
when viewed from the sea forming a striking coup
d'ceil.
Throughout the peninsula several villages have
246 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
been formed at the following periods : in 1809, Lei-
cester ; 1812, Regent; 1816, Gloucester; 1817,
Kissey and Leopold ; 1818, Charlotte, Wilberforce,
and Bothwell; 1819, Kent, York, WeUington, Wa-
terloo. These villages are generally situate in dif-
ferent parts of the mountain, but all connected by
good roads with each other, and with Freetown, the
capital.
The Bannana Islands, two in number, south-west
of Freetown, may be termed one island, six miles in
length and one in breadth, and were ceded to the
crown in 1819 by the family of the Caulkers, who
receive for them an annual payment.
The Isles de Los, in north latitude 9° 16'; west
longitude 16°, five in number, are situate about
sixty miles to the northward of Sierra Leone, and
five or six miles from the coast, and were ceded to
Great Britain by the Chief, Dalla Mahomeda, to
whom an annual payment is made for them. Fac-
tory Island, the second in extent, is four and a half
long, by half a mile broad : they are however very
valuable for the trade which is from them carried on
with the rivers of the adjacent continent, consisting
in the exchange of British goods for hides, ivory,
gold dust, &c. There is also a considerable com-
merce in rice on this part of the coast, some of which
is exported by the traders at Sierra Leone to the
West Indies, but the quality is much injured by the
imperfect process in use amongst the natives for
cleaning it. British factories have recently been
established in several of the rivers between the
Gambia and Sierra Leone, particularly at the Rio
BRITISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE GAMBIA. 247
Nunez, Scarces, &c. ; but, unfortunately, the pro-
gress of lawful commerce is much impeded in this as
in many other parts of the coast by the slave trade,
which is carried on by the Spaniards and Portuguese
to a very considerable extent, and with little inter-
ruption, as this part of the coast is seldom visited
by the ships of our squadron appointed to suppress
the trade. They cruize chiefly in the bight of Benin,
leaving the windward coast from the Gambia to
Sierra Leone without protection. There should
never be less than one vessel in that quarter, and
one vessel could do little more than mitigate the
evil. The trade is carried on with so much cunning
in fast- sailing vessels, so well adapted to the iniqui-
tous object, that few of them are taken compared
with the numbers that escape. A steam-boat in that
part of the coast would afford by far the cheapest
and most effectual check to the traffic.
The Gambia. — St. Mary's Island (our principal
settlement on the Gambia) lies quite close to the
continent ^ on the south side, running nearly east and
west about fifteen miles, but of very inconsiderable
breadth, and commanding the entrance to the river
Gambia. The island is an uninterrupted flat, some-
what elevated, and covered with a thick brush of
underwood, denoting the fertility of the soil.
Bathurst town is built on the east side of the
island, on a point which admits of a strong battery,
being surrounded on nearly three sides by the tole-
rably deep and rapid river. The strata is a gravelly
^ Cattle can cross over at low water to Cape St. Mary's.
248 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
soil, eonsisting of the brown oxyd of iron strewn
over a stratum of rock of the same composition ;
the other parts of the island consist, principally, of
a rich, dark, loamy mould.
The river from which the settlement derives its
name, empties itself into the ocean by a mouth about
nine miles wide between Cape St, Mary on the south
and the Bird's island on the north. It was formerly
supposed to be a branch of the Niger, but this notion
was refuted by Mr. Park. Its sources have never
been explored by European travellers, but it has been
ascertained to take its rise amongst the lofty range of
mountains which form the eastern front of Foota
falls. It communicates with the Senegal River bv
the Neriko, and is called by the natives River Ba
Deema in the upper country. Vessels of 300 tons
navigate it for sixty leagues, and smaller vessels as
far as Barraconda, 250 leagues from the entrance ;
here the obstructions commence which render further
navigation impossible. From December to June,
which is the dry season, the flow of the tide is felt,
but in the rainy season, from June to September, the
stream sets down so strong, that vessels cannot stem
the current by ordinary means ; though no doubt
advantage might be taken of navigating by steam
throughout the year.
Colonel Findlay, the late intelligent and humane
Governor of the Gambia, has justly observed to me
that it is greatly to be lamented the British govern-
ment have not yet surveyed the various large rivers
and creeks which empty themselves into the Gam-
bia ; if this were accomplished there can be no doubt
BRITISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE GAMBIA. 249
but an extensive inland navigation would follow,
which would increase the trade, by affording a more
ready and friendly intercourse with the natives.
There are two channels into the Gambia, the nor-
thernmost of which has six or seven fathoms water, is
six miles wide, and lies between the Bird's Island and
the Banguion bank ; the smaller, on the other side of
the bank and under Cape St. Mary, has about nine feet
water. The river is at all times muddy, and is in-
fested with crocodiles, and also inhabited by the hip-
popotamus. It abounds with fish of various kinds.
There are several establishments on the Gambia
belonging to Great Britain, as well as Bathurst.
Macarthy's Island is up the river, more than 300
miles. Fort James is situated on an island about
thirty miles up the river ; it is only 200 yards long
and 50 broad, and was, formerly, strongly fortified,
but the French, on capturing it in 1688, destroyed
the works, which have never been entirely restored.
Opposite Fort James on the north bank is Jillifree, in
a healthy situation, and surrounded by a fertile dis-
trict. On the south bank are Vintain, Tancrowal,
and Jouka Konda, the first two, the second twelve
leagues from Fort James, and the last, considerably
up the river. About a league above Fort James
on the south side the River Bittan flows into the
Gambia, and this is at all times navigable for large
boats to the village of that name, inhabited by African
Portuguese. The sovereignty of a tract of country
(one mile inland from the beach between Burragadoo
Creek and Junkarda Creek) was ceded to the King of
Great Britain by treaty with the King and Chiefs of
250 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
Barra, signed at Jillifree, 15th June, 1826, a small
spot of 400 yards by 300 yards called Albredar, near
James's Island, excepted. This tract is extremely
valuable from its position on the left bank of the
river Gambia, opposite St. James and St. Mary's
islands, giving us a control of the navigation of the
stream from its entrance to James's island.
The French have a factory called Albredar, about
three miles below JiUifree, which they retain posses-
sion of, in defiance of the treaty of 1783 (confirmed
by the treaty of Paris), and despite the repeated re-
monstrances of the English Government. The fol-
lowing is the article of the treaty in question : —
" Art. X. The most Christian King, on his part, gua-
rantees to the King of Great Britain the possessions
of Fort James and of the River Gambia." When
Senegal and Goree fell into our hands by conquest,
during the last w^ar, in 1809, the commerce of the
Gambia was carried on by the English traders ex-
clusively from Goree. On the restoration of those
places to the French by the treaty of Paris, exclusive
possession of the Gambia was reassured to us on the
same footing as by the treaty of 1783, and our set-
tlement at Cape St. Mary's was immediately formed
for the protection of its trade. Shortly afterwards
the French, for the purpose of securing a footing in
the river, dispatched an agent from Goree to establish
a trading post, or comptoir, as they call it, at Albredar,
under pretence of their having formerly had a comptoir
at that place. Unfortunately this was not resisted
at the time by the English commandant, Col. Grant,
for want of suflftcient information on the nature of the
VIOLATION OF THE FRENCH TREATY. 251
treaties, and every attempt made since to dislodge
them by fair means, has failed of success. It is but
justice to our government to add, that the most
persevering remonstrances have been addressed in
vain to the French government on this subject.
Akin to this conduct on the part of the French is
their behaviour in respect to our right by treaty to
carry' on the gum trade with the Moors at Portindic.
That right is solemnly guaranteed to us by the treaty
of 1783, (since confirmed by the treaty of Paris),
in the following words of Art. XI. " As to the gum
trade, the English shall have the right of carrying it
on from the mouth of the river St. John, to the Bay
and Fort of Portindic inclusively : provided that they
shall not form any permanent settlement of whatso-
ever nature in the said river St. John, upon the
coast or in the Bay of Portindic."
Nothing can be more clear and definite than this
article of the treaty, which has been faithfully ad-
hered to on our part ; no permanent (nor even tem-
porary) establishment having been formed by the
English within the prescribed limits. But what has
been the conduct of the French } During the gum
trade of 1834, under pretence of a war with the
Trazar tribe of Moors, from whom we obtain our
supply of gum at Portindic, they sent from Senegal
a naval force, and seized our vessels trading there ;
which, however, on the remonstrance of Lieutenant-
Governor Rendall, they subsequently gave up, and
it was supposed that the outrage would not be re-
peated. In this, however, the English traders have
found themselves mistaken : the desire of the French
252 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
at Senegal to monopolize the gum trade is not to be
restrained by the faith of treaties. The governor of
Senegal has given notice to our governor at the
Gambia that Portindic is this season^ to be formally
and effectively blockaded against our trade by French
ships of war, and as the notice has not been given
in time to prevent arrangements being made, and
supplies being sent out for the trade of the season,
very serious losses must be sustained by the mer-
chants engaged in the trade. Parallel to this is the
conduct of the French, in respect to the fisheries at
Newfoundland, as explained in the volume referring
to that colony, where, in defiance of the faith of trea-
ties and of common justice, they deny us the right of
fishing on the coast of our own colony ! How long
are these encroachments to be submitted to ?
The trade of the Gambia has recently suffered
severely from outrages committed up the river by a
native chief, who has seized and plundered the
trading vessels belonging to the merchants at
Bathurst. The most valuable part of our traffic is
carried on high up the river, above Macarthy's Island,
where no protection by government has yet been pro-
vided for the trade. This, by means of block houses,
might be afforded at a small expense, which the value
of the trade would amply repay. The immense ex-
tent of the River Gambia, and the thickly populated
and fertile country through which it has its course,
will render it, ultimately, the most valuable of our
possessions in that quarter of the world.
1 1835.
CAPE COAST CASTLE. 253
We now approach the Gold Coast, the British forts
and stations on which are at Dix Cove, Sucundee,
Comenda, Cape Coast Castle, Annamaboo, Tantum,
Winnebah, and Accra ; of these only a few here re-
quire notice.
Dix Cove, is a few miles to leeward of Cape Three
Points, affording only shelter to boats of fifteen or
twenty tons' burthen, but yielding much gold of a
fine quality.
Cape Coast Castle (long the seat of the British
government on the Gold Coast, and residence of the
chief governor during the sovereignty of the late
African Company), stands upon a rock of gneis and
mica slate, about twenty feet above the level of the
sea, in latitude 5° 6' north, longitude 1° 10' west.
It may be considered the centre capital between
Sierra Leone and the Bights of Benin and Biafra ;
as also the great emporium of trade for the intro-
duction of British manufactures, and the obtaining
gold dust, palm oil, and ivory.
The castle is an irregular figure of four sides, with
four bastions at each angle ; the whole mounting
about eighty pieces of cannon. Two-thirds of the
walls of the fortress are washed by the very heavy
sea which invariably runs along this line of coast,
and it is well protected on the land side.
Within the castle is an extensive line of spaciotis
buildings, three stories high, running north and
south, dividing the fort into nearly two equal parts,
and containing the government-house, &c. ; a nearly
similar structure runs east, forming a triangular
space of considerable extent.
'254 SIERRA LEOXE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
The Cape, on which the castle stands, is an angular
promontory, bounded by the sea on the south and
east sides. It was originally settled by the Portu-
guese, but the Dutch dispossessed them in a few
years, and took great pains to strengthen the fortifi-
cations. Admiral Holmes captured it, and demo-
lished the citadel in 1661, since which time it has
remained in the possession of Great Britain, having
been confirmed by the treaty of Breda. When the
Dutch Admiral De Ruyter destroyed all the English
factories along the coast in 1665, this place withstood
his utmost endeavours, although he attacked it with
thirteen men of war. The Company, who obtained a
charter in 1672, subsequently added greatly to its
strength by building some bastions, though the fort
is considered to be too near the town, and com-
manded by some of the houses. Smollett, in his
History of England, relates a circumstance relative
to this castle deserving notice here.
In 1757, the French, in furtherance of the plan
which they have ever sedulously pursued — the ruin
of the British Colonies — sent a naval commander
named De Kersin, to reduce our forts on the coast of
Western Africa. The chief aim was to capture Cape
Coast Castle, for its conquest would lead to the re-
linquishment of all the minor forts. When Mr.
Bell, the governor, received intelligence that M. de
Kersin was onlv a few leasrues to windward, his
whole force did not exceed thirty white, a few mu-
latto soldiers, half a barrel of gunpowder, and a few
crazy guns : Mr. Bell immediately provided gunpow-
der, and about fifty Europeans, from some vessels on
\
COUNTRY AROUND CAPE COAST CASTLE. 255
the coast, mounted a few spare cannon upon a tem-
porary battery, assembled 1200 armed negroes,
under the command of their chief, received the
French squadron, consisting- of two ships of the line
and a large frigate, and poured such a steady and
well-directed fire for two hours into M. Kersin's fleet,
that the latter thought it most prudent to make sail
for the West Indies, without inflicting any great
damage on the castle.
Cape Coast Castle was originally surrounded with
wood, but a large tract of country has been now
cleared and rendered fit for cultivation.
The native towns on the sea coast are generally
built close to the walls of the European forts ; the
houses are principally constructed of mud, and co-
vered with Guinea grass, and so crowded together
as to render it almost impossible to pass through the
spaces allotted for streets ; ventilation is of course
quite out of the question, and as the inhabitants
are filthy beyond description, their villages are pro-
ductive of much disease, not only to themselves,
but to those Europeans who happen to reside near
them.
To this description. Cape Coast Town is, however,
an exception ; streets are now formed, immense masses
of filth have been removed, the surrounding hills
have been cleared of their luxuriant foliage, roads
have been cut, and the tout ensemble presents pro-
spects of gratifying improvement.
About five miles north-west from Cape Coast
Castle is a small river, running in a southerly direc-
tion, and emptying itself into the sea within two
256 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
miles of Elmina, foraiing the boundary between the
Dutch and British possessions ^
At a distance of about two miles to leeward (east-
ward) a chain of hills, forming an irregular amphi-
theatre 1 60 feet above the level of the sea, commences
and runs in a semicircular direction approaching the
castle at some places within a quarter of a mile, and
terminating on the shore about a mile to windward.
There are no mountains within several miles of Cape
Coast Castle, the highest land not being more than
200 feet above the sea ; nor are there any plains of
gi'eat extent ; clumps of hills, with their correspond-
ing valleys, are hov/ever every where to be seen co-
vered with a most luxuriant foliage throughout the
year. As far as the eye can reach the face of the
country appears a continued forest, until the boun-
daries of the Winnebah and Accra territories are
reached, where extensive verdant plains, are inter-
spersed with clusters of trees ; and chiefly indebted
for their fertility to being annually overflowed during
the rains.
Annamahoe, ten miles to eastward of Cape Coast
Castle, is a good fortification, of a quadrangular form,
built on the extreme margin of the shore, the sea
washing the foot of the southern boundary wall, and
' The number of European stations on the Gold Coast was
at one time considerable. From Apollonia to Accra, a dis-
tance of G4 leagues, there were, in 1808, of Dutch forts, 13, of
Danish 4, and of British 10; namely, Apollonia, Dix Cove,
Succondee and Commenda, to westward of Cape Coast Castle,
and Annamaboe, Tantum Querry, Winnebah, Accra, Pram-
pram and Whydah, to leeward of Cape Coast ('astle.
ACCRA SETTLEMENT. 257
the town of Annamaboe taking the form of a crescent,
embraces it. Tantum and Winnebah require no
separate notice.
Accra lies in 5° 33' north latitude, and 0° 5'
west longitude ; there are three settlements there,
English, Dutch, and Danish. The view from sea-
ward is picturesque, the houses white and regularly
built, and in their rear a large plain, studded with
* bush,' or groves, of various foliage. As the voy-
ager advances towards the River Succomo the pros-
spect widens — and is finally bounded by high lands,
whose slopes yield excellent sheep pasturage. The
country around is in general a fine, open, and level
land, with a sandy, red, and black soil or rich mould.
Accra carries on a considerable trade with the
Ashantees, who bring ivory, gold dust, horses, &c.
to exchange for romals, silks, tobacco, and rum,
creating a considerable extent of business, for the
Ashantees are a shrewd and intelligent people, well
acquainted with the advantages of social intercourse,
and greatly superior to the Fantees, and other water-
side people. Indeed, it is a remarkable fact, that the
people nearest the shore on the whole line of coast,
are more treacherous, cowardly, and unprincipled,
than those of the interior ; a striking proof how
little the natives have hitherto benefitted by their in-
tercourse with the civilized nations of Europe while
slavery existed. But the natives, near the British
forts, are now receiving daily advantage and improve-
ment fi-om the residence and example of Europeans
who are no longer, as formerly, engaged in the slave
trade. Mr. President Maclean, the present governor
CEYLON, &c. S
258 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
of Cape Coast Castle, has, I am informed, exerted
himself with the most praiseworthy zeal and ability
to wean the natives from many of their barbarous
customs (that of human sacrifices, on the death of
their kings and chiefs in particular, which were for-
merly sometimes performed within sight of the castle
walls), in which he has been eminently successful,
and for which he merits the thanks of every friend
of humanity.
Mr. Sewell, who resided eighteen years at Cape
Coast Castle, and who is now in London, says that
he considers the natives on the Gold Coast more re-
markable for their humanity than for their ferocity.
It is true that under the influence of religious fana-
ticism they perpetrate (although now but seldom)
human sacrifices ; but during the eighteen years he
resided on the coast he scarcely ever heard of a mur-
der, or any other act of personal violence amongst
the natives, and certainly fewer than amongst an
equal given number of the inhabitants of any nation
in Europe.
James Fort, Accra, belongs to the English; — not
quite a cannon shot to leeward lies the dismantled
Dutch fortification of Crevecoeur ; and about two and
a half miles distant from James Fort is situated
Christianborg Castle, built on a promontory, and the
chief settlement in Western Afi-ica belonging to the
Danes.
259
CHAPTER II.
GEOLOGY AND SOIL — CLIMATE — DISEASE — VEGETABLE AND
ANIMAL KINGDOM, &C.
Geology and Soil. — On this head, of course,
nothmg- more than isolated facts can yet be expected.
The soil in the vicinity of Sierra Leone consists
chiefly of a slight stratum of brown gravel on a semi-
vitrified rock of the same colour, containing a large
portion of the oxide of iron. This is what is called
the brown iron stone ; the red iron ^tone is also
found in extensive strata, but the brown appears to
be the more prevailing one. Both these varieties of
haematites are cellular throughout their entire sub-
stance, strongly indicating volcanic origin ; they are
intersected with yellow streaks, and kidney-shaped
segments. Magnetic iron ore is found in the moun-
tains in small detached masses. Some of the moun-
tains are chiefly composed of granite, large blocks of
which are frequently seen studding the surface of the
plains. No limestone has hitherto been discovered
in the colony, but fortunately there is a large abund-
ance of fossil shells. Gold is abundant, as will be
subsequently shewn by the quantities exported to
England during the last three years.
Tliere is very little diflerence in the soil of the
coast from Cape Palmas to the River Volta ; within
five or six miles of the shore it is of a siliceous na-
ture ; the clumps of hills which are to be met with
in every direction are composed principally of gneis
and granite : mica slate is found to enter into the
§2
260 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
composition of some at no great distance from Cape
Coast Castle. These rocks, from containing large
proportions of feldspar and mica, are rapidly passing
into decomposition, more especially such as are ex-
posed to the influence of air and water ; the result of
the decomposition is the formation of a clayey or an
argillaceous soil.
As the sandy sea-coast is receded from, the soil is
siliceous, mixed with decayed vegetable or animal
matter, where no granite or micaceous rocks inter-
vene ; it is in the valleys where the rich alluvial soil
is met with, formed of the disintegrated materials of
the surrounding hills (washed down by the heavy
torrents of rain) and deposited along with the vege-
table decomposition, giving richness to the clayey
mould. It is in such valleys, from ten to twelve
miles inland, that the natives delight to make ex-
tensive plantations.
Climate. — According to the distance north or
south of the equator, and to the elevation of the
country, the temperature and seasons of course vary;
on the north of the Equinoctial line May, June, July,
August, September, and October, may be considered
. the wet winter months ; and the remainder of the
year the dry or summer months ; harmattans and
tornadoes are peculiar to the latter, and fogs to the
former. The rains commence with the end of May
or beginning of June, and terminate in August.
October, November, and December are cold, with oc-
casional fogs. The winds along the Gold Coast may
be divided into the land and sea breezes, the former
from the north-north-west generally, and the latter
CLIMATE OF WESTERN AFRICA. 261
from the south-west west-south-west generally ;
during the rains the land breezes are irregular. The
land breeze generally continues from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.
The range of the thermometer is not great;
during 1819 it did not rise higher than 95° — the
minimum being 76°, making a range of only 9°. In
1820 maximum 84°, minimum 74°, range 10°. In
1821 maximum 86°, minimum 66°, range 20°. In
1822 maximum 89°, minimum 74°, range 15° — and
so on ever since, with this exception, that there is a
visible change in the duration of the respective sea-
sons ; thus, as Dr. Tedlie in his valuable Report to
the Army Medical Board observes, solar heat alone
is not a cause of disease.
The range of the thermometer at Sierra Leone is
very slight, and the average heat throughout the
year is eighty-two. The rains continue for six
months, and the torrents which pour down from
the mountains deluge the plains beneath. The
mountains in the vicinity of Free Town are now,
however, generally cleared and cultivated, and the
settlement is as healthy for European residents as
any other tropical climate.
262
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MEDICAL REPORT. 263
In the Annual Medical Report from the West
African Stations for 1832 ^ I find these remarks :
* Sierra Leone. — This station has continued during
this year as during the two preceding years, to
maintain its character for salubrity, the total number
of casualties in the sick returns is eight ; the strength
being 446, and the total number of sick treated 230,
of which last number (as in the preceding year) more
than one-fifth were cases of sexual disease.'
Not only are febrile and other climatorial diseases
less prevalent than formerly, but their type is of far
greater mildness, and during the years 1831-32, and
1833, when most parts of the globe were suffering
from cholera and other pestilential diseases, the Bri-
tish settlements in West Africa were in the enjoy-
ment of perfect health.
The Deputy Inspector of Hospitals at West Africa,
states in his official report, in reference to the causes
of disease in Europeans — " Breakfast is taken at
rising — at eleven a.m. they sit down to * relish,' con-
sisting of soups, meats, and the highest seasoned
dishes ; wine is drank as at dinner, and afterwards
sangaree, or brandy and water, which too frequently
they continue sipping and drinking till late in the
afternoon, sometimes to the dinner hour." (6 p.m.)
•' In all the countries," says Dr. Nicoll, " w^hich I
have visited, I never saw so much eating and
drinking."
The wet season, as in some parts of India, is
' Transmitted to the Army Medical Department.
264 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
usually ushered in by tremendous tornadoes ^ or
violent gusts of wind, which come from the eastward,
attended by thunder, lightning-, and, in general,
heavy rains. The violence of the wind seldom con-
tinues longer than half an hour; but the scene
during the time it continues may be considered as one
of the most awfully sublime in nature. Its approach
is foretold by certain appearances, which enable people
to be on their guard. A dark cloud, not larger than
' a man's hand,' is indistinctly observed on the verge
of the eastern horizon. Faint flashes of lightning,
attended sometimes by very distant thunder, are then
seen to vibrate in quick succession. The clouds
in that quarter become gradually more dense and
black ; they also increase in bulk, and appear as if
heaped on each other. The thunder, which at first
was scarcely noticed, or heard only at long intervals,
draws nearer by degrees, and becomes more frequent
and tremendous. The blackness of the clouds increases
until a great part of the heavens seems wrapped in the
darkness of midnight : and it is rendered still more
awful, by being contrasted with a gleam of light
which generally appears in the western horizon.
Immediately before the attack of the tornado, there
is either a light breeze, scarcely perceptible, from the
westward, or, as is more common, the air is perfectly
^ The harinattan, or north-east wind, generally blows once or
twice in January and February; it is of extreme siccidity, and
near the great desert of Sahara in particular, accompanied by
a dense haze, occasioned by a vast quantity of impalpable pow-
der floating in the gusty atmosphere.
VEGIETABLE KINGDOM. 265
calm and unusually still. Men and animals fly for
shelter ; and, while ' expectation stands in horror,'
the thundering storm in an instant bursts from the
clouds. It is impossible for language to convey a
just idea of the uproar of the elements which then
takes place.
The temperature of the air is greatly affected by a
tornado (it becomes cool and clear) ; and it is not
unusual for the thermometer to suffer a depression
of eight or ten degrees within two "or three minutes
after the storm has come on. After a tornado, the
body feels invigorated and more active, and the mind
recovers much of that elasticity which long continued
heat tends to impair.
Vegetable Kingdom. — From the River Senegal,
in about 16° north latitude, to the Congo, which is
in upwards of 6° south latitude, there is a remark-
able uniformity of vegetation, not only as to principal
orders and genera, but even to a considerable extent,
in the species in which it consists \ Many of the
trees, the palms, and several other remarkable plants,
which characterise the landscape, as Adansonia,
Bomhax pentandrum, Elais gumeensis, Raphia vinifera,
and Pandanus Candelabrum, appear to be very general
along the whole extent of coast. Sterculia acuminata,
the seed of which is the Cola, mentioned in the
earliest accounts of Congo, exists, and is equally
valued in Guinea and Sierra Leone, and, what is re-
' I am indebted to Murray's descriptive geography for a
collection of data relative to the vegetable and animal kingdoms
of this coast.
266 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
markable, it bears the same name throughout the
west coast. The ordeal tree, called by Professor
Smith Cassa, and by Captain Tuckey, erroneously,
Acassia ; if not absolutely the same plant as the red
water tree at Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast, be-
longs at least to the same genus. A species of the
cream fruit, remarkable in affording a wholesome
and pleasant saccharine fluid, used by the natives of
Sierra Leone to quench their thirst, though belong-
ing to that generally deleterious family the Apocynecd,
is also met with. The Sarcocephalus of Afzelius,
which is probably what he has noticed under the
name of the country-fig of Sierra Leone, is found on
the banks of the Congo. Anona senegalensis, whose
fruit, though smaller than that of the cultivated spe-
cies, is said to have a flavour superior to them all,
and appears to be a general plant along the whole
extent of coast : and Chrysohalanus Icaco, or a nearly
allied species, is equally common from Senegal to
Congo.
The trunk of the Draccena Draco cleaves open in
many parts, and distils, at the time of the summer
solstice, a fluid, which condenses into red tears, soft
at first, afterwards hard and friable : this is the true
dragon's blood of the shops, and must not be con-
founded, though dry, friable, blood-red, and inflamma-
ble, with other resinous substances, known under the
same name, and derived, the one from a species of
Calamus (Rotang), and the other from a Pterocarpus.
To the dragon's blood are attributed astringent,
desiccatory, and incrassating virtues. It is adminis-
tered internally for dysentery, haemorrhage, violent
ESCULENT PLANTS, &C. 267
bowel complaints, and inward ulcers; and externally,
to dry up running sores, to heal wounds, and to
strengthen the gums. The painters make use of it,
in the red varnish with which they colour the Chinese
boxes and chests. Mr. Sew^el informs me that the
castor nut grows abundantly in the neighbourhood of
Cape Coast Castle, and also on most parts of the
Western Coast.
The esculent plants of the Congo, cultivated, as
well as indigenous, are very similar throughout the
west coast. On the banks of rivers the principal
articles of vegetable food are the Indian corn, or
Maize {Zea Mays) Cassava, both sweet and bitter
{Jatropha Manihot), two kinds of pulse extensively
cultivated; the Cytisus Cajan and a Phaseolus Q),
with ground nuts (Arachis hypogcea). The most
valuable fruits are plaintains {Musa sapientum), the
papaw (Carica Papaya), pumpkins {Ciicurhita Pejjo),
limes and oranges, pine apples, the common tamarind,
and safu, a fruit the size of a small plum. One of
the most important plants, not only of the Congo,
but of the whole extent of coast, is Elais guineensis,
or the oil palm, which also affords the best palm
wine. The palm tree is truly called the * native s
friend;' it supplies wine, oil, fishing-lines, hats,
baskets, palm nuts, cabbage, tinder, &c. &c. The
w^ine is obtained by driving a hard peg or a gimlet
into the cabbage-like head of the palm, when a
stream of sweet liquor flows into a calabash sus-
pended beneath, and by the time it is filled (six to
eight hours) fermentation has reduced the whole
into a milky tinted pleasant beverage ; the natives.
268 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
sometimes, allow it to have a harsh and bitter flavour ;
the process and liquor is, in fact, somewhat similar
to that obtained from the cocoa nut blossom, and
termed toddy. Wine is likewise obtained from two
other palms. Among- the other alimentary plants,
of less importance, or imperfectly known, are the
shrubby holcus, the common yam, and another dio-
scorea, found wild only, and very inferior to the yam,
requiring it is said, four days' boiling to free it from
its pernicious qualities. Two kinds of sugar canes,
capsicums, and tobacco are generally cultivated, ac-
cording to the herbarium of Captain Tuckey. A
second kind of ground nut, orpea {Glycine suhter-
ranea ?), which is extensively grown at Madagascar,
also appears. A species of ximenia {X. americana ?)
is likewise found, the fruit yellow, the size of a plum,
and acid, but not unpleasant, in the higher parts of
the Congo, where it is generally planted. An anti-
desma, perhaps like that mentioned by Afzelius, as
having a fruit of the same size and taste as a currant,
is met with.
The edible fruits ^ of Sierra Leone are numerous
and luscious. The peach of the negroes fSarco-
cephalus esculentusj is a large, fleshy, and solid
fruit, hard and eatable throughout, and full of small
seeds, not much unlike a strawberry in flavour and
consistence. The tree grows plentifully throughout
* Drawn up by J. Sabine, Esq. from the Journal and notes
of Mr. George Don, who was engaged by the London Horti-
cultural Society to make a collection of the useful vegetables
in Western Africa.
FRUITS. 269
the colony of Sierra Leone, ten to fifteen feet high ;
leaves large and elliptical, flowers pink, produced in
globular heads, and seated on a receptacle, which
afterwards becomes the fruit. The Anona senega-
lensis, or African custard apple, fruit not much
larger than a pigeon's e^^, and with the same or a
superior flavour to the rest of the species. The
monkey-bread fAdansonia digitatd) is much used by
the negroes ; its fruit, which is of considerable size,
and of an oblong shape, is full of seeds, and tastes
like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. Tlie
locust tree of Sierra Leone (Inka higlohosa) is a beau-
tiful tree when in blossom, covered with compact biglo-
bular heads of fine vermillion-coloured flowers, which
are succeeded by compact bunches of pods, containing
a yellow farinaceous substance, of which the natives
are very fond. It is mentioned by Park as affording
an agreeable and nutritive food. The country cherry
is rare, growing on the mountains, and bearing a
small oval reddish fruit, somewhat like a plum in
flavour, and produced in clusters on the topmost
branches. Anisophyllea laurina, the monkey apple, is a
fruit of the size of a pigeon's Q^g, red on one side
and vellow on the other, with a flavour between the
nectarine and plum. Country grapes are the pro-
duce of Vitis ccesia, they are black, austere, and acid ;
chiefly eaten by the negroes. Country currants re-
semble elder-berries, and are found plentifully on
the mountains. The shrub (Fiscus Brassii), which
bears the large fig, grows about the colony ; fruit
pleasant : as is also a smaller fig, that bears abun-
dantly, and is the size of a hazel nut. Wild guavas
270 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
{Psidium pyriferum) are natives of the country : Mr.
Don saw and tasted the fruit, but could not exactly
identify the plant with the West Indian guava. The
hog- plum is the fruit of Spondinus Myrobalanus ; it
is well tasted, and sharper than the plum of our
gardens, but the stone forms half the bulk of the
fruit. The grey plum tree {P armarium excelsum)
is more valuable for its compact and durable
wood than for the fruit, which, though large
and abundant, is dry and farinaceous, with a very
large stone ; an allied species (P. macropkyllum) is
called by the colonists, ginger-bread-plum. Of four
other fruits, called plums, the small pigeon plum
{Chrysohalanus ellipticus), the yellow pigeon plum
(C. luteus), the black plum {Vitex umhrosa), and the
sugar plum; it may be said that the first three,
though good, are inferior to the latter, which is sold
in large quantities in Sierra Leone, and is one of the
very best fruits in the colony. The tree is very
handsome, sixty feet high, and bears many fruits of
the size of a buUace ; at ten feet from the ground
the stem throws out roots like a mangrove or pan-
danus, but its botanical affinities are not known.
From the fruit of the sweet pishamin {Carpodinus
dulcis), a quantity of sweet milky juice exudes, the
pulp is also pleasant and sweet. The sour pishamin
(C. acidus) though sharp, acid, and rather bitter, is
much relished by the natives. The Mammee apple
{Mammea africana) is a lofty tree, with useful wood,
and a very large fruit. The butter and tallow tree
(Pentadesma butyraceaj abounds in a yellow greasy
juice, to which it owes its name, and which is given
FRUITS. 271
out plentifully when the fruit is cut ; this is mixed
by the natives with theii* food, on account of its
turpentine flavour, which renders it disagreeable to
the European settlers. Two kinds of star apple
(Chrysophyllu7n macro'phyllum and C ohvatmnj are very
inferior to the West Indian star apple fC. CainitoJ.
Tonsella pyriformis bears a rich and sweet fruit, like
a bergamot pear. There is a tree, called pome-
granate, said to be excellent : but having no affinity
to punica. The seeds of StercuUa acuminata are
called cola by the negroes, who hold them in great
esteem, as possessing the same virtues as Peruvian
bark. They are like horsechesnuts, and produced in
pods, which grow two to five together. A some-
what similar seed, named tola, is used in the same
way. Velvet tamarinds, the fruit of Codarimn acuti-
folium are produced in beautifully black velvety pods,
and possess an agreeably acid taste, while brown
tamarinds differ little, except in the colour and larger
size of the pods.
Pine apples both grow wild and are cultivated by
natives : they abound in the woods so as to obstruct
the passage through them in every direction, shooting
most vigorously, and yielding fi'uit abundantly. Two
kinds only, the black and white, are grown at Sierra
Leone : though not so large as those cultivated in
England, the flavour is superior. The wild varieties
are innumerable ; and a very pleasant kind of wine
is made in the colony from the juice.
Besides the fruits already mentioned as found wild
near Sierra Leone, the following are cultivated ;
plantains (Musa sapientumj, bananas (M. para-
272 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
disiaca) ; the cocoa nuts are still rare, and papaws
(Carica papaya) are only seen near the settlers'
houses. Oranges are abundant, and have now grown
wild; lemons are rare, but limes plentiful. Cashew
nuts have been cultivated in large quantities of late :
rose apples (Eugenia JamhosJ, and tamarinds from
the West Indies, love apples fSolanum Ly coper siconj,
melons, water melons, cucumbers, gourds, &c., of
many kinds and qualities ; among the melons some,
which having the smell of musk, are called musk
melons. Two sorts of capsicum are grown.
The Baobab, or Monkey Bread, above mentioned
fAdansonia digitataj, mav be deemed one of the most
valuable productions of Western Africa. It is like-
wise said to be found in Egypt and Abyssinia, and is
cultivated in many of the w^armer parts of the world.
It is the largest known tree ; its trunk being some-
times no less than thirty feet in diameter. At one
year old, its diameter is one inch, and its height five
inches : at thirty years old, when the diameter has
attained to two feet, the height is but twenty-two
feet ; and so on, till at 1000 years old, the Baobab
is fourteen feet broad, and fifty- eight feet high, and at
5000 years ^ the growth laterally has so outstripped
' I have met with this gigantic tree of a vast size in several
parts of Eastern Africa, particularly near Mombas. The
Chapultepee, in Mexico (Cupresses districha L.) which is 117
feet in circumference may be still more aged than the Baobab,
whose duration of vitality is said to be indicated by rings of
annual growth ; but physiologists have recently ascertained
that the number of concentric rings in a tree is owing very
much to the soil and climate in which it grows, and to the
nature of the tree itself.
THE BAOBAB. 273
its perpendicular progress, that the trunk will be
thirty feet in diameter, and only seventy-three feet
in height. The roots are of a most extraordinary
length ; in a tree with a stem seventy-seven feet round,
the main branch, or tap root, measures 110 feet in
length. The foliage is not so abundant as to conceal
the vast proportion of the trunk ; but it often hap-
pens that the profusion of leaves and of drooping
boughs almost hide the stem, and the whole forms
an hemispherical mass of verdure, 140 to 150 feet
in diameter, and sixty to seventy feet high. The
wood is pale coloured, light, and soft, so that in
Abyssinia, the wild bees perforate it, and lodge
their honey in the hollow, which honey is considered
the best in the country. The negroes on the western
coast apply these trunks to a singular purpose. The
tree is liable to be attacked by a fungus, which,
vegetating in the woody part, without changing the
colour or appearance, destroys life, and renders the
part so attacked as soft as the pith of trees in general.
Such trunks are then hollowed into chambers, and
within them are suspended the dead bodies of those
to whom a]*e refused the honour of burial. There
they become mummies, perfectly dry and well pre-
served, without further preparation or embalming,
and are known by the name of Guiriots. The Baobab,
like all plants of the same order fMalvacea), is
emollient and mucilaginous. The pulverised leaves
constitute lalo, a favourite article with the natives,
which they mix with their daily food to diminish
excessive perspiration, and which is even used by
Europeans in fevers, diarrhoeas, &c. The fruit is
T
274 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
perhaps the most useful part of this tree ; its pulp is
acid and agreeable, and the juice expressed from it,
mixed with sugar, constitutes a drink that is deemed
a specific in putrid and pestilential fevers. Owing
to these circumstances, the fruit forms an article of
commerce. Bowdich mentions that it possesses such
an agreeable flavour, and is so abundant, that it con-
stitutes a principal article of food with the natives,
who season many of their dishes with it, especially
their corn gruel. The Mandingoes convey it to
the eastern and southern districts of Africa, and
through the medium of the Arabs, it reaches Morocco,
and even Egypt.
If the fruit be injured, it is burned, the ashes.'
being mixed with rancid palm oil, and serving for
soap. The flowers are large, white, and handsome,
and on their first expansion, bear some resemblance,
in their snowy petals and violet mass of stamens, to
the white poppy (Papaver somniferumj . Both the
flowers and fruit are pendant. The Baobab tree
loses its leaves before the periodical rains come on.
The Arachis hypogaea deserves notice on account
of the singular economy of its fruits. It belongs to
the very few plants which mature their seeds under
ground ; the flower- stalk, after the blossom has
withered, bending downwards, and burying the
germen in the soil, where it soon increases in bulk,
and perfectly ripens. The fruit is a pod, containing
one or two seeds, the size of small nuts, with a
flavour of almonds ; the natives of several countries
eat them, either boiled or fried, and make very
pleasant confections of them, the taste resembling
PLANTS COMMON TO EQUINOCTIAL AFRICA, &C. 275
chocolate. A valuable oil is also extracted from the
seeds of the Arachis, alike useful in food and for
supplying lamps, as it never turns rancid. Many-
attempts have been made to naturalise this plant in
Europe ; but the climate is too cold for it every
where north of the southern coast of France.
List of plants common to Equinoctial Africa,
Amei'ica, and Asia ^ — Gleichenia Hermanni Prodr.
Flor. Nov. Holl. ; Mertensia dichotoma, Willd. ;
Agrostis Virginica, L. ; Cyperus articulatus, L. ;
Cyperus niloticus, Fahl. ead. sp. ; Lipocarpha ar-
gentea, Nob. ; Hypselyptum argenteum, Vahl. ; Fui-
rena umbellata, L. fil. ; Pistia Stratiotes, L. ;
Boerhaavia mutabilis, Prodr. Flor. Nov. Holl. ;
Ipomoea pes caprse, Noh. ; Convolvulus pes caprae,
L., convolvulus Brasiliensis, L. ead. sp. ; Ipomoea
pentaphylla, Jacqu. ; Scoparia dulcis, L. ; Helio-
tropium indicum, L. ; Sphenoclea zeylanica, Goerb. ;
Ageratum conyzoides. L.\ Waltheria indica, L., Wal-
theria americana, L. ead. sp. ; Hibiscus liliaceus, L. ;
Sida periplocifolia, L. ; Cassia occidentalis, L. ; Gui-
landina Bonduc, L., Guilandina Bonducella, L., ead.
sp. ; Abrus precatorius, L. ; Hedysarum triflorum, L.
Plants common to Equinoctial Africa and America ,-
but not found in India. — Octoblepharum albidum,
Heda. ; Acrostichum aureum, L. ; Eragrostis ciliaris,
L. ; Poa ciliaris, L. ; Cyperus ligularis, L. ; Schwenkia
americana, L. ; Hyptis obtusifolia, Nob. ; Struchium
(americanum) Bejam. 312 ; Sida juncea Banks, et
Soland. Mss. Brasil. ; Urena americana, L., Urena
^ From Tuckey's voyage up the Congo.
t2
276 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
reticulata, Cavan. ead. sp. ; Malachra radiata, L. ;
Jussiaea erecta, L. ; Crotalaria axillaris, Hort. Kew.
et Willd. ; Pterocarpus lunatus, L.
Plants common to Equinoctial Africa and India ;
hut not found in America. — Roccella fuciformis Achar.
Lichenog. 440; Perotislatifolia Soland. in Hort. Kew. ;
Centotheca lappacea, Beauw. ; Eleusine indica, Goert. ;
Flagellaria indica, L. ; Gloriosa superba, L. ; Celosia
argentea, L. ; Celosia margaritacea, L., Celosia albida?
Willd. ; ead. sp. ; Desmochyeta lappacea Decand. ;
Grangea (maderaspatana) Adans. ; Lavenia erecta,
Sw.; Oxystelmaesculentum,iVo6., Periploca esculenta,
Roxh., Nympheea lotus, L., Nymphaea pubescens,
Willd., ead. sp. ; Hibiscus surattensis, L. ; Leca
sambucina, L. ; Hedysarum pictum, L. ; Indigofera
lateritia, Willd. ; Glinus lotoides, L.
List of species which have not been satisfactorily
ascertained. — Acrostichum alcicorne, Sic. ; Acrosti-
chum stemaria, Beauv. ; Imperata cylindrica, Prodr.
Flor. Nov. Holl. ; Panicum crus-galli, L. ; Typha
angustifolia, L. ; Giseckia pharnaceoides, L. ; Cassytha
pubescens, Prodr. Ylor.Nov. Holl.; Celtis orientalis,
L. ; Cardiospermum grandiflorum, Z/Z^;. ; Paullina pin-
nata, L. ; Hydrocotyle Asiatica, L. ; Hedysarum
adscendens, Sw. ; Hedysarum vaginale, L, ; Ptero-
carpus Ecastophyllum, L.
The native names of the different species of timber
exported from the River Sierra Leone for ship
building and carpenter's w^ork are — 1. Co-Tartosar,
or African oak ; 2. Tolongah, or brimstone ; 3. Bumia,
rather scarce ; 4. Cooper ; 5. Kon ; 6. Conta ; 7. Roth ;
8. Wossomah; 9. Jumo; 10. Backam; 11. Toper-
ANIMAL KINGDOM. 277
canico ; 1 2 Mooll, the tree produces vegetable butter ;
13. Sop; 14. Kelill ; 15. Cong; 16. African almond;
17. Bombay; 18. Dye-wood; 19. Pissaman ; 20.
Pissaman, (no marine animal of any kind attacks it) ;
21. black oak; 22. Wismore ; 23. African cedar; 24.
White wismore ; 25. Cronko ; 26. Shiu-shinginara ;
27. blue Wismore; 28. Arwoora ; 29. African mam-
mee apple; 30. Catepy ; 31. Lowland box- wood ;
32. Singa-singa marah ; 33. African pine; 34.
Highland box-wood; 35. Singuoora ; 36. Cabooco ;
37. Brimstone; 38. Bessey ; 39. African mulberry;
40. Mangrove. The grain of several of these woods
is very rich, and the furniture made therefrom not
only durable but extremely beautiful. In Mr.
Forster's elegant mansion at Hampstead, there are
several articles of furniture made from African
mahogany, vv'hich would vie with the wood of any
country in the world : and for ship-building the
African teak is now generally and deservedly
esteemed.
Animal Kingdom. — Of this interesting depart-
ment of natural history little is yet known, owing to
our slight knowledge of the interior ; the species yet
seen are principally those met with around the
European settlements on the coast. In the following
lists are enumerated the chief quadrupeds of Western
Africa, arranged under those countries where they
have been particularly observed : —
Senegal. Cercopithecus ruber, Red Monkey ; Cer-
copithecus sabaeus, Green Monkey; Megaderma frons,
Foliaceous Bat ; Taphozous senegalensis, Senegal
Bat ; Oryx besoastica Sm., Senegal Oryx ; Gazella
278 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
dama Stn., Swift Antelope; Cercopithecus petau-
rista, Vaulting Monkey.
Guinea. Cercopithecus nictitans, White-ncsed Mon-
key ; Cercopithecus petaurista, Vaulting Monkey ;
Cercopithecus diana. Palatine Monkey ; Cercocebus
fuliginosus, Smokey Monkey ; Cercocebus sethiops,
Ethiopian Monkey ; Cyanocephalus papio, Guinea
Baboon ; Papio Mormon, Mandrill ; Papio sylvicola.
Wood Baboon ; Canis cancrivorous. Crab-eating
Wolf.
Sierra Leone and Congo. Simla troglodytes. Chim-
panzee; Colobuspolycomos, Full-bottom Monkey; Ga-
zella mytelopes, Sin., Broad-footed Antelope; Antilope
redunca, Nagor Antelope ; Cephalophus sylvicultrix,
Stn., Bush Antelope ; Cephalophus quadriscopa Sm.,
Four-tufted Antelope ; Cephalophus mergens, Duckre
Antelope ; Cephalophus Grimmia, Guinea Antelope ;
Cephalophus Maxwellii, Sm., Maxwell's Antelope ;
Cephalophus Philantomba, Sm., Sierra Leone Ante-
lope ; Tragelophus phalerata, Sm., Ribbed Antelope.
Lions, elephants, panthers, buffaloes, hippopotami,
and deer abound. The most interesting quadrupeds
of Senegal appear to be the Red Monkey, the Green
Monkey, and the two antelopes, named Dama and
Scripta. M. Adanson says, that the Red Monkey
is a pretty animal, but capricious, mischievous, little
susceptible of attachment, and possessing the dis-
tinguishing characteristic of the monkey tribes,
curiosity in a remarkable degree. During his aquatic
excursion, they descended from the tops of the trees
to the extremity of the branches, earnestly noticing,
and apparently much amused by, the boats passing
ANIMAL KINGDOM. 279
up the river. After a time they took courage, and
began to pelt the travellers with pieces of wood, thus
provoking a most unequal contest. Upon being
fired upon, they uttered the most frightful cries, and
although many were killed, the survivors returned to
the contest with redoubled courage, and with a most
determined spirit : some flung stones at their adver-
saries, w^hile others even collected their own excre-
ments for the same purpose.
The Green Monkey, is so named from the upper
parts being of a greenish yellow colour : the lower
are greyish ; tail terminated by a long pencil of
yellow hairs ; face, ears, and hands black ; this spe-
cies are in immense numbers. They remain on the
trees in large troops, and preserve the most profound
silence, even when they are wounded. Adanson
did not at first notice them, from the similarity of
their colour to that of the foliage, until they sud-
denly began flinging at him pieces of the dead
branches ; and although he killed twenty-three of
them in less than an hour, they did not appear in
the least frightened by the discharge of his guns.
In confinement, it is stated by M. Cuvier to be
remarkably beautiful and gentle ; fond of being
caressed by those it knows, and seldom exhibiting
any malicious propensity : when fully contented, it
expresses satisfaction by a peculiar gentle grunt,
which may be compared to the syllable grau.
The Dama Antelope so closely resembles the
species so named by Mr. Riippell, and found by him
in the deserts of Nubia, that they are probably one
and the same.
280 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
The Harnessed Antelope is a most beautiful animal,
first noticed by Adanson by the native name of
Gerih. It is about the size of a fallow deer : the
ground colour of a bright bay, but marked with
stripes in various directions, and with such regularity
as to give the idea that a harness of some white
material, was thrown over its body. Another species,
closely resembling this, named the Ribbed Antelope
{A. phalerata) inhabits the barren plains above the
great falls of the Zezere, or Congo. Large baboons,
of the most grotesque but repulsive forms, are com-
mon in this part of Africa.
The PapioUy or Common Baboon, is of a yellowish
green, verging more or less to brown ; visage black,
and tail long ; when adult, it is a most ferocious and
disgusting animal. From the same country comes
the Mandrill Baboon (Simla Maimon Lin.), of an
olive colour ; its chin has a small yellow beard, and
the cheeks are naked, blue, and furrowed. In
the adult males, the nose grows red, and the end is
sometimes of a bright scarlet, while the buttocks
are of a beautiful violet. M. Cuvier well remarks
that it is impossible to conceive an animal more ex-
traordinary and more hideous. It very nearly attains
the height of a man, and is looked upon by the
negroes with great fear.
The Chimpanzee, of all the apes yet discovered,
makes the nearest approximation to the human form.
It was designated by Linnaeus as a variety of the
human species, under the name of Homo troglodytes.
The Chimpanzee appears to have an affinity, if not
identity, with the large African apes so often men-
ANIMAL KINGDOM. 281
tioned by travellers, or to the Barris, or great Wild
Man of the African woods. In size it exceeds
that of the Orang-Otan, and exhibits the same
docility, submissiveness, and gentleness. It is heard
of more especially in Congo. The Perruque, or Full-
bottomed Monkey {Colohus polycomos Geof.) has the
neck furnished with a variegated mane of long hair,
fancifully compared to a full-bottomed wig, but truly
representing the lion in its own family.
Several of the antelopes are very elegant. The
Bush Antelope {A. sylvicultrix) , called by the colonists
of Sierra Leone, the Bush Goat, is of considerable
size, and measures five feet in length ; the venison
is excellent ; it is not so fleet as other antelopes.
The Ducker Antelope {A. mergens) is remarkable
for its great timidity, being alarmed at the least
unusual noise, and concealing itself on hearing
thunder. It lives solitary or in pairs ; its peculiar
name originates from its singular habit of rising
upon the hind legs to look round, making a blowing
noise with its nostrils, and then stooping and flying
under cover of the vegetation, to stand and rise up
again. Another species, the dodger antelope of
Major Smith, also from Western Africa, appears to
resemble this very much.
The Lamantin, or Sea Cow (Manatus senegalensis),
an amphibious quadruped of great dimensions ; occa-
sionally frequents the mouth of tne Senegal. It is
essentially herbivorous, and of a mild and inoff'ensive
character. Adanson describes it as full eight feet
long, having some resemblance to a seal : four nails
are at the edge of the fins, and the tail is horizon-
282 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
tally flat ; the eyes very small, and the ears not
visible. The negroes call it Cercou.
Birds d^-e in great variety, and of unsurpassed
beauty ; but we as yet know little of the ornitholo-
gical treasures of the country. The rapacious birds
are few : only one species of vulture is yet known to
inhabit the Western Africa ; this is the Angola vul-
ture of Latham, which is probably the same with the
vultur percnopterus of Egypt and Southern Europe ;
although Latham's name has recently been erro-
neously applied, in an English translation of Cuvier's
Animal Kingdoyn, to a totally different bird.
The Crowned Eagle of Guinea (F. coronatusj, is
more than two feet in length, or one-third the size
of the larger European eagles : it is only occasionally
seen on the Gold Coast, and is remarkable for a
crest over each eye, while the legs are clothed with
feathers to the toes. The Senegal Fishing Eagle
feeds almost entirely upon fish, in the manner of our
osprey. Five other falcons, peculiar to this country,
have recently been noticed. The grey-necked shrike
(Malaconotus olivaceus, Sw.J ; the Barbary shrike
(Malaconotus barbarus, Sw.J, and two or three other
species of the same group, equally conspicuous for
the richness of their plumage, occur in Senegal, and,
probably, also in the neighbouring states. The
beautifully coloured sun-birds fCinnyrida, Sw.J are
met with in great numbers, sipping nectar from the
numerous blossoms which a luxuriant vegetation
yields. The Senegal, the long-tailed, and the chaly-
beate, are three species of exquisite beauty, and not
larger in size than many of the American humming-
BIRDS. 283
birds. There are numerous flocks of golden-coloured
orioles of different species. Migratory Rollers,
decked with the brightest tints of azure, purple, and
green, occur in large flocks, with crested hoopoes,
and beautiful bee-eaters. The water-birds, also, are
but imperfectly known.
The galUnaceous birds, so numerous in India, and
even in America, under the same parallels of latitude,
are here thought to be very few. Some of the par-
tridges, loosely mentioned by travellers, are probably
of that particular race called sand grouse, found
only in the hot latitudes of the Old World fG. Ptero-
cles, T.J, while the rest cannot be referred to their
true species. The only gallinaceous birds of any
size, peculiar to tropical Africa, are the Guinea fowl.
Of these, the most common species (Numida melea-
grisj has long been domesticated in Europe. In a
wild state these birds associate in numerous flocks of
200 or 300 each : they chiefly frequent marshes and
morasses, where they seek for worms, insects, and
seeds. During the night they perch on high places,
and are well known for their discordant noise.
Four of the most remarkable land birds are : — 1st.
The Plantain-eater {Musophaga violacea), as large as
an ordinary sized pigeon, but with the tail much
longer ; the whole plumage of a deep black, highly
glossed wath bluish purple ; but the quill feathers,
when opened, are then seen to be of the deepest and
richest lilac, reflecting violet ; the feathers of the
head are of the same colour, and so short and soft as
to resemble velvet ; the bill is orange, mixed with
red, its substance very thick, and elevated in front
284 SIERRA LEOXE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
like a helmet. Another species, the variegated plan-
tain-eater, is also found in Senegal, but its plumage
is plain.
2nd. Tlie Touracco, or Web-crest of Senegal, is of
the same natural family ; rather smaller in size, but
living equally and exclusively upon fruits ; the wings
are also of a crimson lilac, but the rest of the body
is green. On the head is a compressed and erect
crest of thin and delicate feathers. It lives in the
deepest forests, and perches only on the loftiest trees.
3rd. The Beef-eater {Buphaga africana, L.) receives
its name from its habit of alighting on the backs of
cattle, and picking from their hides the troublesome
insects by which they are infested, climbing round
their bodies, much in the same way as the creepers
or woodpeckers do on trees ; this is rendered appa-
rent by the formation of their claws and tails, both
of which are of the scansorial structure ; the bill also
is very thick. The bird is not so large as a thrush,
and is plainly coloured. Another species is said to
inhabit Abyssinia.
4th. The Long -shafted Goat-sucker (C. macrodip-
terus) peculiar to Sierra Leone, is varied with brown,
yellowish, and black, much like the European spe-
cies, yet it is smaller ; its most remarkable character
is a very long single feather, issuing from the wing
covers, measuring near twenty inches, the shaft of
which is only expanded into a broad web at the end.
Nature has, no doubt, designed for this extraordinary
appendage some peculiar use.
IcTHYOLOGY. — The rivers and coasts abound with
many fish, beautiful in their colours, or nutritious for
ENTOMOLOGY. 285
food; and there are swarms of alligators, serpents,
and other reptiles.
The Mollusca and Shell-fish are abundant and cu-
rious. The voluta cymbium and sccBpha, two large
volute shells, the animals of which are carnivorous,
appear to be in profusion in Senegal. Cones, olives,
and various other predacious races, are no less com-
mon ; the Cypraa moneta, or money cowry, passes
current among the negro tribes as coin of a very low
value.
Entomology offers an extensive field for the natu-
ralist. The number of locusts and cicades is every
where striking ; but in the sandy plains thinly covered
with grass their numbers are immense, and their
chirping is intolerable ; they are seen of various
kinds, sizes, and colours, skipping or flitting about
in all directions, at every step of the traveller.
The larvce or caterpillars, of all the beetles that
feed upon decayed wood, are rich and delicate eat-
ing, so that every forest affords the traveller plenty
of nourishment did he know where to search for it.
The children in Africa, at the proper season, are
busilv employed in digging out of the ground the
females of a particular sort of cricket, which are
then full of eggs, and so enclosed in a bag as to
resemble part of the roe of a large fish : these, when
roasted, are deemed very delicate.
The myriads of ants which sv/arm in tropical
Africa can scarcely be conceived by those who have
never visited hot climates. They are of numerous
species, but all seem intent on removing from the
face of the earth every animal or vegetable substance
286 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
no longer necessary or useful. Like the destroying
angel they walk steadily forward in the line ordained
them, and spare neither magnitude nor beauty, nei-
ther the living nor the dead. One species, which
seems at times to have no fixed habitation, ranges
about in vast armies ; being armed with very strong
jaws, they attack whatever animal impedes their pro-
gress, and there is no escape but by immediate flight,
or instant retreat to the water. The inhabitants of
the negro villages, has Mr. Smeathman has himself
witnessed, are frequently obliged to abandon their
dwellings, taking with them their children, &c. and
wait until the ants have passed. So numerous are
these hosts, that a deer, hog, &c. being killed, and
left on the ground, in one night will have the flesh
entirely cleaned from the bones, and made a complete
skeleton. There are near twenty other species in
Western Africa, of difi'erent sizes and colours, each
possessing peculiar habits. Some attack the collec-
tions of the botanist, and in spite of weights laid upon
his books of drying plants, get in, cut the leaves and
flowers to pieces, and carry them away ! Others
attack all sorts of victuals. Mr. Smeathman has had
four large sugar dishes emptied in one night, when
the least opening was left ; some assail the side-
board, and cover every glass that has had wine or
punch left in it ; nay, innumerable multitudes fre-
quently even ascend the table, and drown themselves
in the very bowls and vessels before you. {Preface
to Drury's Insects, vol. iii.) — I tried in Africa to pre-
vent the ants ascending my table by placing each of
its legs in a large dish of water, but these astonishing
ENTOMOLOGY. 287
insects soon made a bridge of the dead bodies of
their comrades ; placing the feet of the table on
globes of very smooth glass is a better expedient to
ward off this plague.
The Termites, or white ants of Western Africa
have had their wonderful economy attentively inves-
tigated by Mr. Smeathman, They build pyramidical
or conical structures, divided into appropriate apart-
ments, magazines for provisions, arched chambers,
and galleries of communication. These are so firmly
cemented that they easily bear the weight of three or
four men ; and on the plains of Senegal, appear like
the villages of the natives. [I observed the same in
Eastern Africa.] The destruction they effect is won-
derfully rapid : they destroy food, furniture, books,
clothes, and timber of whatever magnitude, leaving
merely a thin surface ; and in a few hours a large
beam will be eaten to a mere shell not thicker than
writing paper. On emerging from the egg, the in-
sect is in its larva state, furnished with a great hard
head and strong toothed jaws, but it is destitute of
eyes. These are the labourers, who, although not
more than a quarter of an inch long, build these edi-
fices, procure provisions for the community, and take
charge of the eggs. On changing to the pupa state,
they become larger and more powerful : the head is
nearly as big as the body, while the jaws project be-
yond the head, they are very sharp, but without
teeth. They now become soldiers, and assume higher
duties; never working themselves, but superintending
the labourers ; they act also as guards to defend the
common habitations from intrusion or violence.
7
288 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
When a breach is made in the dweUing:, thev rush
forward and defend the entrance with great ferocitv ;
frequently beating their jaws against the walls as a
signal to the other guards, or as encouragement to
the labourers ; they then retire, and are succeeded by
the labourers, each with a burden of tempered mortar
in his mouth, and who diligently set about and repair
the injury. One soldier appears to attend every 600
or 800 labourers when building a wall ; he takes no
active part himself, but frequently makes the noise
above mentioned, which is constantly answered by a
loud hiss from all the attendants, who, at this signal,
evidently redouble their diligence. The next change
brings the pupae, or soldiers to their perfect state as
male and female winged insects. They then emerge
into the air, either during the night, or on a damp
and cloudy day : in a few hours, however, the solar
heat causes the wings to wither and become dry ; the
insects then fall to the ground, and are eagerly
sought after by hosts of birds, lizards, and even by
the negroes themselves, who roast and eat them.
The few which survive this general destruction are
collected by the labourers and soldiers, who inclose
them, by pairs, in apartments made of clay, the en-
trance to which is so narrow that they cannot mi-
grate; but where they are diligently fed and attended
by the labourers, whose bodies are small enough to
admit an easy entrance. Afterimpregnation, the ab-
domen of the female extends to an enormous size,
exceeding the rest of her body nearly 2000 times;
in which state it is filled with an immense number of
eggs, protruded to the amount of about 8000 in
POPULATION. 289
twenty-four hours. These are instantly taken away
by the labourers, and conveyed to separate chambers,
where, after they are hatched, the young are attended
and provided for till they are able to shift for them-
selves, and take their share in the labours of the com-
munity. {Smeathman, Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxi.)
Other species of termites build their nests on trees
of an oval form, while that of another {T. arda) is
cylindrical, two or three feet high, terminated by a
round vaulted dome, and surrounded by a prominent
terrace.
CHAPTER III.
POPULATION OF SIERRA LEONE, GAMBIA, &C. VARIETIES OF
PACES, CHARACTER, &C.
Population. — Of the numbers, characters, and
almost of the names of the people of Western Africa
(estimated at twenty-six to the square mile, 1,200,000
square miles, thus giving 31,000,000 mouths) we
know very little.
The three great negro races inhabit the country : —
1st. The Foulahs, from Fooladoo on the Upper
Senegal, or of the same race with the Fellatahs, in
Central Africa, have now spread all over the banks
of that river, besides the great kingdom of Foota Jallo
to the south, and many districts on the banks of the
Gambia. They have not the extreme negro charac-
teristics ; neither the deep jet hue, the flat nose, nor
CEYLON, &c. U
290 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
the thick hps ; on the contrary, their features are
high, with an ohve tint, and an agreeable expression.
They have embraced the Mahometan faith, but with-
out that bigotry which almost universally accom-
panies it. Their manners are peculiarly courteous
and gentle: they practise the most liberal hospitality;
and relieve the wants not only of their own aged and
infirm, but even of those belonging to other tribes.
Their employments are pastoral, and their habits, in
some degree, nomadic. Occupying countries where
there is no fixed property in land, they drive their
flocks, according to the season, to the tops of the
mountains, or the banks of the rivers. At night
they collect their herds within the circle of the tents,
and light large fires to deter the approach of wild
beasts. Such is their good conduct and industry,
that it is considered infamous to injure them, and a
blessing is said to rest on any territory that contains
one of their villages. Their internal government is
republican, under chiefs of their own ; and this form
they insist upon retaining, even when they settle
under a sovereign of another tribe.
2nd, The Mandingoes are a race more numerous
and more decidedly negro both in form and disposi-
tion. Though capable of great occasional exertion,
they have by no means the steady industry of the
Foulahs. Their employments are chiefly a shght
agriculture, fishing with nets and baskets, and, above
all, traffic, in which their enterprise exceeds that of
the other negro races. They conduct large kafilas to
a considerable distance in the interior, and their lan-
guage is well understood in all the commercial dis-
THE MANDINGOES. MUMBO JUMBO. 291
tricts. They are cheerful, inquisitive, credulous, and
so g-ay, that they will dance for twenty-four hours
without intermission to the sound of the drum or
balafon. Polygamy is practised to a great extent,
and the numerous households to which it gives rise
live in tolerable outward harmony, which must not,
however, be considered very secure, since it requires
to be cemented by the extraordinary expedient of
Mumbo Jumbo. This bugbear of the African ladies
is called into service whenever the simpler expedients
of scolding or beating fail to queU domestic dissen-
sion. Mumbo Jumbo, being then summoned, arravs
himself in a fantastic coat hung for his use on a neigh-
bouring tree, crowns his head with a tuft of straw,
and soon after dusk marches into the market place.
Thither the unhappy fair one being summoned dares
not disobey, and the love of stir and mischief causes
her to be soon followed by the majority of her fellow
citizens. In their presence she is stripped naked, and
undergoes a severe whipping, inflicted by the rod of
Mumbo Jumbo, amid the applause of all the specta-
tors.
The Mandingoes have some tastes more refined
than are usual among Africans, particularly in poetry,
the extemporary composition and recitation of which
forms one of their favourite amusements. The origi-
nal country of these people is the elevated territory of
Manding ; but they are now widely difiiised over all
this region, and particularly along the banks of the
Gambia.
The third gi*eat race are the Jalofs, who occupy
nearly the whole of that inland territory which inter-
u 2
'29*2 SIKUUA LKONK, THK GAM 111 A. (!\C.
vencs botwoou the Gambia ami the Senegal, ami the
extent of \vhieh is estimated by Golberry at 4S00
leagues. A mimber of them are subject to a ])Ower-
ful inland ])rinee called Burb-y-.Talof, who boasts of
himself as anciently the sole ruler in this part of
Africa. The Jalofs. though of a deep black com-
plexion, and with the decided negro features, are
considered a handsome race. They boast of their
antiquity, and in many respects excel their neigh-
bours. Their language is softer and more agree-
able ; thev manufacture huer cotton cloths, and give
them a superior dye ' : in horsemanship they are fear-
less and expert, and as hunters they rival the Moors.
Thev possess not. however, the invention of writing,
and reckon by lives instead of by tens.
The Feloops are a wild and rude race, inhabiting
the shores to the south of the Gambia ; their traffic
with us is carried on through the Mandiugo mer-
chants, and we consequently know little of them.
The Tinunanees border on our colony of Sierra
Leone.
The Ashantees. amounting, it is thought, to
1,000.000 people, with o,000,000 of dependants, be-
longing to other nations, inhabit Ashantee Proper, a
region behind the Gold Coast, comprising about
14,000 square miles. They are a very superior class
' Mr. Forstor has jToscntod mo witli soino spooiiuons of tlio
cotton cloths nianufacturcil by the natives o( Western Africa;
these cloths have a softness, weip-ht. and textnre, whieli our
manut'aciurers at Manchester cannot eqnal : the patterns bet'ore
nie are novel and tasteliil, provino- that the African is not tlte
degraded being he has been so nnjnstly represented.
THE DAHOMTAXS. 293
of natives to those oi\ the coast, manufacture excel-
k^nt cotton, smelt metals, and huild large houses.
The country is g-overned by a king, aided by four
chiefs as counsellors. Notwithstanding that the man-
ners of the Ashantees are more polished and digni-
fied than their neiglibours. annual hecatombs of un-
fortunate slaves and captives arc otfercd to propitiate
the nianes of their ancestors, and on the death of any
member of the roval familv, thousands of human
beings arc slain as attendants for the next world. In
no country, indeed, is life less valued than in Africa.
The Landers were dreadfully tormented by the rude
curiosity of the natives, who almost suflbcated them
by crowding to and about their tents. On complain-
ing of this nuisance to the chief of one place, he said.
' Take your gun and kill a few ; you have my full
leave to slaughter as many as you please. After you
have cut off the heads of some of them, the rest will
not molest you.' Polygamy is carried to a dreadful
extent ; the legal allowance of wives for the Ashantee
monarch is 3000 !
The Dahomians (who have conquered the fearful
and effeminate Wydans) predominate along what is
termed the Slave Coast, and in the interior to the
depth of about '200 miles ; their rule is equal in bar-
barity to that of the Ashantees. The Fantees manu-
facture cottons interwoven with silk, earthenware,
iron, soap, &c., and enjoy a republican form of go-
vernment. Other tribes and nations exist, of whom
we do not know even the names, but all, more or less,
sunk in a state of savage barbarism. A few observa-
tions on the system that has been pursued in our
294 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
expeditions of discovery into the interior of Africa
may not be here out of place. From the time of
Park several expeditions have been fitted out by go-
vernment, none of which have been attended with a
success commensurate with the expectations of the
country, and the money expended on them. If the
subject were inquired into, it might not be difficult to
trace the failure of these undertakings to the errors
committed in planning and conducting them. The
most considerable was that under Major Peddie, than
whom a more estimable man, and a braver officer,
never entered the field, but one more unfitted to lead
an expedition of discovery into the interior of Africa
could not well have been selected. Had his orders
been to fight his way through the country no man
would have done it better ; but he was ill calculated
to win his way through the unknown regions of Africa
by patience, perseverance, and persuasion. There are
persons now in this country who witnessed what took
place after the expedition arrived on the coast (where
it remainednear twelve months, engaged in ill-judged
preparations for the inland journey), and they declare
that the attempt may be considered to have failed
before the party left the shore. They started with a
numerous train of camels, and other animals, laden
with an immense quantity of valuable property, for
use as presents to the kings or chiefs through whose
territories they had to pass. The consequence was,
what those acquainted with the natives and the
country expected, they met with difficulties at every
step. The cupidity of the natives was excited by the
temptation of such a display of valuables ; impedi-
EXPEDITIONS OF DISCOVERY. 295
ments were thrown in the way of the expedition, for
the purpose of arresting the property ; this created
delay, with delay came sickness, despondency, and
the total failure of the attempt, upon which an enor-
mous sum of money was entirely thrown away. The
next expedition was made under Major Gray, and
was attended with the same errors and the same dis-
astrous results. And now, after having expended use-
lessly tens of thousands on such ill-planned schemes,
government has gone from one extreme to the other,
and cannot spare even fifty pounds in aid of any un-
dertaking for the like purpose. Park and Clapperton
were both eminently qualified for the task they under-
took ; but it may be questioned, whether the right
plan has yet been hit upon for ensuring success. It
is the opinion of those who have resided long on the
coast, that persons should be selected for the purpose
who are seasoned to the climate by a residence in the
country, and that they should set out attended by two
or three natives belonging to the interior, moderately
provided with the means of procuring subsistence on
the journey, and to whom a handsome reward should
be guaranteed, on condition of their bringing the
traveller safe back ; rewards might be promised to
the chiefs in the interior on the same terms. It is
thought that this plan afibrds the fairest prospect of
success. A Marrabout (Moorish priest) offered to
Major Gray, at Senegal, before he started, to conduct
him to Timbuctoo, and from thence to the saltwater
(sea) by the Niger, on condition of receiving 1000
pieces of bafts (about 800/.) on his safe return back
296 SIERRA. LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
to Senegal. The offer was declined, as not being in
accordance with his instructions.
It is difficult to obtain corrected statements of the
population of our settlements on this coast. The
most thickly inhabited by British subjects is Sierra
Leone, the census of which, at two intervals, was as
follows : —
297
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Charlotte
Bathurst
Glouceste
Regent ai
Kissey an
Wilberfor
Kent and
Waterloo
Hastings
Wellingto
York
Leicester
Villages ii
Peninsula
298
SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
Of the total population at Sierra Leone (35,000),
about 200 are Europeans ; the remainder are either
captured and liberated slaves \ or their descendants,
together with some Kroomen, or native Africans, who
ply for hire in the settlement. Many of the colonists
possess wealth, some of the liberated slaves being
now worth upwards of 1000/. sterling. There are,
of course, some instances where indolence prevails,
but on the whole the freed African shows that he
prizes his liberty, and is grateful for the boon con-
ferred on him by the humanity of Britain. There are
public schools in each parish, and from 3000 to 4000
children daily attend them.
It is, however, much to be lamented, that the in-
fluence of certain individuals, by whom the affairs of
the African Institution had been mainly directed, con-
tinued to sway for a considerable period, the policy of
government, whereby the ample resources, provided
^ Abstract of returns, shewing the number of slaves captured,
emancipated, and registered in the mixed commission courts at
Sierra Leone, since their establishment to the 6th day of Feb.
1826.
Died before Adjudication 1462
Emancipated, but died before
their descriptions could be
taken to be registered 38
Delivered over to the Colonial
Government, not emanci-
pated or registered 626
Emancipated, but not regis-
tered 254
Emancipated and registered... 7122
9502
Captured in 1819....
.... 96
1820.,..
.... 455
1821....
....1399
1822....
....2753
1823....
.... 670
1824....
....1331
1825....
....1752
To Feb. G, 182(5....
....1045
9502
At Sierra Leone the total number of slaves emancipated
between June, 1819, and January, 1833, was 27,697«
POPULATION OF THE GAMBIA. 299
by parliament in furtherance of the philanthropic
objects for which the colony was established, were
applied to measures of a transitory nature, connected
with the private pursuits in trade of those who re-
commended them, in place of being spent in founding
a permanent system of moral and commercial im-
provement for the natives of the country. The
money was frittered away in contracts and jobbing in
the settlement, while the surrounding country, with
its countless inhabitants, was left without an effort
for its improvement, and to this day bears scarcely a
trace of advantage arising from all the money that
has been devoted to the colony. No encouragement
has been offered to the native chiefs, in the way of
premiums for the productions of the soil, nor has any
regular system ever been adopted for supplying them
with tools, seeds, or agricultural instruction. Had
this been done, and persons been brought from the
West Indies capable of instructing the natives in
planting, England might, at this day, have had some-
thins: to show and boast of for the monev she has
spent in Africa, in place of having to deplore the con-
sequences of her ill -directed efforts, and ill- applied
resources, which have so dispirited government and
the country, that the smallest items are now grudg-
ingly admitted in the estimates for the coast, in place
of those reasonable resources which, if granted, and
properly applied, might yet realize the fondest hopes
of the friends of African improvement.
The Gambia. — The population of this settlement I
can only show as regards the island of St. Mary,
which was, in 1823, 1826, and 1833, thus :—
7
300 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
Population of St. Mary's Island, Gambia.
Class.
1823.
1826.
1833. j
u
S
»3
o
S
3
o
H
VI
11
5
Pm
'3
o
o
H
Europeans
Mulattoes
Ditto children .
Blacks
37
29
20
428
110
152
293
2
8
50\
36/
467\
169/
■2}
4.5
135
1204
152
309
28
47
17
679
112
131
7
9
44 1
14/
624 \
162/
30
122
1577
131
7
31
51
1399
5
75
1179
36
126
2578
Ditto children .
Sailors
Strangers
Ditto children .
Total
1101
744
1845
1021
846
1867 ^ 1481
1259
2740
The foregoing does not include the garrison, which
consists of about 150 of the Royal African corps.
The population of Cape Coast Castle is about
8000 ; of Accra about 5000 ; of Annamabou about
3000 ; of Dix Cove about 2000. In the aggregate
we may estimate the number of British subjects on
the western coast of Africa at about 50,000, of whom
but 500 are Europeans.
CHAPTER IV.
GOVERNMENT AND FINANCES OF SIERRA LEONE, GAMBIA, &C.
— COMMERCE, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS, SHIPPING, &C.
Government and Finances. — SieiTa Leone is
governed by a civil lieutenant governor, assisted by a
council. There is a chief justice, and a vice court of
GOVERNMENT AND FINANCES. 301
admiralty. Here is also established the mixed com-
mission for the adjudication of vessels taken in the
slave trade. A detachment of the Royal African
corps (blacks) is stationed in the settlement under a
lieuten ant-colonel .
The following" is the succession of governors of
Sierra Leone : — J. Clarkson, Esq. superintendent,
16th March, 1792; W. Dawes, Esq. 31st Dec. 1792;
Z. Macauley, Esq. pro temp. 1st April, 1794; W.
Dawes, Esq. returns 1795; Z. Macauley, Governor,
1796 ; T. Ludlam, Esq. pro temp. 1799 ; W. Dawes,
4th January, 1801 ; Captain W. Day, R.N. 15th
February, 1803, J. Ludlam, Esq. 28th Aug. 1803;
Ditto, pro temp, ist Jan. 1808; T. Perrinet Thomp-
son, Esq. 27th July, 1808; Captain Columbine,
R.N. 12th Feb. 1810; Lieut. R. Bones, R.N. pro
temp. 1st May, 1811; Lieut. -Col. Maxwell, Gover-
nor-in-Chief, Ist July, 1811; Lieut.-Col. M'Carthy,
(Lieut. Gov.) 11th July, 1814 ; Lieut.-Col. M'Carthy,
Governor-in-Chief, 29th Nov. 1815; Captain Grant,
2nd \V. L Reg. pro temp. 25th July, 1820; Brig.-
Gen. M'Carthy, Gov.-in-Chief ; from 20 N. to 20
S. lat. 28th Nov. 1824. Major-Gen. Turner; Major-
Gen. Sir Niel Campbell ; Col. Denham ; Lieut.-Col.
Lumley ; Major Ricketts ; Col. Findlay ; Mr. Temple ;
Major Campbell.
The administration at the Gambia is under a civil
lieutenant-governor ; but no council has yet been
established to assist him, and the want of one has
been repeatedly complained of by the settlers.
Cape Coast Castle was replaced under the manage-
ment of the merchants, in 1828. The forts are go-
302 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
vemed by a president and council, according to cer-
tain rules and regulations agreed upon with govern-
ment. The business in London is managed by a
committee of three merchants, appointed by govern-
ment, and accountable to the secretary of state for
the due application of the funds allowed for the
maintenance and defence of the settlements, which is
3500/. per annum. With this small sum eighty men
are clothed, armed, and maintained for the defence of
the castle, the forts kept in repair, the president's
salary and all other expenses provided for.
The establishment for the support and maintenance
of Cape Coast Castle and Accra is —
Cape Coast Castle. — President of the council, trea-
surer, warehouse keeper, and commander of the
troops, per annum, 400/. ; secretary, accountant, as-
sistant warehouse keeper, and register, 200/. ; captain
of the guard, adjutant, chief engineer, and surveyor,
200/. ; surgeon and superintendant of schools, 200/. ;
schools, 100/.; 80 men, at 12/. per man, 960/.;
clothing for ditto, at 2/. lOs. per man, 200/. ; labour-
ers, male and female, 400/. ; extraordinaries, includ-
ing ammunition, presents, forts' repairs, stationery,
medicines, canoe hire, funerals, non-commissioned
officers, messengers, &c. 740/.
Accra. — Officer in charge of fort, per annum, 100/. ;
12 men, at 12/. per man, 144/. ; clothing, at 2/. 10s.
per man, 30/. ; labourers, 50/. ; extraordinaries, in-
cluding ammunition, presents, forts' repairs, &c. 176/.
Home Establishment. — Secretary, and office rent,
100/. ; stationary, postages, &c. . ; total, 4000/.
The preceding charges are now reduced to 3500/.,
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF SIERRA LEONE. 303
and yet with this trifling amount the forts are kept in
a better state than when ten times that sum was laid
out on them by the colonial authorities ; it is, in fact,
a system of self government, which it would be very
desirable to extend to the other settlements on this
coasts The local revenues are of course trifling; the
forts are solely trading stations, and cannot be ex-
pected to yield a direct profit. The statements that
have been put forth by its enemies, relative to the
cost of Sierra Leone, have been much exaggerated ;
but it grieves me to admit that patriotism and philan-
thropy were, in this instance, a pecuniary speculation,
yielding a temporary (and but a temporary) advan-
tage to those who practised on the Christian prin-
ciples of England ; the time is now, I trust, gone past
for allowing jobbing and peculation of the public
money.
The expenditure on Sierra Leone was, for the five
years ending 1824, 75,000/. per annum ; for the suc-
ceeding five years it was diminished to nearly half
that sum.
1 I would strongly advise the formation of an association in
London, similar to the East India Company, with delegated
powers of sovereignty in Western Africa, viz. empowered to
acquire and possess territory — to make war and peace — to form
military establishments, and to possess trading privileges — such
would be the most effectual mode of civilizing Africa, to whose
present state Hindostan bore so strong a resemblance previous
to the formation of our East India Company. — [See vol. vi. on
Asia.]
304
SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
Revenue and Expenditure of Sierra Leone by a Colonial
Office Document.
«3
REVENUE.
EXPENDITURE.
s i
.2 ^
>>
-^
Oh
o
H
c
S
s
o
Eh
1830
1831
1832
£
9697
7050
16751
16747
£
13910
14219
14144
£
31761
1286
1411
£
45672
15505
15555
The military charges for the latter years are, I sup-
pose, solely for the militia at Sierra- Leone and the
Gambia. In aid of the parliamentary grant there are
local duties collected upon imports ; the progress of
which for Sierra licone is thus shown ; the amount
for the Gambia will be found under Commerce.
Amount of duties collected upon imports at Sierra Leone.
1818 £5124
1812..
. . £1922
1813..
1528
1814..
1163
1815..
,...1816
1816..
....2486
1817..
. . . . 3096
1819....
1820
1827
1828....
5124
1830 £6839
4656
1831 .. 7265
6153
1832 . . 6457
4846
1833 .. 6316
4191
In all 1834 .. 7170
The following is the estimate of the charges in-
curred for the civil establishment on the western coast
of Africa, for the year ending 31st March, 1835,
and voted by parliament : — Sierra Leone — Governor,
2000/. ; chief judge, 1500Z. ; colonial secretary, 600/. ;
king's advocate, 500/. ; first writer, 400/. ; second
ditto, 300/. ; third ditto, 250/. ; fourth ditto, 200/. ;
EXPENDITURE OF SIERRA LEONE. 305
colonial surgeon, 500/. ; apothecary, 100/. ; and chap-
lain, 500/. ; total, 6800/.' — The Gambia — Lieutenant-
governor, 1000/.; secretary, 450/.; commandant at
M'Carthy's Island (75. 2c?. per day), 130/. ; surgeon,
400/. ; chaplain, 400/. ; public buildings, 831/. ;
total, 3211/. — Gold Coast — viz. Cape Coast Castle
and Accra, 3500/. ; grand total, 13,561/. The pay-
ments out of the military chest at Sierra Leone and
the Gambia, for the year ending 31st March, 1833,
were, for Sierra Leone, pay, &c. of the Royal African
corps, and West India regiments, 4508/. ; of commis-
sariat and ordnance offices, &C.2968/.; armyextraor-
dinaries, including 7972/. as pensions to discharged
negro soldiers from the West Indian and African
regiments, 12,518/. ; for the service of liberated
Africans, 9325/. ; sundries for ditto, 328/. ; total for
Sierra Leone, 29,657/. — For the Garnbia — African
corps, 3155/., including 746/. which is paid out of
the local revenue for militia and volunteers ; commis-
sariat officers, 497/.; naval disbursements, 517/.;
army extraordinaries, 11,946/.; sundries, 3023/.;
total Gambia, 19,138/. ; grand total for Sierra Leone
and the Gambia, 48,795/. The African corps consists
of 20 officers and 511 non-commissioned officers, and
rank and file ; the charges for which in the army
estimates are 14,205/. The ordnance at three of our
forts in Western Africa was, in 1815, as follows : —
At Cape Coast Castle, 6 42-pounders, 9 24-do., 2
18-do., 11 12-do., 18 9.do., 5 6-do., 26 3-do., 2
^ The pay of the collector of the customs is 800/. per annum,
which is defrayed out of the import duties.
x
30C SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
3-inch mortars, 1 7-do. ; at Accra, 7 18-pounders, 5
12-do., 4 24-do., 9 4-do. ; at Annamaboe, 14 24-
pounders, 8 18 do., 7 12-do., 12 6-do., 14 3-do.
The main advantages arising from these forts is the
power which they enable us to exercise for the sup-
pression of the slave trade, and the security which
they afford to our commerce, which increases in pro-
portion to the total suppression of the traffic in human
beings. Mr. James Swanzy, an officer in the service
of the late African company of merchants, stated in
his evidence before a committee of the house of com-|
mons, on the 16th June, 1816, that when he servec
on the coast, from the year 1789 to 1799, the pro-
portion of the slave trade, to the other trade of the
coast, was at that period nine-tenths of the whoh
trade.
In the same committee, Mr. Swanzy (who hac
resided ten years on the Gold Coast) was asked the
following question : ' Of \vhat nature is the accommo-
dation which the forts afford to trade ?' ' Very
great; they open the communication with the inte-
rior ; they are the depots for goods ; they protect
the British subjects residing near them ; by these
means the trade is collected, day by day, and a col-
lection of three months is shipped in twenty -four hours,
without which no ship could profitably trade to the
Gold Coast, as she would otherwise be obliged to
stay three months at each point to collect the same
quantity of goods. I would wish to add also that
these forts give an exclusive trade to a considerable
extent to the British subject.' Mr. Swanzy was
asked whether the legitimate trade of the Gold
COMMERCE. 307
Coast had increased or diminished since the aboli-
tion of the slave trade (then only eight years ago) ;
to which he answers, ' I should think the Gold
Coast produces 100,000 ounces of gold per annum :
during the slave trade not more was collected than
was sufficient for the currency of the country, and I
think it may still be increased ; it requires only exer-
tion to increase it.'
The late African committee, in a letter to the
Lords of the Treasury, correctly remark that ' Set-
tlements on the coast of Africa are valuable on two
grounds, as conferring an exclusive right of trade
upon the power possessing them ; and second, as the
only medium through which it can be safely and
advantageously carried on. It is a lamentable but
certain fact, that Africa has hitherto been sacrificed
to our West India colonies ; her commerce has been
confined to a trade which seemed to preclude all
advancement in civilization ; her cultivators have
been sold to labour on lands not their own, while all
endeavours to promote cultivation and improvement
in agriculture have been discouraged by the govern-
ment of this country, lest her products should inter-
fere with those of our more favoured colonies. With
better views, and a more liberal policy, we are now
returned to our original object : the country promises
much ; and it has long been a subject of regret, that
her resources have never been called into action.
The extent of territory is immeasurable, its fertility
great, and its products (some of which are peculiar
to Africa) are all valuable in the European market.'
Commerce. — The trade of the different settlements
X 2
308
SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
it is difficult to give ; I will endeavour however, to
convey an idea of it, commencing with that of Sierra
Leone.
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312
Exports from the River Gambia, in 1825, 1830, and in 1833.
Articles Exported.
Pure wax, tons
Ivory, lbs
Gold, oz. t
Tortoiseshell
Gum, Senegal
Hides, no
White rice, tons ....
Rough rice, tons ...
Corn. Bordeaux t...
Cotton, lbs
African teak
Hardwood
Camwood, tons
Palm oil, gallons ...
Ox horns, no
Lime, Bordeaux ...
Ginger, lbs
Horses, no. t
Bullocks, no. t
Pagnes or country")
cloths, no /
Country baskets, no.
Arrowroot, lbs
Hemp, tons
Orchilla, lbs
1825.
181
69i> teeth
922
1 shell
30 bags
58125
}»
266
ISoi logs§
40
292
1500
1830.
244i
14625
500
2 boxes
52 cwt.
76471
82
82
1711
502 loads
54
3443
225
3714
196
9
207
1140
700
1476
1833.
175J
29240
1139
254 lbs.
275 tons
76900
272|
15A
3636
14900
660
48 loads
74i
1819
6780
1225
680
15
13
1264
220
4200
4
0)
5t: S
o ^ 'i a
£
22815
5117
4556
318
13750
15380
3545
67
3151
124
2288
166
1043
272
54
135
25
130
28
547
23
105
86
^1 •
3 o 5^
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C rt r-
£.
1755
£60
12
3300
961
4091
39
330
24
56
16
14
55
17
£66127 £173-18
t Large quantities shipped and not invoiced.
I The Bordeaux is 60 gallons. § The logs average 50 feet.
VALUE OF ARTICLES AT THE GAMBIA MARKETS. 31 3
The following shows the nature andquality of pro-
duce at Sierra Leone.
-3
C
c
o
o
o
^
a
3
o
o
o o
IS o
ca
S
>2
c
.3
•a
s
3
o
Ph
2
<
a
5
2
s
3
c
a
bush.
bush.
cwt.
bush.
bush.
cwt.
cwt.
bush.
bush.
1831.
12000 3069
53210
2643,
7645
601
10
20
2642
7238
Average ")
prices the>
Is. 5s. 6a.
6d.
5s. 6d.
2s. 6d.
6*.
37*. 4d.
37*. id.
Is. 3d.
lOd.
same yearj
The following shows the prices of different articles
in the markets at the Gambia : —
Yellow bees*~wax, 130/. per ton; African teak,
31. lOs. per load; camwood, 121. per ton; ivory,
Ss. 6d. per lb.
Mahogany of various kinds at 41. currency, or
3/. 95. 4d. sterling, (Exchange dollar at 45. 4c?.)
Ebony of very good quality grows abundantly in
Salum River, and partially in Gambia. Dittach, a
very hard and durable wood, stands well under
water, and is used in the construction of vessels,
wharfs, &c.
Toulacouna, or bitter oil, 35. 6d. (currency) per
gallon.
■ Cotton, Nominal or barter price, in the rough, 2d.
per lb.
Indigo, in the rough cake, 25. 6d. each.
Hemp, made into ropes or cords, and sold at about
6d. each.
314 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
Potash, about od. per lb.
Honey, retailed in Mandingo country at 2s. 6d.
per gallon.
Butter same price as honey. (N.B. The natives
preserve the butter by a process of melting, and retail
it in the liquid state at 2s. 6d. per gallon.)
Cola nut, 35. 9d. per 100.
Cardamums, sold in barter among the natives, at
about 105. the lb., and brought from a distance in
the interior by the gold merchants.
Goat, calf, and bullocks' skins, dressed by the
natives, but usually made into articles of use. (The
natives dress these skins well by means of potash
and banna seeds.)
Cayenne pepper of all kinds, in plenty.
Beef, good, at Sd. (sterling) per lb. Fowl, 1 to
Ij dollar per dozen. Mutton, generally private pro-
perty, seldom in market. Goats 1 dollar 1| (with
one or more kids.)
Wines, Claret, 5 dollars the case. Tea, 2 dollars
the lb. Dried oysters (good.) Eggs, 14 to 16 for
quarter dollar.
315
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316
SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
The trade returns of Cape Coast Castle are less
perfect ; I am enabled, however, through the kind-
ness of Mr. NichoUs, to shew the
Exports from Cape Coast Castle, between the 1st of August,
1829, and 30th of June, 1834.
1st Aug. 1829, to 30th May, 1830,
1st June, 1S30, to 31st Dec. 1830,
1st Jan. 1S31, to 30th Sept. 1831,
1st Oct. 1831, to 31st Dec. 1831,
1st Jan. 1832, to 30th June, 1832,
1st July, 1832, to 31st Dec. 1832,
1st Jan. 1833, to 31st Dec. 1833,
1st Jan. 1834, to 30th June, 1834,
Palm Oil, Ivory, &c
Do.
Do.
Do,
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Oz. Value.
(11958 Gold included;, £79718
5510 Do. 36377
10888 Do. 78818
1255 Do. 11464
12580 Do. 87654
12117 Do. 93450
21475 Do. 140344
15351 Do. 106156
Oz. of Gold, 91134
Total, £633981
The trade of Western Africa is of considerable
importance to this country, and yearly increasing ; —
it has been stated by Mr. M'Culloch, in his Com-
mercial Dictionary at only from 40,000/. to 60,000/.
per annum. Let the following return demonstrate
the truth of this assertion.
317
M
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318
SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
The annual importations of palm oil are now up-
wards of 12,000 tons, which, at the market price of
28/. per ton, amounts to 336,000/. per annum!
giving constant employment to 15,000 tons of ship-
pm
s: ! Here then in one article we have a value
nearly seven times greater than Mr. M'CuUoch's
estimate of the whole trade, — a striking proof both
of the author's inaccuracy, and how little is generally
known upon the subject. But it is on such state-
ments, and on such want of information that govern-
ment, and the public, have been led to undervalue
the importance of the trade of the west coast of
Africa : and to such a length has this been carried,
that both in parliament and out of doors it has been
more than once suggested to abandon our settle-
ments there as valueless, or at all events unworthy
the trifling expenditure now awarded for their sup-
port. Such settlements may truly be regarded as
foreign shops for the sale of our goods abroad, and
those who sell in them the manufactures of Man-
chester and Birmingham to the natives of Africa,
are as much entitled to protection from the mother
country, as the shopkeeper who sells the same articles
in Cheapside or Dover.
Importations of Palm Oil since 1828. — (Brokers' Circular,
Jackson.)
Liverpool, tons
London, Bristol, &c.
Total.
1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834.
565C 8290
570 COO
C220
8890
9930
1070
1 1000
7100
950
8050
10401 10800
1250 2100
11650 12900
11400
1250
12650
Duty reduced in July 1834 from 25. Gd. to Is. 3d. per cwt.
IMPORTS INTO BRITAIN FROM WESTERN AFRICA. 319
The total of our commerce with Western Africa
for 1829, (the latest return in a complete view before
me) was —
I. Imports into the United Kingdom, in 1829, from the Western
Coast of Africa, distinguishing their Quantities and Values.
Articles imported.
^. o £
"T3
Coffee lbs,
Dye and hard woods, viz.
Barwood tons
Camwood tons
Ebony tons
Red or Guinea wood, tons
Elephants' teeth cwt.
Grains, Guinea lbs.
Gum, copal lbs,
Senegal cwt,
Hides, untanned cwt.
OU, palm cwt
Skins, calfand kip cwt.
Timber, viz.
Teak wood .loads
Wax, bees' cwt.
Other articles, official value
Quantities imported.
£S.
<i! °
IT _n ^
So
r-^rt
■a oj ,
o5
1327
"io3
318
9007
12576
2587
369S
2963
827
16015
4510
400
636
5302
566
7001
o
p» o
Official Value of Imports.
a ^
&£; 3
O „fc(
: .Q (u
1 _»^ .. ■*^ M rt O
•a . o j- ;::3 "Z
o rt
n ■*; o
6766
15
12
3
1238
'423
169556
64
' ° 2
. a S
£.
825
1912
131
524
5408
11101
2963
2506
10207
21486
767
400
2
3820
77
23
o.
£
422
9871
127
201
123
£
505
9871
952
201
123
74321 13165
208
171 565
5498
11101
7001 1695561179921
2608
454
58107] 403 11387 188674,258573
102071
3061 21792
614 1847
This table does not include gold dust. In fact, it is
very difficult to give correct tables, or returns of the
trade of the western coast of Africa. A considerable
portion of the trade is conducted on the ancient
system of " adventures" afloat, or, what is called,
the " floating trade." A ship is fitted out, and
committed, with her cargo, to the direction of the
320 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
captain, who acts as supercargo, and who trades
along the coast, backwards and forwards, till he has
disposed of his cargo, in barter with the natives,
when he returns home. On the abolition of the slave
trade this old-fashioned system of adventure was re-
sumed by many of the captains who had been engaged
in that traffic (in which some of them had made
considerable sums of money), and who, finding their
former occupation gone, turned their attention in
this way by the lawful pursuits of trade. It is a sys-
tem of traffic, however, attended with great risk, and
w^holly dependent for success on the honesty, sobriety,
and good conduct of the captain, and one which the
increasing security, afforded by our settlements on
shore, has already greatly limited, and will ultimately
supersede. It has often been remarked, by persons
conversant with the history of slave merchants, as a
curious fact, that there is scarcely an instance on
record of money acquired by the sale of our fellow-
creatures remaining with the parties, or of its having
laid the foundation of lasting eminence or prosperity
for any family, notwithstanding the immense sums
that must have been amassed in the pursuit of so
diabolical a traffic. May we not trace in this a proof
of the retributive justice of an offended Deity ? At
all events, it is consolatory to think that few of our
posterity will have occasion to look back and blush
individually for ancestral shame on this account,
cdthough the slave trade must ever remain the worst
blot in the page of our national history.
When the former edition of this work was in the
press, I received a letter with some excellent speci-
PATRIOTISM OF MR. FORSTER. 321
mens of the products of Western Africa, from a
London merchant, Mr. Matthew Forster, who has
zealously and patriotically exerted himself for the
welfare of that unfortunate but valuable country.
He observes —
* It may add some interest to your chapter on our
African settlements if vou notice the probable dis-
coveries that may yet be made in the products of that
quarter of the world, which till very lately, was
seldom visited for any more legitimate article of
produce than human flesh. I have already mentioned
to you that teak timber for the purpose of ship-build-
ing-, and mahogany are discoveries within the last
twenty years. The first importation of palm oil is
within the recollection of persons now alive, and
when the slave trade was abolished in 1808, the
quantity imported annually did not exceed one or
two hundred tons. The annual importations now
exceed twelve thousand tons !
' I have lately been attempting to obtain other
oils from the coast, and it was only yesterday I re-
ceived from the hands of the oil presser the result of
my most recent experiment on the ground nut, which
I am happy to say is encouraging. I send you a
sample of the oil extracted from them. They are
from the Gambia. [It is a pure golden coloured oil,
with a pleasant flavour, free from the frequent ran-
cidity of olive oil.] I lately received from Cape Coast
a quantity of the palm nut from which the palm oil
is previously obtained, for the purpose of examining
the kernels to see whether they would not yield an
oil worth extracting ; I send you a sample of the
CEYLON, &c. Y
322 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
nuts, and one of the candles made from the styrine
obtained from them, but I do not think they have
had fair play in the management.
• I also send you a sample of a physic-nut sent
home by Mr. President Maclean the other day from
Cape Coast, upon which Mr. Battley, the pharma-
ceutical chemist has made some experiments, and of
which he reports most favourably. He states that
the oil obtained from them has all the valuable
qualities of castor oil in a stronger degree — a few
drops being sufficient, while it is free from the loath-
some taste so objectionable m castor oil. He has
had it tried in the hospitals, where it has been re-
ported favourably of. I will obtain from him a
specimen of the oil for you. It is used as physic
by the natives ^
' If I am blessed with health and life for a few-
years longer, I do not despair of increasing the
number and value of our African imports. It is the
surest method of improving Africa and benefitting the
mother country, and it becomes a British merchant
to cany his views sometimes beyond the boundary
of sordid gain.' [I trust these sentiments may be
widely diffused among our colonial merchants.]
' I gave these specimens to my noble and amiable friend
Lord Stanhope, for the Medico Botanical Society, of which
his lordship is the esteemed President. — R. M. M.
BRITISH EXPORTS TO WESTERN AFRICA.
323
II. Exports of British produce and manufactures from the United
Kingdom, in 1829, to the Western Coast of Africa, distinguishing
their quantities and values.
Quantities Exported.
Official Value of Exports.
^ .
n
fi a
■3 j
^^
2
o
£■§
o
'o rt 1
0.
Articles Exported.
> <u ^
t
rt p O
•a S
S<
■g 5 5
15
5^
o -a
>
5^
■C 4)
1°.
ill'
" So
■SusS
c—
^■»-'
So
tip
•a
3 fe 3
^f^
^3
BO
o>
1
o£
u
o^
£
£
£
^
£
7172
10
670
1333
9186
Brass and Copper cwt.
328
10 77
242 1637
45
360
1162
3205'
Cottons, entered by 7 ,
the yard 5 *'*
Hosiery, Lace, and small 7
wares 5
558187
119484 551908
681361 41501
8961
40049
51068
141581
218
218
Glass and Earthenware
878
13
139
931
1962
Guns and Pistols No.
21151
2960
14585
37955
15783
2220
10938
28466
57408
357604
420
25000 23(1400
1549350
1194
10802
1157
755
5
6960
119
46803
3285
65321!
Hardwares and Cutler}-, cwt.
2
43
4567 1
Iron, wrought, & un. 7 ^^^^
wrought 5
527
20
151
1157
8347
210
2220 11684
22762
Lead and Shot tons
8
4
35
4
85
47
369
45
548
Leather, wrought and un-7
wrought 3
Linens yards
772
174
947
36502
3818
1853
1736
178
79
1994
38440
500
" 20
141700
270
1279
1795
"69
4723
810
6003
2675
958
44
1002
Sugar, retined cwt.
199
14
261
590
41
478
1110
Swords and Cutlasses ... No.
16193
400
12162
4048
100
3040
7188
Wood, viz.
Staves and Casks packs
170
200
1285
10747
113
60
755
7164
8084
Woollens, entered ) .
by the piece 5 ^^^^^^
193
3
228
40
934
13
435
180
1552
by the yard yards
800
80
650
53
5
48
107
Hosiery and small wares
161
3
66
1323
1554
7560
133
2nP5
1588
11377
350331
107882
12468
65791
1
16421g
i
Exclusive of the above, we exported in 1829 to
Western Africa 161,431/. worth of British, Colonial,
and foreignmerchandize, making a total of 511,792/.,
which is now considerably increased.
As near as T can ascertain, (gojd not being entered
Y 2
324 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
at the Custom-house) the following- are the importa-
tions of African gold for three years ; weight after
melting, taken from the refiner's books.
lbs. oz. (hvt. £ s. d.
For 1832 186G 4 12 at 77s. 9^. i SIOGfi 15 7^
1883 1712 8 12 at do. 79898 4 7^
1834 1091 4 14 at do. 78902 8 4f
5270 5 18 245868 8 7|
The commerce in gold dust from West Africa,
presents to us a prospect of increasing our circu-
lating medium, if our paper currency be not relaxed,
and notwithstanding the difficulty of arriving at an
estimate of the value of some of the returns (for the
reasons already stated) I trust I have adduced facts
sufficient to demonstrate the little reliance to be
placed on Mr. M'Culloch's assertion respecting the
value of the trade of Western Africa.
1 cannot indeed better illustrate the mere com-
mercial importance of the British settlements in West
Africa than by placing before the reader the following
luminous and truly patriotic statement draw up by
M. Forster, Esq., (of the mercantile firm of ' Forster
and Smith *,' New City Chambers) in a letter ad-
^ The quality is generally above standard, making the
actual value about 4/. per ounce.
2 These gentlemen, with a view of opening to the natives of
Africa a market for their rice (an article the culture of which
the natives so well understand), have erected, near London,
at a very considerable expense, a mill worked by steam, for
cleaning it from the husk in this country; and have made
arrangements for largely importing the paddy : some of this
VALUE OF AFRICAN COMMERCE. 325
dressed to the Secretary of State for the Colonies ;
the officers of the Colonial Office are qualified to
judge whether the assertions herein made are in the
slightest degree exaggerated. The letter is datea
the 9th January, 1832.
* Attempts have frequently been made to depre-
ciate the commercial importance of our settlements
on the west coast of Africa, compared with the cost
of maintaining them : and conceiving that parliament
and the public are not fully aware of the nature and
extent of the trade dependent on those settlements, I
have taken the liberty of drawing up a statement
shewing the benefit arising from them to the revenue
grain aheady received is equal to the best Carolina, and
superior in my mind to Bengal rice. To parts of the coast
where the quality is inferior, they propose sending Carolina
seed to improve the crops; indeed they have already sent out
seed to the Gambia. They are thus doing, as private indi-
viduals, what government should have done long ago, in this
as well as in other articles of produce. In these humane and
patriotic efforts, it is grievous to learn that Messrs Forster and
Smith have had to contend against the vexatious and strenu-
ous opposition of interested parties, who are desirous of pre-
serving to the United States a monopoly of the rice market of
England, and to themselves a monopoly of cleaning it. Ame-
rican rice, be it observed, is produced entirely by slave labour
in Carolina! It is, however, but justice to add, that the Board
of Trade have stood firm in defence of our colonial interests,
and in philanthropically promoting the efforts of Messrs. For-
ster and Smith to encourage free labour in Western Africa. I
have examined specimens of Messrs. Forster & Co.'s African
rice — I had it cooked in a variety of modes, and I found it in-
finitely superior to the insipid rice of America: it was quite
equal to the delicious reddish grain of Ceylon and Western
India.— R. M. M.
326 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
and national industry of this country, which I have
the honour herewith to annex for your Lordship's
inspection.
' The annual direct and indirect advantages to the
national industry from the trade, I estimate as per
statement No 1, at 463,234/. 195. and the annual
benefit to the revenue, as per statement No. 2, at
207,873/. 135. exclusive of ship-building materials
and labour, as also of some other minor sources of
national benefit not enumerated. The total gain to
the industry and revenue of the mother country can-
not be less than 600,000/. per annum.
* Within the last twenty years the increase in the
trade in palm oil, timber, and bees' wax, has been
very great. Attempts are making in the Gambia
and elsewhere on the coast to introduce the cultiva-
tion of some articles of produce new to the trade of
Africa; but these endeavours require time on account
of the unenlightened state of the natives, the very
recent abolition of the slave trade, and its partial
continuance by other nations. In several cases, how-
ever, the natives have proved themselves capable of
entertaining new ideas of trade and cultivation more
readily than might have been expected. The trade
in teak timber for ship-building was unknown in
Africa twenty years ago ; the annual importation of
that article from Sierra Leone at present is from
fifteen to twenty thousand loads, giving employment
to nearly twenty thousand tons of British shipping
annually.
' Fifteen years ago it was not known that maho-
gany grew in the Gambia ; since that period several
ADVANTAGES OF COLONIAL POSSESSIONS. 327
thousand loads of mahogany have been imported into
England from our settlement on that river ; and
although the natives would not at first cut and pre-
pare it for shipping, they are now willing to supply
any quantity of it which this market may require.
The low price of Honduras mahogany, however, ren-
ders it impossible to afford any encouragement to
their industry in this article at present, but these in-
stances afford pleasing and conclusive proofs that the
natives will turn their attention to trade whenever
the opportunity is afforded them.
' The annual cost of our settlements on the Western
Coast of Africa, as respects the protection of our
commerce, exclusive of those expenses incidental to
the suppression of the slave trade, which ought not
to be charged to the account of those possessions, is
better known to his Majesty's Government than to
me, but I may venture to assume that it bears but a
trifling, indeed insignificant, proportion to the advan-
tages derived from the trade : and those settlements
are to be considered not with reference to their pre-
sent value alone, but to their future importance as
outlets to British manufactures, when time shall
have removed some of those difficulties w^hich at
present obstruct the trade. The policy of most
foreign governments is directed against our com-
merce, the acknowledged source of our national
powder. The territorial extent of the British
islands is too limited ever to have raised this empire
to its present proud pre-eminence in the scale of
nations, without the aid of manufactures and foreign
trade; consequently I humbly submit, that every
328 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
foreign settlement, which gives facihty to the sale of
British goods, is to be estimated not only with re-
ference to the direct amount of revenue received or
the produce imported from it, but still more by the
employment it affords to our manufacturers, artizans,
and shipping. Without a large manufacturing popu-
lation, the revenue necessary to pay the interest of
the national debt and the annual cost of the civil and
military establishments of the country cannot be
raised ; hence the vast importance of our foreign
possessions, which a too limited view of colonial
policy leads some persons to undervalue.
' Striking out of the public estimates every charge
belonging to the account of the slave trade, I do not
think the annual cost of maintaining our settlements
on the western coast of Africa exceeds from twenty-
five to thirty thousand pounds per annum, probably
not so much, while the national gain is considerably
above half a million per annum. It is a common
error to regard those settlements in the light of colo-
nies having a taxable population, from w^iich they
may be expected to raise a revenue sufficient to main-
tain themselves ; but the fact is, that nothing can yet
be raised from the natives for their support, while
the protection they afford is indispensable to the pro-
tection of our trade ; a trade even now important, and
which time may render of incalculable value, when
the effect of the slave trade shall have ceased to exer-
cise its baneful influence over the native population.
* Neither is it reasonable or politic to require indi-
viduals trading on the coast to contribute towards
their maintenance beyond the duties they at present
UTILITY OF BRITISH AFRICAN FORTS. ,'^29
pay to the colonial funds on the goods they import
from England, and the personal services they are
called upon to render as militiamen in defence of the
forts. I humbly submit, that British subjects are as
much entitled to protection in carrying on a trade, by
which the national industry is benefited, in Africa as
at home. In applying their industry, and risking
their capital and health in a trade giving employment
and profit to their countrymen at home, and by which
the national revenue gains so largely, they may surely
not only claim the protection but the gratitude of their
country. Besides wdiich, you cannot invest indivi-
duals with a property in public works necessary for
the defence of our trading establishments in Africa.
Individuals change, bat the advantage is national and
permanent, and so should be the protection.
* By upholding these forts on a footing to com-
mand the respect of the natives, our Governors in
charge of them may render the most important ser-
vices in carrying into effect the convention recently
concluded with France, for the suppression of the
trade in slaves, the due execution of which treaty
cannot fail to produce efiects as favourable to the
trade and civilization of Africa, as to the cause of
humanity, now hourly violated by the continuance
of the traffic. France, America, Holland, and Den-
mark, have each their settlements on the coast,
which they evince the utmost anxiety to retain and
encourage. Our settlements on the Gold Coast cost
lately only 4000/. and are now to be reduced, I un-
derstand; to 3500/. per annum ; and this is the sole
expense of protecting a valuable trade. The Dutch
330 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
settlement of Elmina, which is only seven miles from
our settlement at Cape Coast Castle, costs the Dutch
an equal sum to ours, while Holland has not one-
twentieth part of the trade on the Gold Coast that
we have.
* It should be borne in mind that every article im-
ported from Africa is in exchange for goods, and
that consequently it is one of the very few legiti-
mate trades remaining to this country. The article
of palm oil, which has increased so much of late
years, can be obtained only in Africa, and is already
extensively used as a substitute for Russian tallow
in the manufacture of soap, &c. The recent addi-
tional duties imposed on British goods imported
into the Russian market may suggest to us the policy
of cherishing a trade which consumes the products
of our national industry without limitation or restraint
by hostile tariffs.
* The abolition of the slave trade took effect on the
1st of March, 1808. Twenty-three years is too short
a period to effect a change in the character and pur-
suits of a people corrupted by three centuries of war
and cruelty consequent on that traffic, and whose
kings and chiefs have been taught by the sordid
slave dealers of enlightened Europe to despise and
neglect the pursuits of legitimate commerce, in favour
of a trade in the persons of their people. I^et, how-
ever, those chiefs be convinced by experience that
they will gain more by the labour of their people
at home, than by the sale of their persons for expor-
tation, and you lay at once the foundation of a new
svstem, under which war and treachery shall give
•WESTERN AFRICA TRADE, 331
place to the regenerating influence of peaceful in-
dustry. Europe owes to Africa a heavy debt for the
crimes that have been committed under the slave
trade. England has been the first to offer pay-
ment of her portion of that debt, and she wiU not
only have the high consolations of humanity for her
reward, but probably, at no very distant period, the
advantages of a trade with Africa, of which it is dif-
ficult at present to foresee the extent.'
No. I.
Annual value of Exports from London, Liverpool,
and Bristol, to the West Coast of Africa, be-
tween the Gambia and Angola, calculated from
the amount of Shipments by the several Merchants
trading to the Coast from those places.
A few introductory remarks may be necessary to
render these tables more clearly understood by those
who have not been accustomed to estimate the im-
portance of our foreign and colonial trade on the
principles on which they are drawn up. Perhaps I
cannot more clearly illustrate those principles than
by the following examples : — Let us suppose two
cargoes of British manufactured goods to be sent to
Canada, one consisting of cotton fabrics, and the
other of hardware articles. In the case of the former
we may assume that the average cost of the cotton
wool of which the goods are made is about 25 per
cent, of the export value, the remaining 75 per cent,
having been added to the value of the raw material
by the application of British capital and labour, and
332 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
is therefore so much value gained to the national
wealth and industry. In the case of the hardware
cargo, the iron of which the articles are made being
a native production, we may assume that the total
value is an actual creation of national capital and
labour. Many persons limit their notions of the
importance of our colonial and foreign trade to the
profits of the exporter who ships the goods abroad,
whereas that is a point scarcely worth considering
compared with the advantage to the national industry
in manufacturing them. Hence the importance of
keeping open every possible outlet for the consump-
tion of our manufactures, without which our capital
and artizans must lie idle, the revenue fall off, and
the wealth and power of the nation rapidly decay.
In addition to this it mav be stated, that as everv
thing which the capitalist and labourer who produce
these goods consume, is taxed either directly or in-
directly, (which tax is included in the cost of pro-
duction) you virtually obtain the help of the foreign
consumer to pay your taxes, or in other words, you
make foreigners contribute towards the national
revenue.
London and Bristol Exports. — Amount of colonial
goods, 58,000/. ; ditto foreign ditto, 52,000/. ; ditto
British manufactures, 213,000. Total. 323,000/.
The principal articles in these exports are Man-
chester cotton and India piece goods. The freight,
insurance, &c. particularly of the teak timber, hides,
palm oil, and those articles collected in the floating
trade, compose a large portion of the gross import
value of the returns.
WESTERN AFRICA TRADE. 333
Liverpool Exports. — Colonial goods, 13,000/.;
British ditto, 102,500/. ; foreign ditto, 5,500/. Total,
121,000/.
Outward freight, duties here and in Afi-ica, in-
surance and shipping charges 15 per cent. 666,600/.
Aggregate amount of the above, 510,600/.
The exports from Liverpool are chiefly for the
palm oil trade, and the cargoes are differently as-
sorted from those shipped from Bristol and London.
The freight, insurance, &c. of the shipping employed
in the Trade, constitute a large portion of the cost
of the oil. Hence the large gross amount of the re-
turns compared with the value of the exports.
Estimate of National profit thereon. — On colonial
goods amounting to 71,000/. the value of British
labour in transit and other charges (including profits)
may be estimated at 30 per cent, thereon \ 21,300/. ;
foreign ditto, 57,500/. ditto 17,280/.; British ditto,
315,500/. the value of the raw material on an average
being 25 per cent, leaves 75 per cent, for labour and
manufacturers' profit, 236,625/. The shipping em-
ployed in long voyages in the palm oil and floating
trade is about 16,083 tons, which, at the low esti-
mate of 9/. per ton for sailing charges per annum,
amounts to 114,747/. The shipping employed in
short voyages (of six months) in the teak timber and
other trades, about 17,000 tons, at 4/. 10s. per ton,
76,500/. Deduct for raw material of stores, &c.
^ On some articles, on rum for instance, these charges are
nearer 70 than 30 per cent, and the average amount cannot
be less than my estimate.
334
SIERRA LEOXE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
15 per cent. 33, 187/. Is. Total annual gain to
the national industry, exclusive of ship-building,
463,234/. 195.
N.B. Of this sum of 463,234/. 195. one-third may
be estimated as paid to the revenue in the consump-
tion of exciseable and taxed commodities, consumed
by the labourers and artizans to whom the trade
gives employment, amounting to the sum of 154,411/.
135. carried to Statement No. 2.
No. II.
Estimate of the annual duty on Imports from the British Pos-
sessions on the West coast of Africa, between the Gambia
and Angola.
Imports, London and Bristol.
gross import
value.
Timber, 15,000 loads £127.500
Bees'-wax, 200 tons 28,000
Hides, 60,000 12,000
Ivorv, 72 tons 25,200
Palm oil, 1,200 tons 36,000
Sundries, including gum\ gn OOO
Senegal, &c J '
Gold, 45,000 oz. at 75s 168,750
Import Duties Thereon.
Duty £7,500
Excise and Customs 8,000
Duty 500
Ditto 1,400
Ditto 3,000
Ditto .
Ditto.
1,000
nil.
Bills.
25,000 : Ditto.
£442,450 i
£21,450
Liverpool Imports.
Palm on, 9,000 tons £270,000 Duty £22,500
Ivory, is tons 22,750 Ditto 1,300
Gum copal, 15 tons 900 | Ditto 840
Timber. 3,000 loads 25,500 i Ditto 1,500
^S^S. ™°.?.'!:} «■«»» i «'••<> >.222
Gold, 3,000 oz 11,250
£355,400 I £27,362
Duty on policies of Insurance 3,150
Ditto, Customs outwards 1,500
Revenue from Labour, as per Statement No. 1 154,411 13
Total annual gain to the Revenue from thistr">Ie,£207,873 13
SOCIAL STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. 335
Balance. — Gross amount of imports as per
No. 2 797,850
By direct annual gain to the Reve-
nue, brouglit from No. 2 207,873 13
Balance of national industry, being
the difference between the sum of
403,234/. 105. as per Satement
No. 1, and 154,411/. 135. charged
to the Revenue as above 308,823 6
Total annual gain to the nation,
direct and indirect, exclusive of
ship-building, &c £516,696 19
Nett cost of Foreign goods, deduct-
ing transit and other charges 89,450
Cost of raw materials for English
manufactures, including Iron,
Wool, and other articles vvholly
of English growth and production. 78,875
Insurance 35,000
Interest on capital 7o per cent, re-
turns not in cash on an aver-
age in less than 18 months, mer-
chants in England and traders'
profit in Africa 77,828
£797,850
Social State and Future Prospects. — Of the
domestic condition of the people in Western Africa
we know but little, — and that little, while it is favour-
able to our hopes of improvement, leads us to lament
the more the terrible and sanguinaiy political des-
potism spread over the \vhole continent. Our own
settlements have made no slight progress in social
improvement ; life and property are secure ; and ex-
1
336 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C.
nmple and education are now exercising their all
powerful influence; time, and a wise and generous
policy on the part of England, will do the rest, if
England compel Spain and Portugal to cease the
nefarious and extensive slave trade now carried on
under their flags \ Sierra Leone and Gambia ought
' I give the following on the authority of Mr. Nicholls, the
Secretary to the African Committee. In order to prevent
slave vessels bound to Whydah and Bagadry, from purchasing
their cargoes at these great marts, it would be desirable,
that a soldier or two should be placed at Dix Cove and
Winnebah, to hoist the British flag, and by British influence
prevent canoes being supplied, without which at the above
mentioned ports no slaves could be procured. The Governors
of St. George D'Elmina (Dutch) and Christiansborg (Danish),
are imperatively forbidden by their respective governments, to
allow the natives to supply canoes, or in any way mix them-
selves up in the carrying on a slave trade ; and this country,
in conjunction with France, are in a situation to command the
total abolition of that trade by Spain and Portugal, declaring
that any person found engaged in it should be considered as a-*'
pirate. Unless some strong measures are adopted, and that \
speedily, the legitimate African trade must be annihilated, for
the natives will not sell produce except to those who purchase
their slaves. If this object could be attained, the natives would
turn their attention to cultivation, and by encouraging the
growth of the palm nut, in a few years the quantity of oil
would be so great as to preclude the necessity of Russian tal-
low being used in the manufacture of soap ; moreover, by
eradicating wholly slave commerce, we would relieve the
country from the expences of a large naval force, and also from
anotherssorah, Bagdad, Mosul,
Diarbekir, Constantinople, London, 5116 miles; 3rd,
Red Sea, Suez, Alexandria, Venice, London, 5492
miles. The distance from Bombay to Bussorah is
1600 miles, and thence to Aleppo 718 miles by land;
from Bombay to Suez 3000 miles ; from Suez to
Cairo 70 miles ; from Cairo to Alexandria 140
miles by the river. Russia, in fact, is at present
planning her route to India, and extending the facili-
ties to this purpose. It is a doubtful point whether
by adopting a line of communication with India vid
the Euphrates or Red Sea, we would not be smooth-
PROJECTED RUSSIAN ROUTE TO INDIA. 347
ing the road for the Autocrat's troops. It is in evi-
dence before parliament, that the Russians have been
accurately surveying the river Oxus and all the country
to India, with great care ; they prefer this route to
India rather than Alexander's through Persia, as in
the latter, a large army would suffer by want of
water. The projected Russian route to India is by
the Wolga into the Caspian Sea (on which, as well
as on the Wolga, they have steam navigation) across
the Caspian to the Gulf of Mertvoy. Then there are
100 miles of land to the sea of Vral, where there is
abundance of coal ; then there is the navigation of
the Oxus, on which there is now a great deal of
traffic, by Khiva, where a Russian Military colony
has been established. Or the Russians may come
down the Euphrates or the Tigris on rafts, which
could be put together with great rapidity to any ex-
tent : then might they so establish themselves at
Bussorah, that it would not be easy to dislodge them,
and they could build sufficient shipping at Bussorah
with timber floated down from Armenia. Is it then
wise or prudent of England, on the one hand, to
facilitate the progress of Russia to India vid the Eu-
phrates ; or of the French vid Egypt ? These con-
siderations, in a political point of view, ought to
prompt the British government to give every facility
to the route to India vid the Cape of Good Hope ;
and as to cutting a ship canal from Cairo to Suez
(the difference in the height of the Mediterranean
and Red Sea (10 feet) being remedied by locks), at
an expense of 700,000/., the result would be to
throw the eastern commerce of the British possessions
348 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA.
into the hands of the French and other foreign ports
in the Mediterranean. In a pohtical and commercial
point of view, the estabhshment of steam navigation
with India vid the Cape of Good Hope is of the ut-
most value without any of the drawbacks as de-
tailed above '.
1 now come to consider the mode in which my
project may be efficiently put into execution. It
would be necessary that a packet start on the 1st
and 15th of every month, from Falmouth, or Port
Valentia, on the West Coast of Ireland ^ and from
Calcutta, for the maintaining of which communica-
tion, twelve steam and sailing boats of 300 tons each
(including the branch packets) would be necessary ;
the packets to be of a stable and buoyant nature,
' I understand that the East India Company are now aware
of the impracticability of the Red Sea and Euphrates routes,
and are disposed to adopt my plan.
2 A grand national undertaking, — viz. the connecting Dublin
and Valentia harbour by a rail-road, and making the latter
the starting station for the American, West India, Mediter-
ranean, and Portugal packets— is contemplated by Pierce
Mahony, Esq., M.P,, whose public spirited eftbrts have already
conferred so much good on Ireland. Port Valentia is the most
western port in Europe, and vessels sailing thence are not
merely free from the dangerous and often tedious navigation
of the channel, but they are so far to the westward as to be
better situate for beating to the windward against the prevalent
westerly gales. The project would be of the utmost benefit
in a political point of view, by enabling government, at a
given moment, to dispatch troops or ships of war to any
point ; in a commercial light, it would facilitate trade by a
speedier, cheaper, and more certain packet intercourse with
all our colonies; and with the United States and foreign
STEAM COMMUNICATION WITH INDIA. 349
with Gurney's improved engines ; tanks ^ to hold
the coals, in order that they may be filled with water^
to serve as ballast, according as the fuel is consumed
(the water to be shipped and emptied by means of
the lately invented pumps). The vessels to be
schooner rigged, and the masts, chimnies and paddles
to strike or ship as occasion demands (in the trade
winds and monsoons, the packets would sail when
not opposing those periodical breezes, consequently
the steam engines would be at rest, and the con-
countries, it would also make the British isles the highway for
travellers between the Old and New World — between the
eastern and western iiemispheres ; above all, it would secure
to England her maritime supremacy, by atfording a constant
oceanic ingress and egress, which she was too often denied
during the war, by her fleets being windbound in the Channel,
and even at the Cove of Cork, for three months. There are
many other important considerations which ought to stimu-
late Government to give every possible aid towards the com-
pletion of such a national undertaking.
^ Lieutenant Johnson says, the Enterprize was capable of
stowing thirty-five days' consumption of coal ; for eleven days
after leaving England he steamed without intermission, and
then found himself to the south of the Canary Islands. Lieu-
tenant J. states that he experienced some very rough weather
off Cape Palmas ; that the steamer behaved very well, and
that while a steam vessel's engines remain in order, she is
less exposed to danger than a sailing vessel. On opening the
Mozambique channel, the Enterprize experienced a heavy
gale ; the fires were then put out, the wheels disconnected
from the engine, and the ship scudded under her main -top
and foresail ten knots per hour. * She steered admirably,
answered her helm as well as a ship could possibly do, and
behaved in every way like an admirable sea-boat.' — (Evidence
before Parliament.)
350 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA.
sumption of fuel saved ^) and a tube to be attached
to the engine for the conversion of steam into fresh
water. The packets to carry each four 18 lb. car-
ronades of a side, with two long nine pounders ; to
be commanded by an officer of the British Navy
(salary 500/.) with a First Lieutenant (300/.) ; two
midshipmen or mates (100/. each) ; a purser, (300/.) ;
a surgeon, (300/.) : two engineers, (250/. each) ; an as-
sistantditto (100/.); one gunner and armourer (100/.),
one carpenter (100/.) and mate (60/. each) ; eight
stokers, (60/. each) ; four fire men, (50/. each) ;
twelve able seamen, (50/. each) ; and four boys as
apprentices (20/. each), making a complement of
forty hands, and an expenditure in wages and pro-
visioning under 4000/. sterling, which for twelve
packets would give the cost of wages and provisions
at 60,000/. a year, and this sum deducted from the
Post Office's lowest computed receipts, would leave
nearly 400,000/. sterling, to provide vessels, engine
and fuel. Let us now examine the expense for fuel';
and as I have on the one hand estimated the income
at the lowest, so on the other, I would desire to
^ There was no depot for coals but the Cape of Good Hope
when the Enterprize made the voyage.
2 The application of thermo-electricity as a motive power
to machinery will be productive of the most extraordinary re-
sults. Instead of a heavy expenditure in fuel, a vessel may
cross the Atlantic at the cost of some zinc and copper plates,
and a few jars of mineral acid ! I understand that a ship is
now building at New York for experimenting on the subject.
If successful, what a revolution will be effected in locomotive
engines, &c. !
EXPENSES OF STEAM VESSELS. 851
compute the expenditure at the highest. The twelve
packets would on an average be employed each, two
hundred days during the year in steaming (thus
scarcely allowing any thing for performing half the
voyages to and from India by means of the monsoons,
trade, and other favourable winds) making in all two
thousand, four hundred days, which at ten tons of
coal per day at forty shillings per ton (on an average,
allowing for freight to some depots) would cost
48,000/. ; thus we see the expense of wages, pro-
visions and fuel, would on an extreme calculation,
be scarcely more than 100,000/. a year, not one
fourth of the Post Office income ; but there is another
item to be provided for, and that is the wear and
tear of the vessels, and the interest of money on
their first cost. Twelve steam vessels of 300 tons
each, with engines of 160 horse power, may be con-
structed in England, and amply provided with every
requisite store at 20,000/. each = 240,000/. ; allowing
10 per cent, interest, and insurance on the capital
thus employed, the annual cost would be 24,000/.
to which add 26,000/. a year for wear and tear, and
we have a further charge of 50,000/. making a grand
total of 150,000/. per annum, as the amount of the
whole Post Office establishment, to defray which
there is an almost certain income of full 450,000/.
a year, thus yielding at the very outset, a revenue of
upwards of a quarter of a milhon to the state. The
facts here brought forward, are submitted to the ex-
amination of the government, in the firm belief that
on mature reflection it will be found deserving of
adoption, not less for the sake of India and the
352 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA.
colonies, than for the welfare of England ; for what-
ever promotes the prosperity of the one enhances in
a corresponding ratio the weal of the other. If the
transmission even of letters to India, vid Egypt, be
adopted, I shall hail it with much satisfaction, as the
prelude to a far more important and beneficial un-
dertaking, — namely, the annihilating of at least
5000 out of the 13,000 miles between India and
England, and removing our numerous and valuable
Eastern Colonies by several thousand miles nearer to
the parent state, thus connecting and consolidating
our vast maritime empire. Government having made
the Post-office establishment a monopoly, is bound
to make the attempt ; but in England the sole dutv
of its rulers [of every party] seems to consist in
levying taxes and making and unmaking laws, — in-
stead of taking the lead in social improvement. Let
us hope that a new era is dawning, when the apathy
of Government will yield to the quickening influence
of enlightened popular feeling, and that the bitter-
ness of politics will be succeeded by a moral harmony
productive of general good.
i
APPENDIX
CEYLON, &C.
A a
APPENDIX.
Gold Coast. — The best part for anchorage in Cape
Coast Roads is the flag-staff on the Castle, bearing
from north to north-west, in about six fathoms water.
Small trading craft may approach nearer, but as a
very heavy swell almost constantly sets in, care is
necessary not to be too near the breakers. The
same bearings may be observed at Annamaboe and
Accra, but if the latter fort be brought to bear north-
west half west, or north-north-west, in the depth of
five fathoms, the difficulty which often arises in
weighing the anchor will be lessened. The bottom
at Accra is a very stiff clay ; and if a ship lies with
the fort bearing to the eastward or north in six or
seven fathoms, there is a great probability she will
lose her anchor in attempting to weigh it. The
strength of the current varies considerably along the
coast, but its average rate is one mile and a half an
hour to the eastward. The sea breeze is much more
A a2
356 APPENDIX.
regular than on the west coast, and sets in earher ;
the land wind is neither so constant, nor of so long
duration.
River Gcmihia. — Bird Island is on the northern
shore of the River Gambia : the flag may be seen in
common clear weather from twelve to fifteen miles
off; it bears from Cape St. Mary north by east half-
east by compass. This island may be approached
from the westward within three or four miles by any
vessel drawing less than twenty feet water; houses
have been erected close by the flag-staff for the ac-
commodation of a pilot ; and there is a small de-
tachment of the second West India regiment here.
Portindic, Western extremity oftheSahara Desert. —
The tall and bare palm or date tree, just above the
sea beach ought to bear north-east and by east to a
vessel coming to anchor in ' Waterman's Bay.' The
best anchorage is about one mile from the shore, in
four or five fathoms water. There is less surf in
this little bay than in any other part of the Bay of
Portindic ; and the gum arabic trade, which is always
carried on with the Moors afloat is done there with
the greatest facility, safety, and advantaged
Latitudes and longitudes of places on the western coast of
Africa, and the islands adjacent, deduced from the surveys of
Her Majesty's ship ' Leven,' and the squadron under Commo-
dore Sir G. Collier:— Cape Bojador, 26-7' N. 14-32' W.; Cape
Blanco, 20o0- N. IT'lO-W. ; Portindic, 18-19- N. 16-3- W. ;
' It is this Bay which the French have recently blockaded.
APPENDIX. 357
Senegal, Fort Louis, IGS-N. 16-29-W. ; Cape Verd. 14-43- N.
17-33-W. ; Cape St. Mary, River Gambia, 18-30- N. 16-42-W. ;
West Bird Island, do. 13-42- N. 16-40-W. ; Cape Roxo,
12-22- N. 16-53- W. ; Mud Bar, River Pongos, 9o7- N.
13-56-W.; Cape Sierra Leone, 8-30- N. 1312- W. ; Free
Town, 8"30' N. 13'o"30" W., (variation of the compass
1717-W.); Shoals of St. Ann, 8-0- N. 13-40- W. ; River
Gallinas, 6-57- N. 11-41-\V. ; Cape Mount, 643- N. 11 -IS- W
Cape Mesurada, 6-13- N. 10-44- W-. ; River Junk, 6-7- N,
Settra Kroo,4-o2-N. 8-44'W.; Cape Palmas,4-24.N. 7-38-W
Lahou Town, 4-58- N. 4-48- W. ; Cape Apollonia, 5-3- N.
2-40-W.; Cape Three Points, W. Cape, 4-45-, 2 7' E. Cape
4-45- 1 -SO- W. ;^Dixcove, 4-48- N. \5o- W. ; Tackarary, 4-53- N.
1'42-W.; Succondee, 4-55- N. 1-39- W.; Chamah, 4-58- N.
1-34- W. ; Commenda, 5-3-N. 1-27- W. ; Elmina Castle, 54' N.
1-17- W. ; Cape Coast Castle. 5-6- N. MO- W. ; Annamaboe,
5-10- N. 0-O9-30- W. ; Tantumquerry, 5-1 2' N. 3930 W. ;
Accra, 533' N. 0-50- W.; Prampram, 5-44- N. 01230- E. ;
Ningo, 5-46' N. 0-18-30- E. ; River Volta, 5-47- N. 51 •49- E. ;
Cape St. Paul,5-47- N. 1-1'49- E. ; Quittah, 5-55- X. 1-3-45- E. ;
Little Popoe, 6-15- N. 1-45-30- E. ; Grand Popoe, 619- N.
1-57-27- E. ; Whydah, 6'-20' N. 2-14- E. ; Appee, 6-22- N.
2-31-45- E.; Porto Novo, 6-25- N. 2-43-33- E. ; Badagry,
6-26' N. 2-52-45- E. ; River Lagos, 6-27- N. 3-32- E. ; River
Benin, 5'46' N. 5'17" E. ; River dos Escravos, 5 35' N.
5-20- E. ; River dos Forcados, 5-22- N. 5-30-33- E. ; River
Ramos, 5-9- N. 5-33-30-E.; River Dodo, 4-50- N. 5-38-30'E.;
Cape Formoso, 4-28- N. 5'59*15'E. ; River Formoso, or first
river, 4*28' N. 6' E. ; Cape Nun, or second rivei*, 4*17' N.
6-1 0- E. ; River St. John, or third river, 4-18- N. 6-16-30- E. ;
River St. Michael, or fourth river, 4*1G' N. 6*21'45" E. ; River
Santa Barbara, or fifth river, 4-20-30- N. G-34- E. ; River
St. Bartholomew, or sixth river, 4-20 30- N. 6-45-30- E. ;
River Sombrero, or seventh river, 4"20' N. 6"52"30' E. ;
Foche Point, 4-21-30- N. 7-10- E., and Rough Corner, 4-22-
N. 7'22' E., (entrance to River Bonny) ; River Old Calabar,
(entrance) 4"34" N. 8'38' E. ; Bembia, Cape and River,
358 APPENDIX.
4-0-2- N. 9-20- E. ; Cape Cameroons, 3-54 • N. 32- E. ;
River Campo, 2-20- N. 10-3-10- E. ; Cape St. John, 1-9' N.
9"29" E. ; Corisco Island, E. Point in front of the River Dan^
ger, 0-58- N. 9-2G- E. ; Cape Clara, 0-30-44- N. 9-24- E., and
Round Corner, 0-14'29- N. 9-22- E., (entrance to Gaboon
River.)
THE END.
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THE BOOK OF GEMS :
The Modern Poets and Artists of Great Britain.
Edited by S. C. Hall. «
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of the first-rate Engravers, after original Pictures and Draw-
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*,* This splendid Volume, which has been got up with the
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Succinct Biographies of the Poets are given, (in most in-
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Elliot — Lamb — Montgomery — White — Wilson — Crabbe — Scott — Sotheby
— Keats — Hogg — Hemans — Cunningham — Hunt — Clare — Norton —
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J. Brain— W. Muller; W. J. Cooke— R. Reinagle, R.A. ; J. Hinchliff—
C. Stantield, R.A. ; C. Rolls— J. C. Bentlev; W. Miller— J. Robson ; J.
Hinchlitf— C. Hancock; R. Parr— R. Edmonstone ; C. Rolls— T. Y.
Hurlstone ; W. H. Watt— S. Prout ; E. Kernot— J. Boaden ; J. Wagstatf
— B. R. Haydon ; J. Brain— W. Chambers ; W. Wallis— R. B. Pyne ; A.
R. Freebairn— T. S. Cooper; H. Rolls— F. W. Topham; F. W. Topham.
*,* A few sets of Proofs of the Plates have been taken on
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